ITtULTURAL UNIVERSITY 3ENINGEN - THE NETHERLANDS

TRAINING PRO JE CT IN PEDOLOGY KILIFI -KENYA M. W. N. VAN LEEUWEN VEGETATION AND LANDUSE MAP (SCALE 1:100,000) OF THE KILIFI-AREA A LANDSCAPE GUIDED APPROACH n in-r-.s-i ISBIC?LIBÉÀSÏ,, d- 1982,07 PRELIMINARY REPORT NO 3 (KILIFI SERIES) ITtULTURAL UNIVERSITY 3ENINGEN - THE NETHERLANDS Wageningenh'-i The -Netherlands: >.: *

Scanned from original by ISR1C - World Soil Information, as ICSU World Data Centre for Soils. The purpose is to make a safe depository for endangered documents and to make the accrued information available for consultation, following Fair Use Guidelines. Every effort is taken to respect Copyright of the materials within the archives where the identification of the Copyright holder is clear and, where feasible, to contact the originators. For questions please contact soil.isricpwur.nl indicating the item reference number concerned. ISRIC LIBRARY jkija. Wageningen, The Netner VEGETATION AND LANDUSE MAP (SCALE 1:100,000) OF THE KILIFI-AREA a landscape guided approach by M.W.N. van Leeuwen preliminary report no. (Kilifi series) Januari 1982 Training Project In Pedology, Kilifi'Kenya Agricultural university, Wageningen - The Netherlands

CONTENTS PREFACES SUMMARY / SAMENVATTING / MUHTASARI LIST OF FIGURES / LIST OF TABLES, 1. INTRODUCTION 2 2. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY OF THE AREA 4 2.1 Geology 4 2.2 Physiography 6 2.3 Climate 7 WORKING METHODS 8 3.1 The ITC approach g 3.2 The Kilifi approach fit 3.3 Field sampling methods 9 3.1.1 General 9 3.3.2 Vegetation relevées 9 a. Data collection in vegetation relevées 9 b. Size of relevée area iö c. Description of vegetation structure in relevées ~i6 d. Description of floristic composition in vegetation relevées 10 3.3.3 Naming plant species 14 3.4 Field sample processing 14 3.4.1 Floristic classification 14 3.4.2 Final map legend preparation _ 15 3.5 Cartographic methods 15 VEGETATION AND LANDUSE 18 4.1 General introduction 18 4.1.1 The seven main landscapes 18 4.1.2 Agriculture in the survey area 22 GENERAL 22 ANNUAL CROPS 2 2 PERENNIAL CROPS 24 TREECROPS 24 SETTLEMENT SCHEMES 25 LIVESTOCK BREEDING AND DAIRYING 26 4.2 Classification of vegetation and landuse 26 4.2.1 Sociological groups,and plant communities 26 4.2.2 The final legend 50 4.3 Vegetation and landuse, scale 1:100,000; a description of the land 51 4.3.1 Sterculia appendiculata - Ceiba pentandra LS 51 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT / SUBDIVISION / ORIGINAL FORESTS / LANDSCAPE DYNAMICS: FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 4.3.2 Cynometra suaheliensis - Anacardium occidentale LS 53 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT / SUBDIVISION ORIGINAL FORESTS / FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 4.3.3 Terminalia spinosa - Maytenus senegalensis LS 54 GENERAL / SUBDIVISION / FORESTS AND NATURAL CLIMAXES / FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS / HUMAN INFLUENCE ON THE VEGETATION

4.3.4 Cocos nucifera - Chlorophora excelsa LS 57 GENERAL / SUBDIVISION / FORESTS: THE KAYA FORESTS / FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 4.3.5 Brachystegia spiciiformis - Manilkara zanzibarica LS 60 GENERAL / SUBDIVISION / ORIGINAL FORESTS / FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS / POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS 4.3.6 Salvador persica - Acacia nilotica LS 64 GENERAL / SUBDIVISION / LANDSCAPE DYNAMICS/ POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS 4.3.7 Ipomoea pes-capre - Rhizophora mucronata LS 68 INDIAN OCEAN SHORES / CREEK SHORES 4.4 Landscapes as dynamic entities 70 4.4.1 Introduction 70 4.4.2 Vegetation and climate 71 4.4.3 Vegetation and soil 71 LSI / LS2 / LS3 / LS4 / LS5 and LS6 4.4.4 Other factor 73 5. DISCUSSION 74 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 76 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 77 APPENDIX I. VEGETATION AND LAND USE MAP (scale 1:100,000) + LEGEND II. VEGETATION TABLE III. SYNOPTIC VEGETATION TABLE IV. CROSS CHECK TABLE FOR PRELIMINARY API UNITS AND FLORISTIC CLASSIFICATION V. LIST OF PLANT SPECIES a. Vernacular names b. Botanic names

Preface (1) This is a Preliminary Report of the Training Project in Pedology (T.P.I.P.) at Kilifi (Kenya), of the Section in Tropical Soil Science of the Department of Soil Science and Geology of the Agricultural University at Wageningen (the Netherlands). The Training Project in Pedology was started in 1972 in the Kisii area. In 1979 the project was transferred to the Kilifi area at Kenya's Coast, and Project activities started in September. As in Kisii, this project has as its major aim the production of a mapsheet (Kilifi) on scale 1:100,000 in the frame of the Soil Map of Kenya in cooperation with the Kenya Soil Survey (Ministry of Agriculture). There are also links with the faculty of Agriculture of the university of Nairobi. The project is meant for training of postgraduate students of the Agricultural University at Wageningen and for furnishing research opportunities of the staff. The activities of students and staff are directed to obtain a better knowledge of the soils, and the agricultural conditions of the project area to provide a basis for further agricultural development of the area. The project at Kilifi is conducted by: Dr.ir. T. de Meester (Principal) Teaching and research Ing. H.W. Boxern (Manager) Management and teaching Visiting specialists from the Agricultural University at Wageningen help to resolve special problems. We hope to return with these reports a small part of the great debt we owe Kenya in general and to many Kenyans in particular for their valuable contributions to the project. J. Bennema (Supervisor of the project, Professor in Tropical Soil Science)

Preface (2) Ecologists tend to complain that changes in use and management of land often are carried out in a way that will lad to deterioration, which could have been avoided if their expertise had been involved at an early stage of decision making. On the other hand, their own research programmes do not always show much concern with such urgent problems. If they appear to have mainly an interest in methods and techniques instead of results, or are working on a scale that is not relevant to practical problems, the result may be that others will tackle the really important ecological problems in their own, perhaps amateuristic way. In the "Kilifi T.P.I.P.", thanks to the insight of the organisers, the necessary disciplines have been cooperating from the very beginning. It was clear that a detailed analysis of the constantly changing pattern of vegetation in this complicated and floristically rich region was out of reach. For the purpose of the project, this would not have been necessary or even desirable. Thanks to the use of aerial photographs (which show vegetation structure in the first place) and to the contribution of various plant taxonomists, we are nevertheless able to present now a map of "vegetation landscapes" and a description of plant communities which contains much more than the superficial information on native and man-made vegetation of the area that was available up to now. Two Preliminary Reports are presented. Report nr. 3 presents a general survey of the project area, mainly consisting of a photo interpretation map, a description of the mapping units and of the plant communities (based on structure and floristic composition). Preliminary Report nr. 4 deals with a more detailed analysis of one of the main landscape types ("shale landscape"), with an emphasis on human influence on the vegetation. Including the study on carrying capacity for stock of woody and herbaceous vegetation, which is to appear in the near future, our group of botanists feel that we have had a fair chance to make the kind of contribution, necessary to be incorporated in the final land evaluation which is to crown this project. However that may be, it was a fascinating project! H. Doing (Senior Lecturer, Department of Vegetation Science, Plant Ecology and Weed Science)

SUMMARY In a 6-month period, a vegetation and land use map (scale 1:100,000) was prepared of the Kilifi area, at the Kenya coast. This survey was part of a series of land surveys by the TPIP (Training Project in Pedology). The TPIP is a combined Dutch- Kenyan project, with soil science as the binding element between various disciplines. The vegetation and land use map was prepared following the landscape guided approach (proposed by the ITC). According to this method, landscape guided air photo interpretation (API) of (1968, scale 1:49,500) air photos, resulted in a preliminary API map (scale 1:50,000). On this map a total of 7 main vegetation landscapes (LS) were recognized. The preliminary API map was used as a basis of random stratified sampling of the area. The field samples were taken in the form of vegetation relevées. For each relevée, a complete (as far as possible) description of floristic composition and structure of the vegetation sample was compiled. Later on, it became necessary to change over to preferential sampling of the area, because of the enormous variety in vegetation formations (within the API units), many of which influenced by some kind of landuse. Floristic. works available in Kenya are not complete, nor cover fully the Kenya coast. Hence, the floristic composition of the vegetation in our area was difficult to cover. This problem was solved as much as possible with the use of a quick herbarium and the aid of a local assistant with botanical knowledge. His vernacular names were translated later on, as much as possible, into the proper botanical names. Over a two hundred relevées were made, and processed according to the Braun- Blanquet tabulation method (App. II). This resulted in the recognition of 16 plant communities, based on 37 sociological groups. The floristic classification served as a basis, together with observations on landuse, for the legend of the final vegetation and landuse map. On this map, the 7 main LS are divided into units, ranging from original tropical monsoon forests to human induced formations (such as a coconut plantation). After a general and a physiographic introduction in chapters 1 and 2, the working methods are presented in chapter 3. In chapter 4, notes on agriculture in the area, a description of the plant communities and of the land, and some remarks on the relationships between vegetation LS and factors such as climate and soil conditions are presented. In chapter 5, some space is used for discussion, and acknowledgements are presented in chapter 6. In the 5 appendices, the map (App. I), the vegetation table (App. II), a synoptic vegetation table (App. Ill), a cross check table for preliminary API units and floristic classification (App. IV) and a list of plant species (App. V) are presented.

Preliminary Report nr. 4, by Mr. Jan Kuyper, deals with an investigation of the influence of human activities on the vegetation in the northern part of LS 3.

SAMENVATTING In ren periode van 6 maanden werd een vegetatie- en landgebruikskaart (schaal 1:100.000) gemaakt van het Kilifigebied aan de Kenyaanse kust. Deze studie was er een in een reeks van facet-studies door het TPIP (Training Project in Pedology). Het TPIP is een gecombineerd Nederlands-Kenyaans project, met bodemkunde als bindend element tussen verscheidene disciplines. De vegetatie- en landgebruikskaart werd voorbereid volgens de landschapsgerichte (landscape guided) benadering (zoals toegepast door het ITC). Volgens deze methode werd, met behulp van luchtfoto-interpretatie (API: Air Photo Interpretation) (luchtfoto-schaal 1:49.500, 1968) een voorlopige API-kaart bereid (schaal 1:50.000). Op deze kaart zijn 7 hoofd-vegetatielandschappen (LS) onderscheiden, onderverdeeld in API-eenheden. De voorlopige API-kaart maakte het mogelijk het gebied gestratificeerd-lukraak te bemonsteren (Random stratified sampling). De monsters werden genomen in de vorm van vegetatie-opnamen. Voor elke opname werd een volledige structurele en floristische analyse van het vegetatie-monster opgesteld. Later bleek het nodig, over te gaan op een bemonsteringsstrategie, waarbij de opnamen bij voorkeur van bepaalde formaties werden gemaakt (preferential sampling), vanwege de enorme verscheidenheid aan vegetatie-formaties (binnen de API-eenheden), die vaak sterk door de mens beïnvloed waren. Flora's van Oost-Afrika zijn aanwezig. Deze zijn echter niet compleet, noch geheel geschikt voor de Kenyaanse kust, hetgeen de floristische analyse bemoeilijkte. Dit probleem werd zo goed mogelijk opgelost door een veldherbarium aan te leggen en door de hulp van een inheemse assistent met botanische kennis. Zijn locale plantnamen werden later zoveel mogelijk vertaald naar wetenschappelijke namen. Meer dan tweehonderd opnamen werden gemaakt en verwerkt volgens de tabelmethode van Braun-Blanquet (App.II). Het resultaat was de vorming van 16 plantengemeenschappen, gebaseerd op 37 sociologische soortengroepen. Samen met waarnemingen m.b.t. landgebruik vormde de floristische classificatie de basis van de legenda voor de definitieve vegetatie- en landgebruikskaart. Op deze kaart zijn de 7 hoofd LS verdeeld in eenheden, die variëren van origineel tropisch moessonbos tot door de mens geïnduceerde formaties (zoals een cocosnoten-plantage). Een algemene en een fysiografische inleiding staan in hoofdstukken 1 en 2. Dan volgt een beschrijving van de gevolgde werkmethode in hoofdstuk 3. Hoofdstuk 4 omvat een inleiding tot het landgebruik in het gebied (landbouw en veeteelt), een beschrijving van de plantengemeenschappen en van het land, en enige ideeën over de relatie tussen vegetatie en factoren als klimaat en bodemgesteldheid.

Hoofdstuk 5 is een discussie, hoofdstuk 6 is de verantwoording. In de bijlage zijn achtereenvolgens te vinden: (App. I) de kaart, (App. II) de vegetatietabel, (App. Ill) een synoptische vegetatietabel, (App. IV) een tabel ter vergelijking van voorlopige API eenheden met de floristische classificatie, en (App. V) een lijst met plantennamen. Het vervolg op dit rapport (Preliminary Report nr. 4) is geschreven door Mr. Jan Kuyper. Het omvat een onderzoek naar de menselijke invloed op de vegetatie in het noordelijk gedeelte van landschap 3.

MUHTASARI Kwa mda wa miezi 6, ramani (kipimo 1:100.000) ya utumiaji wa ardhi na mimea ya eneo la Kilifi, Pwani ya Kenya ilitayarishwa. Upimaji huu ulifuatia safu za upimaji wa T.P.I.P. (Training Project in Pedology). T.P.I.P. ni muugano wa azimio la watu wa Kenya na wa Holland (the Netherlands) wa uchunguzi wa sayansi ya asili ya mchanga na mambo mengine. Ramani ya mimea utumiaji wa arda ilitayarishwa kulengana na sanamu (picha) ya nchi ya kufanana na wongozi (Zilizizoazimiwa nâ I.T.C.) Kulengana na taratibu hii, picha za hewani (sanamu) ya nchi zilitafisiriwa na (Air Photo Interpretation: A.P.I.) katika'(1968) (kipimo 1:49.500) ya mwanzo wa ramani (kipimo 1:50.000) ya A.P.I. Katika ramani hii aina 7 za mimea juu zikatukia ardhi ziligunduliwa. Mwanzo ramani ya A.P.I. ilifanya mambo ya uchunguzi kujitokeza mara moja. Namna za mbugani zilichunguzwa vipande (sehemu sehemu) vya mahali, na ufafanuzi wa jamii ya mimea ilimalikazi (kama ilivyowezakana) pamoja na mimea yenyewe ilivyokuwa. Baada yake ilikuwa ni lazima kugeuza mifano yote kulengana na utumiaji wa ardhi. Kwa sababu ya upungufu wa jamii mimea mizuri katika misiti ya Pwani'ya Kenya, uchunguzi huu ulikuwa si rahisi kumalizika na kutambulika. Shida hii ilitatuliwa na kuanzishwa kwa haraka chumba cha kutambulilia mimea (Herbarium) na pia kwa usaidizi wa mkaaji wa eneo hilo aliye na ujuzi wa majina kitalemu. Majina yake yote ya kienyeji yalitafisiriwa kama ilivyowezakana kwa kitalamu. Zaidi ya uchunguzi (Relevée) mia mbili ulifanywa na kutengenezwa kulengana na taritibu za Braun-Blanquet (App. II). Hii ilitokea kwa kutambulika kwa jamii ya mimea 16 yote ikiwa imelengana na utafitaji wa jamii ya mimea. Huu upangikaji wa jamii za mimea ulisaidia kama msingi, pamoja na uchunguzaji na utumiaji wa ardhi, kwa hekaya za mwisho wa mimea na ramani ya utumiaji wa ardhi. Katika ramani hii, zile Landscape (LS) 7 mhimu zimegawanywa katika sehemu sehemu, kutoka kwa misiti ya joto ya aaili hadi misitu ya kubunishwa na binadamu (kama vile shamba la minazi). Baada ya utangulizi wa jumla katika sura 1 na ya 2, taratibu za kufanya kazi ulitayarishwa katika sura 3» Katika sura 4» mambo mhimu kuhusu ukulima katika eneo hili, ufafanuzi kuhusa ardhi, na mambo mengine yanayolengana baina ya mimea LS na mambo mengine kama vile hali ya anga na rnichanga yanaelezwa.

Katika sura ya 5 nafa3i nyingine imetayarishwa kwa majadiliano, na shukrani katika su.ra ya 6. Katika mvisho wa kitabu ni ramani (i), hesabu, ya mimea (II na III) crodha ya mwanzo A.P.I. na upangaji na jamii ya mimea (IV) na hesabu ya aina ya miti (V) yàmetayarishwa. üehemu ya pili ya kitabu kilitayarishwa na Jan Kuyper, na Ina husti uchunguzi wa inatokeo ya inatendo ya binadainu,juu ya mimea ueheinu ya kfi.skazini ya Lï> 3- (Translation English - Kiswahili: Rexton Karisa)

LIST OF FIGURES 1. Situation of the projects area at the Kenya coast 1 2. Geological map of the Kilifi area 3 3. Physiographic diagram of the Kilifi area (with map) 5 U. Vegetation relevée data sheet back cover 5. Simplified map of the 7 main landscapes of the Kilifi area (scale 1:250,000) 17 6. Bar diagram representing sociological groups and plant communities, extracted from the vegetation table 13 7. Development of the vegetation of LS 5 59 61 8. Profile showing various vegetation formations and their substratum in LS 6. 65 LIST OF TABLES III.1 III.11 III.III III.IV IV. 1 IV. II IV. III TV. IV IV. V IV. VI 11 Size of relevée area varies according to the vegetation structure Decimal method for vegetation coverage estimations. 11 Abundancy classes and their notation 12 Sociability classes and their notation 12 Agricultural activities and their intensity in the main LS of the Kilifi area 21 Agricultural produce in the Kilifi area 22 Sociological groups in the Kilifi area 27 Plant communities in the Kilifi area 28 Landqualities of the Brachystegia woodland 63 Ecological table of the Kilifi area 69 NB: Figures and Tables, belonging to chapter 4.2.1, are not listed.

1 SOEDAN OtüKWDd ItlbtftW oceum rilinw7»n\ TiiwznMit All hs^alhfth 71g. 1 i Situation of the Projects Area.

2 1 INTRODUCTION This vegetation and land use study covers a small part of the Kenya coast (Topographic quarter-degree sheet K 198). The location of the area is presented in fig. 1. The study fits within a series of land surveys of this area by the Training Project in Pedology (TPIP). The TPIP is a project of the Agricultural University in Wageningen, the Netherlands, and the Kenya Soil Survey (KSS). It is an integrated project in which soils are the binding element. The objects of the TPIP are three, viz. 1. Preparation of a soil map (scale 1:100,000) for the KSS, within its program to map all high and medium potential areas of Kenya; 2. Providing training facilities for postgraduate students with tropical specializations of various disciplines; 3. Integration of all studies and surveys carried out by participants of the project, to prepare a landevaluation of the area. More information on the survey area is presented in other TPIP publications (Floor et al., 1980). The present study was carried out as a practice period for vegetation science, in the MSc. course Biology at the Agricultural University of Wageningen. The study took place from April to October 1981. A vegetation and landuse map was prepared following the landscape guided method (Zonneveld et al., 1979). It provides an overview of actual landscapes; no potential situations (concerning hypothetic climax vegetation or -landuse) are taken into account. However, these matters are discussed in this report. The preparation of a separate soil map has been of consequence for this mapping. Geological or pedological differences of little importance for actual vegetation and/or landuse are not used as differentiating elements. Finally, it should be emphasized that 1968 air photographs served as a basis for this survey. For correction and updating of changes whithin the last 13 years, both time and facilities were lacking. Locally, these changes are considerably; they are dealt with in this report.

Vto' I A ) Alluvial deposits and coral sands ' J PI9 I Coastal sands (Kilindini sands) [ d Dunes I Kpl Ma Bay-sediments on Mariakani- sandstone Magarinl sands altitude (m) [T JBaratumu- marls J1 J uras s ic - shales J2 ikambe-llmestone Kz [Mazeras-sandstone Q<m Mariakanl- sandstone <uu> coral reef rr escarpment ""* step 2 coastal level 10 km KJK. 2 Geological, map of the Kilifi area (From: Preliminary Report nr. 1)

4 2 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY OF THE AREA Detailed information concerning these matters are presented in (Floor et al., 1980), and the references given there. In order to make this report readible for those, who have no access to this report, some of the contents are summarized below. 2.1 Geology Geologically, the area consists mainly of a system of mesozoic sedimentary rocks, deposited against the African Shield. These deposits have a general NE-SW strike, sloping E-wards. In fig. 2 a simplified geological map is given. The oldest sediments found within the area belong to the Duruma sandstone Series, i.e. the Mariakani and Mazeras sandstone Formations. The Mariakani Formation consists mainly of a well sorted, fine grained sandstone, with little weatherable minerals. The Mazeras Formation consists mainly of poorly sorted, coarse grained sandstone, with a variable amount of weatherable minerals. Both Formations are divided into several members by shale/silt bands. Against and over the Duruma sands, limestone belonging to the Kambe limestone formation is deposited. It consists of thick beds of clean limestone ('wackestone') in which little small shell fragments can be found. The Kambe limestone is overlayed by the Mto Mkuu shale Formation.. It has a shale facies throughout, the fossil content being low. Of little importance are the Baratumu marls, deposited upon the Mto Mkuu Formation. Along the coast, stretching some 10 km landinwards, subrecent coral rock is found. These, the Baratumu marls, the Mto Mkuu shales, and the Kambe limestones are covered locally by the Magarini sands. These are well sorted, dark red coloured sands with little weatherable minerals. The coral rock deposits at the coast are also covered by depositions of the Kilindini Formation; non-consolidated sediments of various texture. In the western part of the area, the Duruma sands may be covered by another unconsolidated sediment, the pleistocene bay sediments. These are usually heavy textured, consisting of silty bay deposits mixed with a variable amount of basin material (the Mariakani or Mazeras sands). Along the coast, recent dunes can be found. They are not extensive.

Fig,3. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIAGRAM OF THE KILIFI AREA q 25 5 7.5 1Ç km a. Map. Bamba Mazeras CP CU DU Coastal Plain Coastal Uplands Dissected Uplands IU IP Interior Uplands Interior Plains b. Cross Section

6 2.2 Physiography The physiography of the area will be described in an order, beginning at the shore of the Indian Ocean. A physiographic diagram is presented in fig. 3. The actual shore is formed on a level of subrecent coral rock, limited on the landside by a yet higher level of coral rock. The boundary between the two levels is often formed by a minor scarp. The second level of coral rock forms a nearly flat surface, extending landinwards. Together with a number of higher levels, (all corresponding with former relative sealevels) it forms the coastal plain. As stated above, most of the coastal plain is covered by the Kilindini Formation. Along the shore, recent dunes are found. Altitudes of the coastal plain lie between 8 and 50 m. The coastal plain usually has a wel defined boundary with a ridge of Magarini sands, forming the coastal uplands It is a rolling landscape reaching up to 150 m. The ridge is deeply incised, baring underlying formations. The coastal uplands change abruptly into the dissected uplands, formed on the Mto Mkuu Formation. The dissected uplands form an undulating to rolling landscape, with (locally) small level parts, e.g. in flood plains of rivers. Distinctive are the remnants of Magarini sands, which form isolated hills on more elevated positions. The altitudes of the dissected uplands range from nearly zero to around 60 m, the Magarini tops being still higher. The dissected uplands pass into the interior uplands. In the southern part of the Kilifi area, the boundary may consist of a steep sloping minor scarp. The interior uplands lie between 100 and 350 m. The relief is usually rolling in the southern, undulating to rolling in the nothern part of the area. The interior uplands are developed on Kambe limestone and on Duruma sandstone. In some valleys, bay sediments are found, while on some ridges, Magarini sands occur. In the southern part of the interior uplands, isolated rock outcrops of Kambe limestone appear. Their size varies from several to over a hundred m in diameter, potruding several to (viz.) 20-30 m above the ground level. The interior uplands change into the interior plains. This is a nearly flat part, formed on h.iy sediments, with sandy hills. Altitudes lie between 180-200 m. The boundary with the interior uplands can be gradual, or clear, in which case it is formed by a minor scarp. The interior plains pass westwards into Tsavo National Park. Large steep benched Creeks cut deeply landinwards from the coast, reaching into the dissected uplands. The shores of these creeks (drowned river valleys) can be formed by extensive tidal platforms.

7 2.3 Climate Mean temperatures vary between 22 C as an average minimum, 26-30 C as an average maximum in the coastal belt and 30-34 C average maximum in the environment of Bamba (in the interior plains). Seasonal variation in daylength is small. As a consequence, hours of sunshine vary little, averaging between 7 and 8 hours per day. There is a bimodal pattern of annual rainfall, varying from over a 1000 mm at the coast, to around 600 mm in the NW part of the area. The bimodality of the rainfall is not prominent. The rainfall is unreliable; local differences in (annual) rainfall are high. Annual potential évapotranspiration exceeds the annual rainfall by far; from an average of 2000 mm at the coast, to around 2300 mm near Bamba. Annual moisture deficits are increasing generally from SE to NW. This is also remarkable within the landscapes to be defined in following chapters. Water availability is a major limiting factor for agriculture in nearly all parts of the area.

8 3 WORKING METHODS 3.1 The ITC approach Where large complex areas are to be surveyed in a relative short time (as in this case) a sound working method is of utmost importance. The ITC (International Institute for Aerial Survey and Earth Sciences at Enschede, the Netherlands) approach, emphasizing the use of air photo interpretation (API) in the landscape guided.method, provides such a method. This method and its advantages are presented in full in (Zonneveld et al., 1979). In short, landscape guided API is used to direct the survey(or), by means of preparing a API-map with a API legend. The result is, that several landscapes are recognized in the area, which can be subdivided according to (in our case) landuse and/or vegetation properties. A landscape can be defined as follows: "Die Landschaft ist ein dynamisches, räumlich-strukturiertes Wirkungssystem aus den drei unterschiedlichen Gesetzlichkeiten erfassbaren Teilsystemen des Anorganischen, des Biotischen und des Nootischen" (Bobek und Smithüsen 1949, in Leser (1976) p.28). In order to describe the API units, they will have to.be sampled. In sampling, a choice can be made (amongst other things) 1. size-proportional sampling; 2. stratified sampling; an equal number of samples is allocated to each API legend unit, element 3. preferential sampling; more important or more variable API legend unit elements are emphasized, while less important or already well defined API legend unit elements are consciously neglected. 3.2 The Kilifi approach The ITC method provides a framework, allowing space for interpretation according to requirements of the employer, characteristics of the survey area, available facilities and personal appreciation of the surveyor. The method will be presented subsequently as applied in this particular survey. The survey was prepared in 1979 with a first landscape guided APT by Mr. Jelger van der Lek, followed by a field reconnaissaince. The available air photographs were made in. 1968 scale appx. 1:49,500. This first work resulted in a preliminary API map (scale 1:50,000) and legend. In the same period, a floristic inventarisation and. a herbarium were, made by Mr. Jan Reitsma.

9 In april 1981 I started with random stratified sampling of the preliminary API legend unit elements. That is, sample plots were placed preferentially, where two or more API legend unit elements were neighbouring. The exact position of a sample plot (within an element in the field) was chosen at random. During the visit of prof. dr. I.S. Zonneveld and dr.ir. H. Doing, the preparation of a new and more detailed API map (scale 1:50,000) and legend were decided. At that stage, it became obvious that for stratified sampling of the entire area, time was lacking. As a consequence, we decided to apply an intermediate form of stratified and preferential sampling. In the same period fellow student Mr.Jan Kuyper started his research of the human influence on the vegetation in one of the landscapes recognized with the preliminary API. 3.3 Field sampling methods 3.1-1 General In the Kilifi area, human influence on the vegetation is significant. As a result, natural vegetation is locally scarce. Little is known about the original vegetation of the area. It appears, that only small remnants of it are left. As a consequence, the vegetation in the Kilifi area ranges from (supposed) almost original forests to completely artificially induced formations, such as a coconut plantation or a large scale sisal estate, with all kinds of semi-natural or seiuidegenerated stages in between. On a scale of 1:50,000 of the air photographs, the same goes more or less for most of the API legend units, making them into complexes of two or more vegetation types. Because it was obvious, that not all vegetation types (corresponding with various degrees of human influence) could be sampled, it was decided to sample preferentially the (seemingly) least unnatural vegetation occuring in a certain API legend unit (element). The vegetation there was sampled by means of vegetation relevées, while notes on landuse and/or surrounding vegetation were taken. 3.3.2 Vegetation relevées a. Data collected in vegetation relevées Vegetation relevées were made according to principles of the Braun-Blanquet school (Braun-Blanquet, 1972). Within a certain relevée area, structure and floristic composition of the vegetation were described. Along with these, a soil profile description was given (by augering with an Edelman auger). For each relevée, notes on topography, geography and geology of the site were taken. These data were collected on a relevée data sheet, especially designed for this survey. An example of such a sheet is presented in fig- 4 (back cover).

10 b. Size of relevée area The size of the relevée area varied according to the stucture of the vegetation, as presented in table III.I. The structural classification used here is derived from Lind & Morris (1974). In some cases, heterogenous formations could not be sampled in one relevée. The recognizable subformations were then sampled separately. c. Vegetation structure description in relevées Apart from a general structure description such as in table III. J, in each relevee, the structure of the vegetation was described in detail. Beforehand, a range of artificial strata were supposed: groundlevel; 0-3 cm; 3-12.5 cm; 12.5-25 cm; 25-50 cm; 50 cm-1 m; 1-2 m...etc... up to 64 m (Doing, 1979). The coverage of the vegetation within each stratum was estimated. At groundlevel, the area of bare ground (or -rock) or covered by dry leaves (litter) was taken in account. The estimate was presented graphically on the relevée data sheets. Along with this, the occurrence of the life forms according to Raunkiaer (1934), and their coverage, were described. Two parameters determine the real vegetation coverage, viz. ' external coverage: the area underneath a certain species or group of species, estimated by vertical projection on a horizontal surface. 2. internal coverage: that percentage of the external coverage effectively occupied by parts of the plant species; that is, external coverage minus open space. Out of (1) and (2) the real coverage (in percents) can be calculated, as follows: real coverage (%) = external coverage (%) x internal coverage (%) 100 For coverage estimations, the decimal method was used. The coverage classes and notations for this method are presented in table III. II. d. Description of floristic composition in vegetation relevées. Of each species occurring in a relevée, coverage (as in 3.2.c) abundance, and sociability were estimated, along with the stage of development (like flowering or fruiting stage). Abundancy = number of individual (stems) of a certain species within an area. The abundance was described by means of a logarithmic scale, presented in Table J 11. III. Sociability = the tendency of individuals belonging to the same species (or other classification group) to form clusters. The scale used to describe sociability is given in Table III.IV.

11 TABLE III.I VEGETATION STRUCTURE RELEVEE AREA (m 2 ) Woodlands Bushlands 150 Shrublands Shrubby grasslands 150-200 Wooded grasslands Arable land Sisal estates 400 Treecrop plantations Grasslands 25 Relevée area size varying according to vegetation structure. TABLE III.II RANGE OF COVERAGE 00 0 01 1 02 2 03 3 04 4 05 5 06 6 07 7 08 8 09 9 10 10 less than 2% 2-5% 5-15% 15-25% 25-35% 35-45% 45-55% 55-65% 65-75% 75-85% 85-95% 100% Decimal method for coverage estimate. Notation for external coverage (first column) and internal coverage (2nd column) and their range are presented. The internal, coverage can be notated as an exponent of the external coverage.

12 TABLE III.Ill NOTATION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 etc... ABUNDANCY 10 per ha 1 per are tt tt 18 1 per m 2 IT tt 10 1 per dm 2 t! tt 10 (1 ha = 2.5 acre) (1 are = 100 m 2 ) Abundancy classes and their notation as used for the description of floristic composition of vegetation relevées. TABLE III.IV NOTATION 1-1 + 2-2+ 3-3+ 4-4+ 5-5+ SOCIABILITY stem per group 2-3 stems per group 4-10 11-33 34-100 100-330 330-1,000 1,000-3,300 3,300-10,000 > 10,000 Sociability classes and notations as used for the description of floristic composition in vegetation relevées.

13 XX X X x x x x x x x X < X X XXX < x <xxx>-xxxx.-i<xxx«-xx\ X < X -.<x^'-*'-'xx'-«'~'-'<x'-«>-xx ' ' -<; m?m$uw* ] o w > i > > x :! > r- x O > :t 3 w <-* o *< i O P Q H- - n O "1 3 B C I 3-0 3 3 0 W 0 C 0 3 M - o - O O S S - N» - - : 1 o o o c 's:?s',ftff O. *0» 3 3 r+ 3 =r ^ 3 P l t - C O T a t - T D O O O B (0 O P 3»- o p sr II t- p «< oq H«p >< o B o» <-» P T3 O P C S l - ' r + O O B ' I l O O O r + O W h* B I* H» l * M -g I- tj? B O"»* ^tj Ö I o» o P O O 3 O 3 B> H»- P S ï S o S ï nim [ [ X X o o «o o T3 -o n n o P i o o o o SS fill II H Hl-?? ff f Ï S, --. an- 3 co a o o 03 > > B r+ «ü (6 $ ' O m m o I I a I n an D DÛ I D D [ I I I II D G 1 M n :l I IM: II II I [! DD DD D D DD DD G D I I I D Il II 0 G D G I I D 03 I

14 3.3.3 Naming glant_sgeci.es, According to the East African Herbarium (EAH), around 1500 (as a rough estimation) plant species occur in the surveyed area, (personal communications with EAH direction). Of these, around 500 are collected in a herbarium by Mr. Jan Reitsma (1979). Furtheron, a collection of flora's. useful in the area are available, like Kenya Trees and Shrubs by Dale and Greenway, and Agnew's Kenya Wild Upland Flowers, and the Flora of East Africa (unfinished) by the EAH. In order to get acquainted with the flora'of the area: as quickly as possible, the following procedure was followed: - In each relevée, unknown species were collected (roughly) and inserted in a quick herbarium in the field, and numbered; - each number received the vernacular (Giriama or Swahili-)name if possible, if not, a nickname;! - vernacular names were (if possible) translated with lists such as in Kenya Trees and Shrubs, or as available at the EAH, with the quick herbarium material to check for synonyms; (a translation list adapted to our situation is presented in Appendix V). - nicknamed numbers were grouped (doubles together) and either determinated using one of the floras, or shown to a consultant who might know the species, genus or family (just like that). The vernacular names were given by Mr. Rexton Karisa, the field assistent. 3.4 Field sample processing 3.4.1 Floristic classification The fl or i.sti c. c 1 assi f i ca t i on serves as a base for the final map legend; it is a backbone for the vegetation and land use-map. The principles of floristic classification, based on full species description, was introduced by Braun-Blanquet (1972). Sociological groups, differentiating and specific species are used to define vegetation types... For this survey, the vegetation relevée data were processed according to the Braun-Blanquet tabulation method. A diagonal matrix, including all species and sample plots (relevées) is formed. The initial columns (plots) and rows (plant species) are rearranged repeatedly, until a.matrix of mutually discriminant clusters of both plots ('abstract' plant communities) and plant species (sociological species groups) are obtained (see App. II). The final diagonal matrix is compressed into a synoptic table (App. Ill), and interpreted into a bar diagram, (fig. 6), to facilitate the use of the plot classification as a determination key for the map legend (see App. I, IV).

15 3.4.2 Final mag legend preparation In order to compare the preliminary API legend with the final floristic classification, a diagonal matrix is formed, in which the rows represent the plant communities, and the column the preliminary API legend units. (App. IV) With this matrix, combined with an annotated map, the final legend was prepared. 3.5 Cartographic methods Preliminary API boundaries were drawn with chinagraph pencils (type 'China Marker') on the air photographs (scale 1:49,500). This API was taken over manualy on transparant topographic maps, scale 1:50,000, with Rotring pencils over a light-table. The transparants were printed, after which the phototypes could be coloured and corrected. The same procedure was followed after the final map legend was prepared and the final API was finished. In this case, however, the transparant (scale 1:50,000) sheets were reduced photographically to the final (1:100,000) scale.

16 it

17 FIG. 5 MAIN LANDSCAPES OF THE K1LIFI AREA 3!0' 39 30'E 39 56' 3 30'S 4 00'S 39 3(VS 39 W! >6'E * 00'S 1 = Sterculia appendiculata - Ceiba pen tan dra" landscape 2 m Cynometra suaheliensie - Anacardium occidentale landscape 3 = Terminalia apinoaa - Maytenua senegalensis landscape k = Cocos nucifera - Chlorophora excelaa landscape 5.- Rrachyategia spiciif orntia - Manilkara zanzibarica landscape 6» Salvadora persica - Acacia nilotica landscape 7 "* Ipomoea pes-capre ~ Ithizophora mucronata landscape 2.5 7.5 10 km. i

18 4 VEGETATION AND LANDUSE r,..., s.,..,.,,. ; UÖS.ä ; >,«:..<, ":.'. 4.1 General introduction! ] :.V;.:-.;A). ^...'i.-ii'. b--;3-;<. V> \- -*; ::*; V! - -er -. ;':.-r-u l :.-> -:. : > ">..--.. n.:.-:..- 4.1.1 The sevèn_main_landscades In the Kilifi area, a total of 7 main landscapes (LS) are recognized. Their delineation is based upon API, the work of Mr. J. van der Lék arid geological and geographical data. A simplified map with the 7 main LS is presented in fig. 5. ;. : ;;,,:.; >' --M-/:'* ' i \ 'ni.. :' u i:. «^.-", -. r ri'; r Î >; siv^if--» -v.'.-.fi. " i", "">««: "I!';/ '_ '" ''' "' ''-' The LS were named according to common or characteristic plant species, including : \, :.-,;,.-.=. :.';. u-r-f «-T.'. : ).'- - ; i-,r. (00fî,-'.-i:.! M.;-;.?,; E.'ÄS } S.>..tü-.v< :.-. >n.< > i '- important (introduced) tree crops. From the coast landinwards, they are the fol- -' i;.,o -. I r-->ti=»<..- :îfri3o3 fl.-'s.'./, 0'"?, f Oc 1 -." "is.js rf'i.cv T ;,:qs «>c< > ' j>\ ;.-r> :.;.s lowing:.,-i ':-.,.-- p-,.-f/ -, c- tü'.i'j 'rtj < ' j. '''»' " '-..'.' '. ^O j '.- ï ";' ' -v.' v>'-j f ' fis'! ';0' : f' 'J ' ' '"' ' '. ' i :. " ' ' ::; 1. Sterculia âpperidiculata - Ceiba pentandra LS (LSI) '-.: -....rf, '-. > - \ ±!.\7. -:-.3'î-.'S î.-owo i <;"i 'ir-'. '.' 'J:Ï'.''MO, J'J ~;ii! : "; :;>."". ;> r ; 5 "' 'T:-. '". '.' hi ' i -.'.. a much cultivated LS on the coastal plain, with large sisal plans'...-.. s -;. '.; (:.i,-v;s,; ;\ i'-"o "A.';; ; ' ; <J ; ;.;. ':\?.tv :'i': ftviii*/ ".'! i >jl.-.!.*'- ~.Q"1'-, '-..- rotations, many tree crops, characterized by the occurrence of Ceiba :,. j -. / '. s.. ;i«jf.30.: "Vy; ^r.t.!.,r".:i ;..,-.-.--. ;.;- ;o::r., pentandra plantations and (locally) a large yellow-stemmed Sterculia appendiculata tree. Cynometra suaheliensis - Anacardium occidentale LS (LS 2) developed on the coastal uplands, this LS consists mainly of cashewnut (with a few coconut-) plantations, a large (partly neglected) sisal plantation, and a few remnants of the original forests. Terminalia spinosa - Maytenus senegalensis LS (LS 3) this landscape is developed on the dissected uplands. It is most cultivated in the central part of this area. More to the southern part, Hyphaene coriacea grasslands dominate, while to the north, vast ranging areas (Lannea stuhlmanni - Hibiscus aponeurus bushland) appear. Cocos nucifera - Chlorophora excelsa LS (LS 4) This LS appears on the southern part of the interior uplands. It consists mainly of coconut plantations, and some arable land (especially in valleys). On hilltops, remnants of the original tropical monsoon forests may occur. Brachystegia spiciiformis - Manilkara zanzibarica LS (LS 5) This LS developed on the northern part of the interior uplands; it has a gradual boundary with the former LS. Most of LS 5 is dominated by an open woodland where Brachystegia spiccijformis and Afzelia cuanzensis trees dominate. The woodland is alternated by secondary bush of various types, and arable land.

19 6. Salvadora persica - Acacia nilotica LS (LS 6) appears in the driest part of the Kilifi area, on the interior plains. This LS is dominated by cattle ranging on thorny (Acacia spp.) bush and Salvadora persica grasslands. On sandy hills, a kind of Brachystegia-woodland may occur. 7. Ipomoea pes-capre - Rhizophora mucronata LS (LS 7) appears on the shores of the Kilifi area. These are dominated by two formations, viz. Indian Ocean: a salt spray-induced low shrub formation, where Capparis cartilaginea occurs, and the Creeks (and river mouths): Rhizophora mucronata swamps.

20

21 > r~ r j r~ r~ r~ 2 (3 -H CO CO CO CO CO CO CO o* ê -J CD en **- U) ho > CO > 2 ^_ culture lion 3J ID??» 5 ^* Û u-j" 7 a «6 O Q t' «< 1/>!T r- a -» o rge seal e sal proc i i irge seal rigated i 3 r- m < k 3 > ca o«i 2 a 3 - S S =» =; Cocon Cashci Rice (\ o 3 e Dairyi hortieult 3" lo 3«o 2 O * cr N Cocon Cas he Exploi Coc en w X in La dsapes al act 535- / S c O 7? 1 = VI tractor ploughing orjao - o o -i ~3 HI c 9* a "3Î «l 3 C (/I ts nuts&grazing Il of the K vities anc i 3 C/l 5^ O * VI 3 C f-» 5 co -i VI 3 8 3- a> $ u n RAINFED CULTIVAT» ON of SU BSISTENCE CROPS Manç hous«n> Cash< ew Chare :oai(ti Cows, Goats Goat! Cash m yi Vo o vi *-. o *?Sff ü 3 UI ViO 3" ewnu 10 Sneep as 3 3 V» VI 'o 5T ood ructi U3 O 3 O RA NGING -n v> < 5 3 z co < co 3 0) O O Q < r-t- r-t- r-t- (0

22 4.1.2 Agriculture in thesurveyarea It is not the aim of this, report to deal with agriculture in.any detail. This chapter gives an overview of agriculture in the differring LS, to provide the general setting in which land use, and potential (improvements of-) landutilisation could be seen.. Detailed specialised studies involving farms, farmers, farming systems and farming economy in the survey area carried out by fellow-project participants (Floor et al.,,1980). The results of these studies are not yet published. GENERAL, f -,.: :.;. ; Apart from a few medium to large scale modern farms at the coast, farming in the survey area is a undeveloped (small scale) affair. It is characterized by low capital inputs, hand (family-)labour, small (2-10 acre) farms. Most important tool is the hoe. The emphasis is on (rainfed) cultivation of subsistence crops. Tn some LS, (1,3,A) cashcrops are cultivated as well. Fertilizers or pesticides are generally not used; the same goes for animal traction. Settlement schemes occur in some areas (LS 1,2) at the coast. A list of agricultural activities is presented in Table IV.I. Produce is outlined in Table IV.II. Both tables are tentative, and should be reviewed when the above mentioned agriculture-studies are processed. ANNUAL CROPS Most important, of all is maize (Zea mays) which is planted everywhere in all LS, regardless of possibilities or risks. Maize serves as the basis of the peoples' most important food, a stiff porridge of maize flour (Ugali). Although maize usually is cultivated twice a year, (long- and shortrains) yields (averaging at maximum* around 1,000 kg/ha) are generally not sufficient to match demands for a family thoughout the year. Cassava, Manihot esculenta is much less important than maize. It serves as a food reserve (the roots), and as a vegetable (the leaves). Cassava is very susceptible to virus-diseases. Rice, Oryza sativa ('dry land rice') is cultivated in valley bottoms, mainly in LS A. It is not a very important crop. Pulses are cultivated mostly in combination with maize, cassava or both. Simsim, Sesamum indicum is the most important cash-crop. Main production comes from LS 4. -'-' Maximum yields of around 3,000 kg/ha can be reached in LS3.

23 TABLE IV.II AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE IN THE KILIFI AREA NAME BOTANIC NAME FAMILY SUBSISTENCE/CASH ANNUAL CROPS: Maize Cassava Sesame Cowpeas Beans Pigeon peas Grams Rice Tobacco Napier grass Sweet potatoes Sugar cane Sorghum Bitter Gourd Tropical spinach Tomato Onion Chillies Bixa Cotton Okra PERRENNIAL CROPS Pineapple Sisal Passionfruit Castor TREECOPS Zea mays Manihot esculenta Sesamum indicum Vigna unguiculata Phaseolus vulgaris Cajanus cajan Vigna aureus V. mungo Oryza sativa Nicotiana tabacum Pennisetum purpureum Ipomoea batatas Saccharum officinarum Sorghum spp. Momordica charantia Amaranthus spp. Phaseolus vulgaris Lycopersicon esculentum Allium spp. Capsicum annuum Bixa annatto Gossypium spp. Hibiscus sabdariffa Ananas comosus Agave sisalana Passiflora spp. Ricinus communis Graminae ++ - Euphorbiaceae + + Pedaliaceae ++ Leguminosae + + tt + + tt + + tt + + i + + Graminae + + Solanaceae + + Graminae Animal fodder Convolvulaceae + + Graminae + + Graminae + + Cucurbitaceae + + Amaranthaceae + + Leguminosae + + Solanaceae + + Liliaceae - + Solanaceae + + Bixaceae Malvaceae ++ Bromeliaceae Agavaceae Passifloraceae Euphorbiaceae Coconut Cashewnut Mango Bananas Papaya Citrus Calabash Kapok Cocos nucifera Palmae + Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae + Mangifera indica H + Musa spp. Musaceae + Carica papaya Caricaceae + Citrus spp. Rutaceae + Gescentia cujete? Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae + ++ + + + (Adapted from list 2.4.5; A preliminary reconnaissance soil survey of the Kil if! area (Floor et al., 1980).

24 The cultivation system in the Kilifi area is a complex matter. Subsequent to (a period of years of-) cultivation, land remains fallow for several years, so that, a secondary bush may develop. This remains in use as rangeland (especially for concentrate selectors or 'browsers'). After the fallow period, the land is cultivated again. This bush-fallow system should not be confused with shifting cultivation; there is a complex, but defined land-tenure. Each family has its own land; the land is generally cultivated by the same family each time. The cultivation- and subsequent fallow periods vary from 1-7 years. Since there is no agricultural tradition among the coastral tribes (the Mijikenda), it is possible that these are not based upon a certain knowledge or experience of the farmer, but depend on direct demands or motivation of the moment. Cultivation is raindependant in two ways: o crops are rainfed o cultivation activities (clearing, tillage, sowing) usually starts before the first rains. Although most farmers try to prepare their fields before the first rainfall, this is not always met, because of the unreliability of the rains. It has been observed many times, that clearing of land is started with sudden rainperiods. Often, cultivation is repeated several times each season (phased planting), which is a way to spread the risk of hazardous dry periods within rainy seasons. PERENNIAL CROPS Sisal, Agave sisajana, is produced for the international market in very large estates in LS 1 and 2. Large parts of these sisal estates are left fallow, or cultivated with annual or tree crops. Pineapple, Ananas comosus, is produced on a small scale for the local market in the northern parts of LS 2, 5, 6. Ususally, cultivation of pineapple follows directly after clearing through burning of the bush. TREE CROPS Tree crops are very important in the survey area. They cover roughly a quarter of the total area, dominating in LS 1, 2, 4. Their significance resulted in their classification in two plant communities, Gl and G2. Most important is the coconut,'cocos nucifera, followed by cashewnut, Anacardium occidentale and mango, Mangifera indica. Usually, the tree crops occur in mixed plantations.

25 Coconut is used intensively: the fruits are consumed fresh or dried (local scale) copra is produced from the dried fruit-shells (national scale) a local liquor, Todi, is tapped from the trees (local scale) An important pest to coconut trees is the Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros). Trees die after the (single-)meristera is consumed by the adult insects. This resulted in the disappearance of nearly all coconuts form a large plantation in LS 2. Anacardium occidentale, the cashewnut, also is an important tree crop. The nuts are gathered (sometimes in a very careless way) and sold on the local market, or to the Kenya Cashewnut LTD at Kilifi. Major problem with cashewnut trees is the rapidly decreasing yield with age. This problem can be solved by pruning, (pers. com. van Eynatten). This is not practised often yet. Mango, Magnifera indica, although planted nearly everywhere, is not a very important crop. The fruits are gathered haphazardly, sometimes sold on the local market. There is no production for the international market at this moment in the Kilifi area. Kapok, Ceiba pentandra, occur single, or in small plantation, especially in LS 1. These are usually old trees, stemming from the first colonisation (by the Arabs) of the Kenyan coast. Since there is no demand for kapok on the international market, the trees are not exploitated anymore. (The fruits of Bombax rhodognapha1 on, a tree occurring in LS 3, 4 can be used in a similar way as those of Ceiba pentandra. They seem still to be used on a small scale by the Wagiriama (one of the Mijikenda tribes).) Citrus spp. are interplanted mostly in LS 4 and 1, among other tree crops; common is C. sinensis. The fruits are for private consumption and for the local market. Musa spp., bananas, are planted in nearly all LS wherever possible (moist soil conditions). They are for private use and for the local market. In the drier parts of the area, drought-resistant varities are used. In some cases, tree crop plantations are combined with annual crops, such as maize, cassava and pulses. Mostly, however, the understore is left fallow and/or in use for grazing. SETTLEMENT SCHEMES Several settlement schemes were organised in the area. These are: Mtwapa, Vipingo, Teso Roka (LSI) and Ngenzenya (LS2) settlements. They are dealt within other Project Reports.

26 LIVESTOCK BREEDING AND DAIRYING Ranging is an important (side-)activity in all landscapes, except LS 7. LS 1 has some large dairy farms, with modern management. Furthermore, there is ranging by goats and sheep on fallow land. LS 2 has the usual goats browsing on the fallow land, but also cows grazing underneath cashewnuts, a special form of landuse. (unit 2.2b in the north). LS 3 in the southern part (on the Hyphaene grasslands) medium size dairy farms. Their major problem are squatters, who also range their livestock (cows in the south, mainly goats in the north) in the surrounding areas. LS 4 has also the goats ranging on fallow land, and few (non-grazing-)cows. LS 5 holds goats and cows ranging on the various vegetation formations. LS 6 goats and sheep, some cows, ranging on large areas, divided into (groupand Cie-)ranges. Overgrazing is a major problem in LS 3 and 6, resulting in surface sealing and land degradation (vegetation and soil). This is also true, to a lesser extent, for LS 5. The Kenyan government has a policy towards higher milk production. The Settlement schemes and a (Dutch) Dairy Programme make efforts to boost milk production in the area, emphasizing the introduction of zero-grazing in small farms. 4.2 Classification of vegetation and landuse 4.2.1 Sociological groups and giant communities About 220 field samples (vegetation relevées) were taken and processed according to the method described in Chapter III.3 and 4. This resulted in the formation of 37 sociological groups (Table IV.Ill) and 16 plant communities (Table IV.IV). These were extracted from a vegetation table, presented in App. II. This table was compressed into a bar diagram (fig.6), and into a synoptic table (App.III). Most of the sociological groups consist of at least 3 or more plant species, except the Lantana camara - Securinega virosa group, consisting of only these two species, and the Hyphaene coriacea group, a singleton. The floristic type communities are described in detail subsequently.

27 TABLE IV.Ill LIST OF SOCIOLOGICAL GROUPS I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX x XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII XXXIII XXXIV XXXV XXXVI xxxvii Brachystegia spiciiformis Lannea stuhlmannii Adenium obesum Agathisanthemum bojeri Euphorbia tirucalli Rhoicissus revoilii Alpe sp. Cienkowskya sp. Hoslundia opposita Lantana camara Acacia nilotica Polysphaeria parvifolia 'Mufodzohi' Maytenus senegalensis Acacia mellifera Hyphaene coriacea Acacia stuhlmannii Albizia gummifera Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Anhona chrysophylla Strychnos mitis Croton pseudopulchellus Deinbollia borbonica Acacia polyacantha Cocos nucifera Cassia longiracemosa Psychotria amboniensis Tinnea aethiopica Veronia wakefieldii Capparis cartilaginea Sonneratia alba Panicum repens Eragrostis superba Echinochloa haploclada Eragrostis sp. Cenchrüs setigerus

28 TABLE IV.IV LIST OF PLANT COMMUNITIES Al. Brachystegia spiciiformis A2. Brachystegia spiciiformis Rhoicissus revoilii Grewia cf. forbesii B. Dichrostachys cinerea Panicum repens C. Grewia microcarpa Perotis hildebrandtii Dl. Acacia nilotica D2. Acacia nilotica Salvadora persica Hoslundia opposita Acacia stuhlmannii Acalypha fructicosa Fl. Lannea stuhlmannii F2. Lannea stuhlmannii UPS 11 Panicum maximum Gl. Cocos nucifera G2. Cocos nucifera Deinbollia borbonica Sida cuneifolius HI. Polysphaeria parvifolia H2. Polysphaeria parvifolia Triumfetta rhomboidea UPS 11 I. Croton pseudopulchellus 'Mukambi' J. Capparis cartilaginea Cynanchum tetrapterum K. Sonneratia alba Rhizophora mucronata

29 STRATA 32-64 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. CO V. 20 40 60 80 100% fig. 16-32 8-16 nw^b^m Oß s 4-8 m H OO 8 2_- 4 ra_ 07^ 1-2 m Hi 03 e 50cm-t m Wf ' OU 6 25-50 03 1 s 12.5-25 07 s 3-12.5II 00 s 0-3 cm - 0 ot-os STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real'+ ext. cov STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig- 32-64 16-32 8-16 m 4-8 m mamm i P? T oo* 2-4 m 00 s 1-2ml 00* "5ücm- lm 1 QQ* 25-50 1 00 s 12.5-25 - 3-12.5 1 Otf 0-3 cm - 0 I I on-co Fig. A 1 and 2: two characteristic structure diagrams of Brachystegia woodlands: with dense understory (K131, right fig.) and with open understorey (R177, left fig.) Black bars: real vegetation cover; open bars: external vegetation cover. TABLE A.I A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES OCCURRING IN THE BRACHYSTEGIA WOODLANDS NAME TREES: Brachystegia spiciiformis Afzelia cuanzensis Manilkara zanzibarica Mutiri (Gir.) FAMILY Caesalpiniaceae M Sapotaceae? SHRUBS & LIANAS: SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS : Uvaria acuminata Euphorbia grandicornis Suregada zanzibariensis Cissus rotundifolius Enneastemon fornicatus Heeria mucronata Aspargus racemosa Ochna sp. Memecylon sp. UPS I Muria (Gir.) Achyrothalamus marginatus Zanioculcas zaniifolius Gonatopus boivinii Adenium obesum Commelina cf. africana Agathisanthemum bojeri Annonaceae Euphorbiaceae ti Vitaceae Annonceae Anacardiaceae Liliaceae Ochnaceae Melastomataceae Compositiae Araceae it Apocynanceae Commelinaceae Rub.iaceae f-kkns : Phymatodes scolopendrium Polypodiaceae

30 Al A2 Brachystegia spiciiformis - Rhoicissus revoilii woodland Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grenia cf. forbesii woodland DESCRIPTION: The Brachystegia spiciiformis woodlands (or Brachystegia woodlands) are open woodlands, evergreen (in contrast to their Tanzanian relative, the Miombo-forest, which is deciduous (Lind et al., 1974)), with tree heights of about 8-12 m; trees stand up to 10 m apart. Two types are recognized, differing in structure (fig.l and 2) and in floristic composition: Al- Brachystegia spiciiformis - Rhoicissus revoilii woodland with a dense understorey; A2- Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii woodland with a less well developed understorey. It is possible that the difference between Al and A2 is human induced; e.g. by more intensive ranging or charcoal production. Table A.I shows a list of species occurring in the Brachystegia woodlands. It should be noted, that over 300 species are recorded in the Brachystegia woodlands during the survey (which is more than half of the total number of species recorded during the survey). Therefore, this list should be seen as an illustration, rather than a description. OCCURRENCE: The Brachystegia woodlands (communities Al and A2) occur mainly in the drier parts of the area. They are found in landscape 5, where they form units 5.1 and 5.2 (not respectively) and in landscape 6 (unit 6.3). Remnants of it are found in landscape 2 (unit 2.2b). More to the north in this landscape (outside the survey area) the Arabuko Sokokp forest occurs, large parts of which consist of Brachystegia woodland. Isolated spots are found in the drier parts of LS 4. SOILS: Brachystegia woodlands occur on sandy soils (or soils with a sandy topsoil) with generally low content of weatherable minerals, such as soils developed ón Duruma sandstone or Magarini deposits.

31 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov. STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig. 32-64 16-32 8-16 OC» 4-8 in mm i OS* 2-4 m 03» 1-2 m o/ s o' s 30cm- 1 m 25-50 1] 00 s 12.5-25[" 3-12.5k 0( s 0-3 cmb O I s r. i 03 Fig. B.l: a characteristic structure diagram of the Dichrostachys bushland. (R 171) TABLE B.I: A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES IN THE DICHROSTACHYS BUSHLAND SHRUBS & LIANAS: SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS: NAME Dichrostachys cinerea Cissus rotundifolius Premna chrysoclada Hoslundia opposita Grewia bicolor Gonatopus boivinii Ochna sp. Memecylon sp. Munyanga kitswa (Gir.) Muria (Gir.) UPS 2 Agathisanthemum bojeri Hibiscus aponeurus s.l. Aerva lanata Commelina africana Phyllanthus sp. FAMILY Mimosaceae Vitaceae Verbenaceae Labiatae Tiliaceae Araceae Ochnaceae Melastomataceae 1 f? Rubiaceae Malvaceae Amaranthaceae Commelinaceae Euphorbiaceae GRASSES & CYPERS: Panicum repens P. maximum Cyperaceae sp. 1 Graminae it Cyperaceae

32 IJ. Di ch ros tachyjs cinerea - Pa ni cum repens shrubbed bush land DESCRIPTION: The Dichrostachys cinerea - Panicum repens shrubbed bushland (Dichrostachys bushland) is closely associated with the Brachystegia woodland. It differs from it in structure (shrubbed bush up to 8 m) and in floristic composition. It is likely that it is derived from the Brachystegia woodland, or that it forms an intermediate stage towards it, e.g. after cultivation, or that both possibilities are valid. For this, the following arguments excist: The Dichrostachys bushland shows a high similarity in floristic composition with the Brachystegia woodland; the difference in structure can be explained by more extensive charcoal production, and ranging; the Dichrostachys bushland is found on similar soils as the Brachystegia woodlands, (often in its direct surroundings), be it at the wetter parts (which are likely to be cultivated first); the Dichrostachys bushland occurs mostly in the immediate vicinity of arable land, where intensive ranging can be observed. A list of species is presented in Table B.I, while an example of a structure diagram is shown in fig. Bl. OCCURRENCE: As stated above, the Dichrostachys bushland is found in the environment of the Brachystegia woodlands. In landscape 5, it occurs in units 5.3 and 5.4; it is found in valley bottoms of landscape 6 as well (unit 6.4). SOILS: Contrary to the Brachystegia woodlands, the Dichrostachys bushland occurs not only on sandy soils, but also on clayey soils. On sandy soils, it is associated only with community C, on clayey soils also with Dl. The Dichrostachys bushland seems to be confined to soils with low content in weatherable minerals.

33 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov. STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig Fig. C.l An example of a structure diagram of the Grewia shrubland (Relevée 60) TABLE C.I A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES OF THE GREWIA BUSHLAND NAME FAMILY TREE: Mutiri (Gir.) SHRUBS & LIANAS: Grewia microcarpa Erythrococca sp. Dichrostachys cinerea Manilkara sulcata Ti liaceae Euphorbiaceae Mimosaceae Sapotaceae SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS: Commelina cf. africana Tephrosia sp. Vernonia hildebrantii Hibiscus aponeurus. s.1. Commelinaceae Papillionaceae Compositae Malvaceae GRASSES & CYPERS: Perotis hildebrandtii Panicum maximum SP 2 SP 8 SP 1 Graminae Cyperaceae

34 ' C. Grewia microcarpa - Perotis hildebrandtii shrubland DESCRIPTION:,- --.-,......-_.-. -.-, This small plant community is simple:in:.structure as well;as in floristic composition. It can be seen as a^rest-'gröüp,' where' formations "degenerated from both plant communities B abd Dl iare-classifiedw - #> '. '.. ' '. The formations of the Grewià'^shrubland are;, relat iye'open,'. (see structure diagram in fig. C.l) with shrubs generally not exceeding 4.m ; in height. A list of the most important species is presented in Table C.I. 'V. ; OCCURRENCE:!> "'" ' '! The Grewia shrubland occurs only in landscape 5, where it is confined to the most degenerated parts of units 5.3 and 5.4. SOILS:.:' ': - ' ; The Grewia shrubland is formed on sandy soils, or clayey soils with a sandy topsoil. In all cases, they are poor soils, with low weatherable mineral content.

35 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov 9TKATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig. 32-64 16-32 8-16 4-80, 2-4 1 05> 1-2 ««I Of* 50cm- 1 D Q(f 25-50 1 00 s or 12.5-25 1 3-12-SH 0? 0-3 cmlf oo f 0 T i l 03-01 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% flg. 32-64 16-32 8-16 4-8 m 2-4 m 1-2 m on\ 1 02 s 30cm- lm Of* 25-50 01 s 12.5-25 I 01 s 3-12.5 o/ s 0-0 3 co Oil 1 1 QZ 1 Fig.Dl and 2: two characteristic structure diagrams of the Acacia shrubland: fig. 1 (left, R163) is an example of the Dl community, whil fig. 2 (right, R153) represents D2. TABLE D.I: A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES OF THE ACACIA SHRUBLAND NAME FAMILY OCC. TREES: Salvadora persica Salvadoraceae Dl SHRUBS & LIANAS: Acacia nilotica A. zanzibarica Thespesia danis Lantana camara Premna chrysoclada Securinega virosa UPS 2 Hoslundia oppositia Grewia bicolor Mimosaceae ti Malvaceae Verbenaceae it Euphorbiaceae? Labiatae Tiliaceae Dl Dl Dl HERBS & SHRUBBY HERBS : Commelina cf. africana Tephrosia sp. Achyranthes aspera Pipalia lappaceae Solanum incanum Endostemon tereticaulis Ocimum hadiense Tragiella natalensis Edithcolea grandis Comme!inaceae Papilionaceae Amaranthaceae ii Solanaceae Labiatae II Euphorbiaceae Asclepiadaceae Dl GRASSES & CYPERS: Panicum maximum Eragrostis sp. SP 6 SP 7 Graminae. II Cyperaceae Dl

36 Dl D2 Acacia nilotica - Salvadora persica shrubland Acacia nilotica - Hoslundia opposita shrubland DESCRIPTION: The Acacia nilotica shrublands (Acacia - shrublands) are large communities. They occur in the driest western part of the survey, area. They consist of shrublands, with shrubs generally not. exceeding 3-4 m, ranging from a land with scattered shrubs to vast impenetrable formations. The commonest shrub is Acacia nilotica, followed by Hoslundia opposita. In wetter parts, on sandy soils, Dichrostachys cinerea may dominate, while in the large bottomlands, Acacia zanzibarica is abundant. There is a large seasonal variety in the understorey. In dry seasons, all grasses and herbs are consumed or dessicated, leaving the soil bare, with at the most a few Pipalia lappacea near the trunks of the shrubs. After the rains however, the surface may be covered with a variety of flowering herbs and grasses, such as are listed in Table Dl. Two communities, differing mainly floristically, are recognized. Dl: Acacia nilotica - Salvadora persica shrubland; rich in species, possibly because of less intensive ranging and a wetter position in the field. D2: Acacia nilotica - Hoslundia opposita shrubland lacks a few sociological groups occurring in Dl (e.g. XXXIII and XXXVI), while others are less common (e.g. IX, XXXIV). In Table D.I, species occurring especially in Dl are marked. In fig. Dl and 2, two examples of structure diagrams are presented. OCCURRENCE : The Acacia shrublands dominate landscape 6, in all units. D2 is confined to (the drier parts of) this landscape, while Dl is found in wetter parts (unit 6.4) and in unit 5.4 of landscape 5 as well. In all cases, Acacia shrublands occur in dry areas (annual rainfall not exceeding 700 mm) with irregular heavy rains and flooding. Soils: The Acacia shrublands occur exclusively on heavy soils, mostly of poor structure, developed on the Bay sediments. The properties and problems connected with these soils are dealt with elsewhere (Floor et al., 1980).

37 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. co V. STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig. 32-64 16-32 8-16 m _ 8 4-8 ra ur_.""_~:_: 2 - Ira t 1-2 rai 50cm-"t m 25-50 p. 12.5-25 <^0( o cjo o o 0 OiO 03 Ml " s 3-12.5 ma^mm i 05«0-3 cm - 0 02 STRATA 32-64 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. oov 20 40 60 80 100% fig- 16-32 8-16 ra. 4-8 m 2-4 n Qpi I - 2 m 50cm~" VnT -? 25-50 BT 03^ 12.5-25 m 03 s 3-12.5 ^H 03* 0-3 cm - 0 Oc, Fig. El and 2: two characteristic structure diagrams showing large variation. Left: R205, right: R147. TABLE E.I: A LIST OF COMMON SPECIES TRUE TO THE Acacia stuhlmannii - COMMUNITY NAME FAMILY TREES: Cocos nucifera Parkia filicoidea Palmae Mimosaceae SHRUBS & LIANAS: Acacia stuhlmannii Pluchea dioscorides Thespesia danis Lantana camara Securinega virosa Mimosaceae Compositae Malvaceae Verbenaceae Euphorbiaceae SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS: Acalypha fructicosa Deinbollia borbonica Sida cuneifolius Commelina cf. africana Vernonia hildebrandtii Euphorbiaceae Sapindaceae Malvaceae Commelinaceae Compositae GRASSES: Echinochloa haploclada Leptochloa pamica Imperata cilindrica Graminae

38 E. Acacia stuhlmannii - Acalypha fructicosa bush- and shrubland DESCRIPTION: The Acacia stuhlmannii - Acalypha fructicosa bush- and shrubland encompasses all kinds of- formations in wet positions, e.g. in river valleys. There is a strong variation both in structure (depending mainly on human influence) and in floristic composition. The species listed in Table E.I however, are true to the community. In most casés, the community consists of low.dense shrubland formations, with Acacia stuhlmannii and Pluchea djoscorides,. and some single trees, such as Parkia filicoidea or Cocos nucifera. Common grasses are Echinochloa haploclada and Imperata cilindrica, and in many cases a variety of Sorghum spp. are encountered. Two diagrams, showing the possible variation in structure, are presented in figs. El and 2.,. OCCURRENCE : The Acacia stuhlmannii - Acalypha fructicosa bush- and shrubland community is found in river-valleys and other wet positions of all. landscapes, except LS 5 (which is too dry) and-7 (which presents of course a very, special case). SOILS:..'. The community occurs on all kinds of soils, providing that they stay wet for a considerable period of the year, or have a shallow groundwaterlevel. Since Acacia stuhlmannii^ is a salt resistent species, even salinity should not pose a problem.

39 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov. STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig. real + ext. cov STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig 32-64 32-64 16-32 16-32 8-16 8-10 _ S - 4-8 m _è 4-8 m ~- 2-4 in^^^h 0U % 2-4 mil 00 s ^^^H 04 8 1-2 ml ion 8 50cm- 1 ml o/* 50cm- lm f>/ 8 25-50 - 25-50 w* 12.5-25 - 12.5-25 o/ s 3-12.5 3-12.! r- HMHH 1 o«8 0-3 cmb oa s 0-3 cm - r.. 1 1.... 03-OJ" 0 - Figs. Fl and 2: representative structure diagrams of Lannea communities : fig. (R119, left, bush) Fl; fig. 2 (R112, right, grasslands) F2. TABLE F.I: A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES OF THE LANNEA COMMUNITY NAME FAMILY OCC TREES: Lannea stuhlmannii Terminalia spinosa Adansonia digitata Hyphaene coriacea Anacardiaceae Combretaceae Bombacaceae Palmae N S SHRUBS AND LIANAS: Maytenus senegalensis Acacia mellifera A. stuhlmannii Ormocarpum kirkii Albizia anthelmintica Lantana camara L. viburnoides Vernonia hildebrandtii Hoslundia opposita Thespesia danis Securinega virosa Asparagus sp. Bridelia cathartica ssp. melanthesoides Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Annona chrysophylla Kleinia kleinioides Munyanga kitswa (Gir.) Celastraceae Mimosaceae Verbenaceae Compositae Labiatae Malvaceae Euphorbiaceae Liliaceae Euphorbiaceae Rubiaceae Annonaceae Compositae F2 N SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS: GRASSES: Guizotia scabra Vigna triloba Cissampelos sp. UPS 11 UPS 42 Hyparrhenia rufa Panicum maximum Compositae Papilionaceae Menispermaceae. 9 Graminae

40 Fl. Lannea stuhlmannii - UPS 11 bush- and shrubland Lannea stuhlmannii - Panicum maximum bush- and shrubland DESCRIPTION: These important plant communities are characterized by a large diversity in structure, ranging from bush to shrubland to isolated bushes in grassland formations ('bushmounds 1 ). (The term 'bushmounds' refers to isolated, often impenetrable spots of bush, of complex structure and floristic composition, which form on slightly elevated parts of grassland formations. These elevations might be (sub-)recent termite mounds). The floristic composition of the Lannea-communities changes gradually from N to S, with the increase of rainfall in this direction. An example is the appearance of Hyphaene coriacea in the southern grasslands, and of Terminalia spinosa in the middle and northern formations belonging to the community. Unfortunately, it has been impossible to reflect the N-S gradation in the floristic classification (Fl and F2) of the communities. The subdivision is based upon possibly human induced differences, both in structure and floristic composition. Fl -Lannea stuhlmannii - UPS 11 bush- and shrubland; generally consists of formations with dense structure, induced by a slight pressure of burning and grazing. F2 -Lannea stuhlmannii - Panicum maximum bush- shrub- and grassland appears in the more open formations, with a heavy pressure of burning and subsequent grazing. Table F.I lists the most important species occuring in the Lannea-community, while figs. Fl and 2 represent characteristic structure diagrams of Fl and F2 respectively. OCCURRENCE : The Lannea-communities dominate LS 3, but include some of the Hyphaene coriacea grassland formation of LS 1 (unit 1.3) as well. NB: Jan Kuypers report on the human influence on vegetation (Preliminary Report nr. 4) is dealing with (the northern part of) LS 3. Consequently, all plant communities described in his work should be seen as possible subdivisions of the Lannea-communities. As explained elsewhere, adoption of these subdivisions proved to be unuseful for this survey, because of difference in scale.

41 SOILS: LS 3, which is dominated by the Laonea-communities, is developed on the Mto Mkuu FM (Jurassic shales). A scala of clayey soils, some with vertic properties, are developed on this geological formation. They belong to the richest soils of the survey area, but have a high erodibility. The soils of the Hyphaene grasslands (unit 1.3) usually are clayey, badly drained, over coral rock.

42 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. oov STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig- 32-64 16-32 1 8-16 oé* 4-8 rn oo B 2-4 nfl o>* 1-2 raf 50cm- 1 m OÓ* 25-50 HHM 03 a 25 on 6 3-12.5KH1 / 8 0-3 en - 0 II oi-o/ STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig- 32-64 16-32 8-16 1 1 03 s 4-8 m - ~2-4 m 1-2 m 50cm- lm 0 2. d 1 25-50 I o I s 12.5-25 Of 5 3-12.5 0-3 cm - 0 1,,,, 1,. 08-01 Figs. Gl and 2: characteristic structure diagrams of tree crop plantations; fig. 1 (left, R207) a Gl formation, with a developed understorey; fig. 2 (right, RA5) a G2 formation, with a very open understorey. TABLE G.I: A LIST OF THE MOST COMMON SPECIES IN THE TREECROP PLANTATIONS NAME FAMILY OCC TREES: Cocos nucifera Anacardium occidentale Mangifera indica Citrus spp. Ceiba pentandra Musa spp. Palmae Anacardiaceae if Rutaceae Bombacaceae Musaceae G2 LSI SHRUBS AND LIANAS: SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS: Gonatopus boivinii Hoslundia opposita Lantana camara Annona chrysophylla Glpriosa simplex Deinbollia borbonica Machembe gakuro Tetracera boiviana Triumfetta rhomboidea Commelina cf. africana Sida cordifolia S. cuneifolius Phyllanthus sp. UPS 42 UPS 43 Ocimum hadiense Agathisanthemum bojeri Araceae Gl Labiatae 1» Verbenaceae tl Annonaceae Liliaceae Gl Sapindaceae tl Liliaceae? 11 Dilleniaceae ff Tiliaceae Commelinaceae Malvaceae ti G2 Euphorbiaceae? Gl? Labiatae G2 IT Rubiaceae GRASSES & CYPERS: Panicum repens P. maximum Cenchrus ciliaris SP 5 Graminae H H Cyperaceae G2

43 Gl. Cocos nucifera - Deinbollia borbonica plantations G2. Cocos nucifera - Sida cuneifolius plantations DESCRIPTION: These communities, who consist of tree.crop (mainly coconut) plantations, are as a matter of course, totally human induced. Although the plantations vary considerably, most of them consist of coconuts - cashewnuts - mango in the proportion of, say 10:2:1, with a variable amount of Citrus spp. (mostly C^ sinensis) and bananas. (Musa spp.) At the coast, in LS 1, old Kapok, Ceiba pentandra, plantations or single kapok trees, among coconutplantations may be encountered. In the northern part of LS 2, cashewnuts dominate the tree crop plantations, resulting in a proportion of coconut 2: cashewnut H> : mango 1_. The variation in the understorey (and thus in the structure) of the formations depends mainly on human activities. Three main types of (use of-) tree crop formations may be recognized: -1: tree crops + annual crops (maize, cassava, pulses...) LS A esp. -2: " + cleared understorey intensive grazing " " " -3: " + neglected " extensive " LS 1,2 esp. The formations with a 'neglected' (and thus denser and richer in species) understorey are classified as: Gl: Cocos nucifera - Deinbollia borbonica plantations; (cf. type 3) while all formations with a cleared or cultivated understorey are combined in: G2: Cocos nucifera - Sida cuneifolius plantations, (cf. types 1, 2). Figs. Gl and 2 present two characteristic structure diagrams of Gl and G2 plantations, while-table G.I outlines their floristic composition. OCCURRENCE : Tree crop plantations cover roughly a quarter of the survey area; so to speak, wherever possible. Their importance, both economic and in extension, justifies their position in a plant community. The Gl formations occur in LS 1 and 2; the G2 formations are confined to LS 4. SOILS: As stated above, tree crops are planted nearly wherever possible. Consequently, they are found on a scala of, preferably not to heavy textured soils (e.g. not in LS 3) with a favourable moisture regime.

44 STRATA 32-64 16-32 8-16 m 4 -,8 ra 2-4 m 1-2 m P 50cm-l m 25-50' 0?? 12.5-25 Ql STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. co V. 20 40 60 80 100% "g. ' Qii o?, é s 3-12.5B, s 0-3 cm - 0. 1. 1 pvos STRATA 32-64 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov 20 40 60 80 100% lig- 16-32 8-16 m 4 -- 8 - ir ' f?'of 2-4» BI Ob 8 l-2'.^büi : O}* 50cm- lm 25-50 - 12.5r25-3 - 12.5-0 - 3 cm 0 -og Figs. Hl and 2: two structure diagrams reflecting developing stages of Polysphaeria bush. Left (fig.hl, R156) represents a Lantana stage; right (fig.h2, R184) a dense, more advanced stage. TABLE H.I: A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES OF THE P0LYSPHAERIA COMMUNITY NAME FAMILY OCC TREES: Azadirachta indica Hyphaene coriaceà Meliaceae Palmae H2 H2 SHRUBS & LIANAS: Lantana camara Securinega virosa Markhamia zanzibarica Polysphaeria parvifolia Annona chrysophylla Harrysonia abyssinica Dalbergia vaccinifolia Albizia gummifera Dichrostachys cinera Commiphora africana Hoslundia opposita Grewia bicolor Bridelia cathartica ssp. melanthesoides Fagara chalybea Ehretia bakeri E..petiolaris Premna chrysoclada Memecylon sp. Phyllanthus sp. 2 Munyanga kitswa (Gir.) Verbenaceae Euphorbiaceae Bignoniaceae Rubiaceae Annonaceae Simaroubaceae Papiliohaceae Mimosaceae 11 Burseraceae Labiatae Tiliaceae Euphorbiaceae Rutaceae Boraginaceae 11 Verbenaceae Melastomataceae Euphorbiaceae HI SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS: Commelina cf. africana Tephrosia sp. Guizotia.scabra. Triumfetta rhomboidea Cissampelos sp. Commelinaceae Papilionaceae Compositae Tiliaceae Menispermaceae GRASSES & CYPERS: Paniciun repens P. maximum Graminae

45 Hl. Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea and H2. Polysphaeria parvifolia - UPS 11 bush- and shrubland DESCRIPTION: The Polysphaeria-communities consist of secondary bush and shrubland formations, which develop during (often extended) fallow periods after cultivation. Immediately after cultivation, a low'but dense Lantana camara bush appears, (fig. HI.) The dominant position of Lantana camara is, after a couple of years, taken over by species such as Polysphaeria parvifolia, Markhamia zanzibarica, and others. (See table H.I) A dense, impenetrable bush may then be formed, up to 5-6 m (fig. H2). What happens subsequently is not known, for more advanced stages have not been observed. In my opinion, without further disturbance, gradually a thin-stemmed forest such as the Arabuko Sokoke forest and the Jadini forest may be formed at the coast, while a formation resembling the 'Kaya-forests ' may develop in LS 4 Two Polysphaeria communities are recognized: -HI: Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea bush- and shrubland; -H2: Polysphaeria parvifolia - UPS 11 bush and shrubland. OCCURRENCE : The Hl-formations are confined to LS 2 and 4, while H2-formations dominate the secondary bushes of LS 1, but are found (associated with Agave sisalana-plantations) in LS 2 as well. SOILS: Most of the Polysphaeria-formations occur on red, deeply-weathered soils, such as Ultisols and Oxisols. An exception should be made for (the coastal strip of-) LS 1, where they occur on shallow soils (Lithosols) over coral rock.

46 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM real + ext. cov STRATA 20 40 60 80 100% fig. 32-64 16-32 8-16 IB I &Î 4-8 o 0i\ 2-4 m pj8 1-2 m «03* 50cm- 1 «1 L_ 25-50 1 12.5-25 1 0 0 s oo* 3-12.öl oo s 0-3 en. 0..II.. al/cs STRATA 32-64 16-32 - 8-16 4-8 m S TRUCTURE DIAGRAM 20 40 60 80 100% ne. 1 real + ext. cov P3» 1 - o?a I! 1 OJ J 8 PV 8 2-4 m 1-2 m 50cm- lm Off 25-50 1 o(f L2.5-25 1 3-12.5 ^ i i r?,? 9 or? 0-3 cm - 0-3 Fig.I.l and 2: structure diagrams representing a coastal forest (fig.l, R 220, left) and a Kaya-type forest (fig.2, R 206, right). TABLE I.I: A LIST OF SOME COMMON SPECIES IN ORIGINAL FORESTS IN THE SURVEY AREA TREES : SHRUBS & LIANAS: SHRUBBY HERBS & HERBS: NAME Sterculia appendiculata Chlorophora excelsa Cynometra suaheliensis Manilkara sulcata Bombax rhodognaphalon Trichillia roka Croton pseudopulchellus Euphorbia candelabrum Acalypha fructicosa Uvaria acuminata Fernandoa magnifica Combretum butyrosum Deinbollia borbonica Epinetrum delagoensis Grewia forbesii Muria (Gir.) Anchomanus dubium Mukambi (Gir.) FAMILY Sterculiaceae Moraceae Caesalpiniaceae Sapotaceae Bombacaceae Meliaceae Euphorbiaceae Annonaceae Bignoniaceae Combretaceae Sapindaceae Menispermaceae Tiliaceae t Araceae? GRASSES & CYPERS: Panicum maximum Graminae COMMON EXOTICS & INTRUDERS : Lantana camara Azadirachta indica Adansonia digitata Verbenaceae Meliaceae Bombacaceae

47 I... Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi' forests. DESCRIPTION: This community encompasses all (seemingly) original forests of the survey area. Although a number of species are common (and nearly exclusive) to these forests, there is a great variation in their (rich) floristic composition. These forests are already well defined and described through their structure,' so that only a few relevées were done to describe them. Their floristic composition differs completely from the surrounding formations. Moreover, it proved to be difficult to identify the composing plant species, also because a number of them are not(-well) described yet. Structurally, two main types may be recognized: 1. a thin-stemmed coastal forest, with trees up to 15-20 m; such as the Arabuko Sokoke forest north of the survey area, and the Jadini forest south of the area; 2. a well developed forest, with huge trees up to 50 m with several recognisable strata. (Tropical monsoon forest). Examples are the sacred 'Kaya' forests of LS 4. Fig. 1.1 presents a structure diagram of a coastal forest; fig. 1.2 shows the structure of a Kaya-type forest. Table I.I lists some species common in the original forests. OCCURRENCE : (Remnants of-) original forests are scarce in the survey area. Most of them are found on hilltops alongside a ridge in the interior uplands, in LS 4 (unit 4.1). These are the so-called 'Kaya'-forests. LS 2 holds two kinds of original forest (together in unit 2.1): an extension of the Arabuko Sokoke forest, in the northern part of this LS; a sacred forest of the Kaya-type, near Gongoni in the central part of this LS. In LS 1, a few remnants of original forests are left (unit 1.1) viz. north of Mtwapa Creek Jumba ruins national monument Kurwitu All these are very small spots, with exotic species such as Lantana camara and Azadirachta indica as intruders. SOILS: The (remnants of-) original forests are found on a scala of soils, (Oxisols and Ultisols) when they are sacred (LS 4,2). Other remnants occur on soils of marginal quality for agriculture, e.g. the shallowest lithosols over coral rock. NB: Mr. Lesly Lap is working on botanical inventarisation of the original forests of the survey area. His report is not yet available (11/81).

48 TABLE J.I: A LIST OF SPECIES OCCURRING IN Capparis cartilaginea SHRUB NAME Capparis cartilaginea Cynanchura tetrapterum Cissus rotundifolius Euphorbia candelabrum Cordia subcordata Rawsonia sp. Aerva lanata Commelina cf. africana Plectanthus flaccidus Pentodon pentandrus Atriplex farinosa Ipomoea pes-capre FAMILY Capparidaceae Asclepiadaceae Vitaceae Euphorbiaceae Boraginaceae Flacourtiaceae Amaranthaceae Commelinaceae Labiatae Rubiaceae Chenopodiaceae Convolvulaceae TABLE K.I: A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT MANGROVE TREES: NAME Sonneratia alba Brugiuera gymnorrhiza Rhizophora mucronata Ceriops tagal Avicennia marina Xylocarpus benadirensis FAMILY Sonneratiaceae Rhizophoraceae Verbenaceae Meliaceae FIO..i.i itwo shore types at the Kenya Coast c.««al <«o «/» j.l, ishore type with coral rook aoarp, with a oooonut plantation directly landinwards (ühuru Farm.Kilifi) jjlbiahore type with (oalcareoue) sand dunes,preaeded by a tone of Atriple» farlnoea (A.7.) Bofa beach,kilifi.

49 J. Capparis cartilaginea - Cynanchum tetrapterum shrub-community This community consists of dense low shrub-formations near the beach or on coral rock adjacent to the beach. At the Kenya coast, two main shore types may be recognized: with a coral rock scarp with dunes. These situations are presented in fig. J.l. The communities there develop under influence of a strong salt spray. This is reflected in their floristic composition, which differs entirely from the inland communities. Table J.I lists a few species occurring in Capparis cartilaginea shrub. K. Sonneratia alba - Rhizophora mucronata mangrove swamps Mangrove swamps form in tidal parts of all creeks of the survey area (and elsewhere at the Kenya coast). The formations may consist of low (2-5 m) trees, or, more landinwards, of higher trees up to 10-15 m. In most cases the swamps are difficult to enter because of the immature soils and the intertwinning stilt-roots of the (common) Rhizophora mucronata trees. Table K.I lists the common species of the mangrove swamps; fig. K.l presents an often observed zonation of these species in the swamps. Vlü. K.l izümatxon IN MANCKOVE SWAMP AT MWAPA CRE1* 3-Sonneratia alba R-Rhlzophora mucronata C-Cerlop«tagal B-Bnuciuera gmnorrhlaa X-Xylooarpua benadlrenala A-ATloannia marina

50 4.2.2 The final legend (see map, App. I) An annotated map, and the (distribution of-) the plant communities among the landscapes served as a basis (see App.IV) for the composition of the final legend of the vegetation and landuse map, scale 1:100,000 (App.I A+B). The final legend has the following construction: 1. first level: the 7 main landscapes 2. second level: structure and floristic composition -original forests -bush and shrubland -plantations 3. third level: amount or intensity of arable land or grazing (c.q. browsing).

51 4.3 Vegetation and landuse, scale 1;100,000; a description of the land Subsequently, a more detailed description of the land, divided into 7 landscapes (LS) will be given. Along with general notes, for each LS, the classification (as in the map-legend), remarks on original forests or other formations, and possible future developments will be presented. 4.3.1 LS 1: Sterculia appendiculata - Ceiba pentandra landscape (plant communities HI, H2, F2, Gl, I) HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT This LS, on the coastal plain, represents a part of the Kenyan coast which has been cultivated for a long time. Arab traders and settlers frequented the coast, resulting in the establishment of market towns, such as Mombasa, Takaungu and Malindi. Ruins of Arab settlements are found in Gede (near Malindi) and Jumba (near Mtwapa). The coastal tribes, the Mijikenda, concentrated in their homesteads, the Kaya's, in LS 4. They organized and maintained trade caravans to and from the Kenyan Upland (and further), all converging at the coastal markets. Meanwhile, the Arab settlers raised kapok and sisal plantations, clearing the coastal forests. Intermixing with the coastal people resulted in a new culture: the Swahili. With the arrival of European colonialists, and their construction of railways, the trading role of the Mijikenda ended. Their main activity shifted to agriculture. This, and the rapidly increasing population, forced them to leave their Kayas and spread out over the area. Migration to LS 1, where agriculture is well possible, (because of relative high rainfall and easy workable soils) predominated. SUBDIVISION As can be seen on the vegetation and landuse map, LS 1 is divided into original forests (unit 1.1): I (Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi' community) shrub- and bushland with increasing amounts of arable or grazing land (1.2); complex with H2 (Polysphaeria parvifolia - UPS 11) community a comparable, but more humid unit (1.3) where Hyphaene coriacea occurs; complex with H2 (Polysphaeria parvifolia - UPS 11) and F2 (Lannea stuhlmannii - Panicum maximum) communities Agave sisalana monoculture plantations (unit 1.4); complex with H2 (Polysphaeria parvifolia - UPS 11) community

52 tree crop plantations (unit 1.5), intermixed with arable or grazing land (1.5a); complex with Gl (Cocos nucifera - Deinbollia borbonica), HI (Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta Rhomboidea) and A2 (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii communities) or pure stands (1.5b); complex of Gl (Cocos nucifera - Deinbollia borbonica) and HI (Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea). Unit 1.2d comprises a large modern dairy farm, which has the outlook of an English park: large single (fruit) trees (mainly Mango) on wide grasslands (sown grass). ORIGINAL FORESTS I: Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi* community) Small remnants of original coastal forest (unit 1.1) are found at Mtwapa: - Jumba ruins (near Ocean sports, along the Mtwapa creek) Kurwitu (near Vipingo). Maybe some of these are partly of secondary origin, because of intruders such as Lantana camara or Azadirachta indica which might occur. Anyhow, these remnants do show high resemblance '(be it mainly structurally) with (better described) original coastal forests, such as the Arabuko Sokoke forest and the remnants at Gede ruins, north of our area, and the Jadini forest, south of our area. LANDSCAPE DYNAMICS : FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Since most of the land is in use presently, even with increasing population density, drastic change in the outlook of LS 1 are not expected. As a matter of course, the last remnants of original forest will disappear, except those near Jumba ruins, which are protected. Elsewhere, fallow periods interrupting cultivation will diminish, resulting in lower yields and higher erosion hazards. This will probably pose a serious problem on the very shallow soils near the shore. The activities of two large companies might influence the LS considerably: - the Vipingo Sisal estate (the largest sisal company); because of the weak position of sisal on the international market, emphasis of this company's produce might shift to other crops, such as (irrigated) tree crops (i.e. Mango) - the Bamburi Portland Cement factory (a large company, owning a large area in the southern part of LS 1): the proceeding excavation of the coral rock is likely to be followed by afforestation (pers. comm. with Haller, the farmmanager).

53 Furtheron, it is likely that tourism will increase in the near future, resulting in a greater number of tourist hotels and holiday cottages. Not all beaches however, are attractive for tourists. These beaches are rocky, not sandy; an example is the Kilifi (s.s.) beach. 4.3.2 LS 2: Cynometra suaheliensis - Anacardium occidentale landscape (plantcommunities Gl, Hl, H2, I) HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT This LS, on the coastal uplands, has been cultivated intensively only since early this century. The forests were then cleared, and most of the area was cultivated with tree crops. In this area, relatively many cashewnuts were planted in comparison with coconuts. Hence, the LS could be divided into 3 parts, viz. - a southern part (Tudor Creek to Gongoni) with even distribution of cashew- and coconut trees; - a middle part (north of Gongoni to Kilifi Creek) where cashewnut trees outnumber coconut trees by, say, 10:1; - a northern part (north of Kilifi Creek) which used to be a large plantation with even distribution (in rows) of coconut- and cashewnut trees. Due to the activity of the Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) nearly all coconut trees there died. In this part of the area, cashewnuts are combined with grazing cattle. SUBDIVISION On the vegetation and land use map, the LS 2 has been divided as follows: - original forests (unit 2.1) I: (Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi') community - cashew-coconut plantations (unit 2.2), mixed with arable or grazing land (unit 2.2a); complex with Gl (Cocos nucifera - Deinbollia borbonica), HI (Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea) and A2 (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii) communities or pure stands (2.2b); complex of Gl (Cocos nucifera - Deinbollia borbonica) and HI (Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea) communities - secondary shrub- and bushlands (unit 2.3); complex with HI (Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea) community - sisal monoculture plantations (2.4); complex with HI (Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea) and H2 (Polysphaeria parvifolia - UPS 11) communities.

54 As can be seen on the map, unit 4 (sisal) in both LS 1 and 2 are part of the same, very large, sisal plantation. The floristic composition of the fallow parts of the plantation differs slightly in the two landscapes. ORIGINAL FORESTS (I: Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi' community) Two kinds of original forest occur in LS 2: - a very high, complex structured forest (near Gongoni) covering a cemetary; tropical monsoon forest - a lower, slender stemmed coastal type of forest, part of the Arabuko Sokoke forest. In this relatively simply structured forest, Cynometra suaheliensis is abundant; coastal forest. In our area, only the very margin of the vast Arabuko Sokoke forest occurs. Within this forest, various formations are found. Most of it consists of the coastal type described above. The central part, however, represents an open Brachystegia spiciiformis woodland, resembling the one described as plant community Al, but richer in structure. In wet parts of the forest, open 'vley's' with the large Acacia polyacantha and high cyper formations (Cyperus spp.) might be encountered. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS The original forests are under a strong pressure of the growing population. The Arabuko Sokoke forest, although protected, is in exploitation for timber, firewood, and arable land. Most of the cashew trees in LS 2 are old, low yielding trees. Their spontaneously breaking branches and twigs cover the surface under the neglected plantations. Production of cashewnuts could be boosted by renewing activities such as pruning. This would also yield a considerable amount of firewood. Unfortunately, these activities are rare at this moment. 4.3.3 LS 3: Terminalia spinosa - Maytenus senegâlensis landscape (plant communities Fl, F2, E, I) GENERAL This LS, developed on the heavy soils of the dissected uplands, (Mto Mkuu shale Formation) is changing rapidly due to developments of the last decade. Burning at the end of the dry season traditionally is a regular activity especially in this LS, resulting in wide grassland formations. (The term 'savanna'

55 has been avoided because of the widespread misunderstandings about its correct usage). The grasslands are usually dominated by large isolated trees, such as Hyphaene coriacea, Terminalia spinosa, Lannea stuhlmannii, Adansonia digitata, Diospyros cornii. In some cases, they form the central part of isolated bushes. Generally, the LS can be divided into three parts, viz. a southern part, where Hyphaene coriacea grasslands dominate a middle part, where agriculture is intensive a northern part, with bush and shrub formations alternating with grasslands. Agriculture used to be very restricted in this LS. The soils are not fit for tree crops, (except the sandy hilltops; these are then classified in LS 2, 4 or 5) and very heavy to till with the hoe. Population density is (still) low, especially in the (driest) northern part. SUBDIVISION On a scale of 1:100,000, vegetation and landuse of LS 3 has been generalized as follows: forest (unit 3.1): I (Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi') community grassland (wooded, bushed, or shrubbed) unit 3.2) divided; complexes with: Fl (Lannea stuhlmannii - UPS 11), F2 (Lannea stuhlmannii - Panicum maximum) and E (Acacia stuhlmannii - Acalypha fructicosa) communities. Divided into: Diospyros cornii - Lannea stuhlmannii grasslands (north, 3.2a) Terminalia spinosa - Lannea stuhlmannii grasslands (central, 3.2b) Hyphaene coriacea - Lannea stuhlmannii grasslands (south, 3.2c) shrub- and bushland, with increasing amounts or intensity of arable land c.q. ranging (units 3.3); complexes with: Fl (Lannea stuhlmannii - UPS 11), F2 (Lannea stuhlmanni - Panicum maximum and (unit 3.3d, in valley bottoms): E (Acacia stuhlmanni - Acalypha fructicosa) communities river valleys, with complex patterns of bush, shrub and grasslands, or arable land. Locally, beautiful Acacia polyacantha forests occur, e.g. near Sokoke. (unit 3.A; complexes with: Fl (Lannea stuhlmannii - UPS 11) and E (Acacia stuhlmannii - Acalypha fructicosa).

56 FORESTS AND NATURAL CLIMAXES It must be emphasized that wildlife, practically absent these days,' probably was abundant in the past in this area. Therefore, the grasslands, alternated with shrub and bushlands, and the absence of vast forests, are probably rather close to the natural ecological climax of this LS. Forests would heave been confined to places difficult to attain, for grazing animals as well as for fires, as they are now, e.g. on very steep hillslopes. Natural fires would have maintained the grasslands just as well as human ignited fires. Actually, two kinds of forests may be recognized in the LS: a well developed, high, large stemmed forest (on the slopes of a Kaya* near Jaribuni) forests in river valleys, consisting of pure stand of Acacia polyacantha. The forests are mere remnants, small isolated spots of a few acre with a uncertain future. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Agriculture has been boosted in the middle part of LS 3 by the introduction of tractor ploughing (mainly for the cultivation of maize). This started in the seventies. Hence, the percentage of yearly cultivated arable land increased rapid ly, which is still going on. It is likely that this development will see its way to the northern and southern parts of the LS. All this will result in an extension of units 3.2b and 3.3d on the vegetation and landuse map. At this stage, it should be remembered that 1968 air photographs served as the basis for this map. Updating of the delineation of the units proved to be impossible. Therefore, especially in this area the map does not present an accurate picture of the actual situation. HUMAN INFLUENCES ON THE VEGETATION Mr Jan Kuypers report (Preliminary Report, nr. 4) on the human influence on the vegetation deals with the northern part of LS 3. Since he worked on a much more detailed basis, his classification of the vegetation there does not completely match with the one presented in this report. The former homesteads of the Mijikenda are mostly found on elevated positions. They are often surrounded by dense forests. The complex of forest and homestead is here referred to as "Kaya".

57 4.3.4 LS 4: Cocos nucifera - Chlorophora excelsa landscape (plant communities G2, Hl, E, D2, A2, I) GENERAL This LS, dominated by the abundance of coconut trees, developed on the southern half of the interior uplands. It is the area where traditionally the homesteads of the coastal tribes, the Mijikenda, were concentrated (the so called Kayas). It is a densely populated area, with intensive agriculture, probably because of the relatively high rainfall and the easily workable soils. Production of cashcrops, organised farming in cooperations and cultivation of coconuts (often combined with annual crops) are characteristic of this LS. SUBDIVISION This LS has been divided into: forests (on the slopes of the Kayas; tropical monsoon forest) unit 4.1; I (Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi') community river valley complexes, characterized by the cultivation of (dry land) rice, Oryza sativa (unit 4.2); with E (Acacia stuhlmannii - Acalypha fructicosa) community coconut plantations (mixed with cashewnut, mango, citrus and banana) (unit 4.3) - pure stands (4.3a); with G2 (Cocos nucifera - Sida cuneifolius) community - plantations (on hilltops and in valleybottoms) alternated with grassland or arable land (on the slopes) (4.3b); complex with HI (Polysphaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea, and locally: A2 (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii) and D2 (Acacia nilotica - Hoslundia opposita communities. This is a very large unit, opening gradually and going over gradually into units of LS 5 and 6. bushland, mixed with arable and grazing land (unit 4.4); complex with HI (Polyspaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea). woodland, alternated with arable land (unit 4.5); complex with HI (Polyspaeria parvifolia - Triumfetta rhomboidea) and I (Croton pseudopulchellus - 'Mukambi') communities. This woodland borders the Brachystegia woodland (of LS 5) but differs from it both in structure and floristic composition.

58

59 ris. 7a»»AIL or ma VBDBTITIO» ASS unosemir.saowik tot 4 ums or LS 5. 5.1sBraahjrat«gia woodland with 5.3.*aj\ilkara buahlaad (B,C,A2,ai»bla laad) dans«undsrgrovth (Al,2/3 A2,l/3) 5.4>H*nilkar* buahlaad (B,C,Dl,ar*bla land) 5>2iBraehyatagia woodland with open undaratory.

60 FORESTS : THE KAYA FORESTS Relatively large areas of tropical monsoon forests, surrounding the former homesteads or 'Kayas' (of the Mijikenda) are exclusive to LS 4. These remnants are protected by tribal laws. It is most likely that the entire area used to be covered by such forests. Most of it was cleared, to give way for the coconut plantations, leaving only some single Chlorophora excelsa trees. The floristic composition of these forests has not been described properly yet (L. Lap, in preparation). It is clear, however, that they differ completely in all aspects from the neighbouring formations. Forests and other undisturbed formations do occur on rock outcrops as well. These have a special status and are protected by tribal laws, as the Kaya forests. The tribal organisation and the culture of the Mijikenda is degrading under the influence of the western world. This renders the future of these last forests insecure. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Apart from the forests, the area is entirely cultivated. Therefore, drastic changes are not expected in the near future. 4.3.5 LS 5: Brachystegia spiciiformis - Manilkara zanzibarica landscape (plant communities AI, A2, B, C, Dl) GENERAL This LS developed on the dry, northern part of the interior uplands. It is a sparsely populated area, consisting of woodlands, alternated by various kinds of bushand shrublands. Agriculture is only marginally possible: about 20 % of the land under shrub and bush vegetation is yearly cultivated. The woodlands are exploitated for timber and charcoal production, often in a non-commercial, uncontrolled way. Extensive ranging is common in the area, resulting locally in surface sealing. SUBDIVISION (based on plant communities Al, A2, B, C, Dl) (fig- 7a) LS 5 is divided into four units: Brachystegia woodland with dense understorey, on sandy soils (unit 5.1); complex of Al (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Rhoicissus revoilii) and A2 (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii communities)

61 FIG. 7b DBfBLOPMSOT OF THB VEGETATION OF LS $ AI B.C.Dl a AI a.probabi«situation In tha past (of 200 Jr BP) -.- sandy soils (on durum«sandatone) ^^> clayey soils (on bay aediaents) A1.A2 B.C.Dl B.C A1.A2 A1.A2 5.2 5-4 5-3 5.1 5-3 5.2 b.präsent situation,as shown on the vegetation and landuse aap B,C,(A2) o.possible futureia furhter degradation of the landscape.

62 Brachystegia woodland with open understorey, on sandy soils (unit 5.2); complex of Al (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Rhoicissus revoilii) and A2 (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii communities). Secondary bush and shrubland, on sandy soils (unit 5.3); complex with: A2 (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii), B (Dichrostachys cinerea - Panicum repens) and C (Grewia microcarpa - Perotis hildebrandtii) Bush and shrubland on clayey (bay sediments) soils (unit 5.4); complex with: B (Dichrostachys cinerea - Panicum repens), C (Grewia microcarpa - Perotis hildebrandtii) Dl (Acacia nilotica - Salvadora persica) communities ORIGINAL FORMATIONS It is possible that the Brachystegia woodland represents the vegetation in the natural ecological climax of this LS, at least on the sandy soils. The difference between units 5.1 and 5.2 are probably human induced, e.g. by more intensive ranging or charcoal production. Unit 5.1 occurs mainly on more elevated positions, such as hilltops, while unit 5.2 is usually found on slopes. Unit 5.3 occurs more in wetter locations such as valley bottoms, but on sandy soils. It clearly consists mostly of secondary formations, developed from the Brachystegia woodland, after a period of cultivation or clearing for timber and charcoal. It is not clear whether the vegetation of unit 5.4 represents the natural ecological climax on these soils or not. Wildlife probably used to be abundant in these parts, prospecing on the richer, heavy soils in valley bottoms. Characteristic of this part is the arrangement of the vegetation in 'bushmounds'. These are isolated sites of shrub and bush, often inpenetrable, often with a central tree, mostly on slightly elevated positions such as termite mounds, and surrounded by more open grasslands. Bushmounds are probably induced by strong pressure of burning (bushfire) and grazing. Fig. 7b presents the development of the LS as seen by the author. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Due to clearing for timber, charcoal, arable and grazing land, the Brachystegia woodlands are giving way to secondary bush rapidly. The secondary bush and shrubformations on their part, degrade due to overgrazing. In the southern part of the area, (poor) cashewnut plantations replace the woodlauds.

63 TABLE IV.YiLANDQUALITIES OF THE BBACHYSTEGIA WOODLANDS»++-t-f-t-M-t"H--M-+++-M I llltlttllllll-flmi-l-iiiiimiiiiiimi QUALITIES RELATED TO PLANT GROWTH -availability of watertlow -availability of nutrientsi-in the soilivery LOW -in the standing vegetation«generally LOW -availability of oxygen in the root zone«generally GOOD -foothold for roots,salinity,temperature regime etc... do not pose special problem» for plant 'growth in this area. QUALITIES RELATED TO ANIMAL GROWTH -availability of drinking waterilow -endemic pests and diseases«unknown (probably high pressure of thick fever) -nutritive value of the vegetation«very LOW -resistance to degradetion of the vegetation «LOW -resistance to soil erosion under grazing conditions«rapid SURFACE CRUSTATION -accessibility of the terrainigood QUALITIES RELATED TO NATURAL RPODUCTS -valuable wood species«afzelia cuanzensls (highly regarded for furniture construction) -local products«medicinal plants,ropes(from the bark of Brachystegia BpioiiforBis)eto... -presence of fruits«some edible fruits troughout the year,but none of economic importance. -game«practically absent. QUALITIES RELATED TO MANAGEMENT PRACTICES -possibilities for mechanisationigood -resistance to erosiontvery LOW -freedom for layout of (potential farms)«(probably) NOT LIMITED -trafficability«(from farm to land)«good -vegetation cover«(in terms of favourable and unfavourable effects for cropping) NOT LIMITING

ï 64 If the present pace in the developments described above perseveres, the Brachystegia woodlands will disappear completely within the next decade or so. POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS The Brachystegia woodlands in the Kilifi area differ from the related Miombo forests of Tanzania and Zambia. They are unique to East Africa. It would be worthwhile to preserve at least parts of the woodlands for the future. This is only possible when an acceptable form of (preserving) landuse can be found for these woodlands. The landqualities of the Brachystegia woodlands are presented in Table IV.V. Bearing these in mind, one could think of a combined use such as: rainfed cultivation of subsistence and fodder crops, based on a CHITEMENE system. This is a form of shifting cultivation where small areas are cultivated through clearing and burning, while extra wood from the surrounding parts is added. Fallow periods of something like 10 years would be necessary to support this kind of use. extensive ranging, with cattle, goats, combined with domesticated wildlife (such as elands and oryxes). This livestock could be partly non-grazing, partly migrating through the area, to and from the wetter river valleys. In the river valleys, leguminous drought resistent shrubs, such as Leucena leucocephala and Prosopis spp. could be planted, to support livestock and improve soil fertility (N). Timber exploitation of protected and improved parts of the woodland, with species such as Afzelia cuanzensis mixed with some fast growing trees. 4.3.6 LS 6: Salvadora persica - Acacia nilotica LS (plant communities B, C, Dl, D2, E, A2) GENERAL This landscape lies in the driest, western part of the Kilifi area. It is developed on heavy, silty-clayey soils of very poor structure (on bay-sediments). These soils are alternated locally by soils on sandy hills and elevations. Agriculture is very difficult in this LS, because of the drought and the very heavy soils. In rainy seasons, flooding is regular. Around villages, a pattern of diminishing intensity of cultivation may be recognized. This ranges from permanent cultivation of annual and perennial crops near the houses ('garden-cultivation') to fallow-agriculture with increasing fallow periods. This can clearly be seen around Bamba, a place in the northern part of

65 LS 6. The groundwater in LS 6 is very often brackish, only fit for animal consumption. Small, circular clayey sloughs, 'slick spots' serve as drinking water reservoirs, practically no other surface water being available. The 'slick spots' (probably originally generated by elephants) are filled in the rainy season. After some time, abundant beautiful mauve flowers of the water lily, Nymphaea micrantha, form a strong contrast with the barren surrounding areas. The pools gradually empty by the end of the dry season, leaving dark hexagonal patterned, cracked surfaces. Characteristic of LS 6 are the single standing Salvadora persica ('tooth brush') trees and the abundance of Acacia nilotica. These sometimes form homogenous dense thickets, induced by overgrazing.' Dense succulent bushes, composed of species such as Adenia globosa, Cissus quadrangularis, C. rotundifolius and Opuntia sp. are scattered throughout the northern part of LS 6. These may.form parts of live fences (together with Agava sisalana and thorny Acacia spp. branches) surrounding arable land in order to check livestock. LS 6 extends far beyond the boundaries of the Kilifi area, and goes over into Tsavo National Park. The area is divided into group and company ranches, dividing the land among the members of these ranches. This is a way to prevent overgrazing. This policy is disturbed by the abundance of squatters in the area. SUBDIVISION LS 6 has been divided into: bushed grassland (unit 6.1); complex with: C (Grewia microcarpa - Perotis hildebrandtii), Dl (Acacia nilotica - Salvadora persica) and D2 (Acacia nilotica - Hoslundia opposita) plant communities with less than 1/5 arable land (6.1a; dryer positions) more than 1/5 arable land (6.1b; wetter positions) bush- and shrubland, with increasing amounts of arable land (units 6.2); complex with: Dl (Acacia nilotica - Salvadora persica) and D2 (Acacia nilotica - Hoslundia opposita) communities Brachystegia woodlands and thickets, on sandy hills and elevations (unit 6.3); complex with: A2 (Brachystegia spiciiformis - Grewia cf. forbesii), Dl (Acacia nilotica - Salvadora persica) and D2 (Acacia nilotica - Hoslundia opposita) communities

66

67 E \j Al, A2 B, C Dl, 02 Dl Al, 12, Dl 5.2 $.4 6.2» 6.1a 6.3 6.2«FIS.8 i (fictlva) profila through LS 5-6, showing raxlouscoaaunitlss (A - >), thair ralstion with aap units (5.2-6.5) «nd «ubstratxja. >~»J~ ' (soils dsvalopad on-) Plalstooans Bay sadiaanta ( butiaols) (soils darralopad on-) Danism sands ton» (Aorlsols - Arenosols)

68 River valley complexes (unit 6.4); complex with: B (Dichrostachys cinerea - Panicum repens), Dl (Acacia stuhlmannii - Acalypha fructicosa) communities. Fig. 8 presents a fictive cross section through LS 6, showing the relationship between map units, plant communities and substratum. LANDSCAPE DYNAMICS Besides the Brachystegia woodlands of unit 6.3, no forest-like formations occur in LS 6. An exception should be made for the (remnants of) the Mwachi forest, in the southern part of LS 6. (unit 6.4). This forest (floristic type I) nowadays is dominated by planted Eucalyptus cf. camaldulensis trees. 4.3.7 LS 7: Ipomoea pes-capre - Rhizophora mucronata LS (plant communities J.K.) This LS comprises the shoreline faces of the coast. These are the shores ofthe Indian Ocean (unit 7.1) the Creeks (Kilifi-, Takaungu-, Mtwapa-, Tudor-Creeks) (7.2) INDIAN OCEAN SHORES (J: Capparis cartilaginea - Cynanchum tetrapterum) The vegetation at the shores of the Indian Ocean is characterized by floristic group J. Two types may be recognized, viz: shores delineated by a coral rock scarp (with Capparis cartilaginea shrub formations shores with (minor) dunes. In both cases, a beach with calcareous sand is present. This beach is limited at the seaside by a vast coral rock platform, partly exposed at low tide. (There is a marked difference between low and high tide) This coral rock platform renders most of the Kilifi Coast unattractive for tourism. Near the shore, along with the monsoon winds, a heavy salt spray determines the milieu, skimming the trees and shrubs. In contrast with the coast north of Malindi, dunes are not abundant in the area. Some, placed more landinwards, are covered with a dense vegetation, which makes them not easily recognizable as such. More recent dunes, exposed to wind and salt spray, are only sparsely covered with vegetation. At the seaside of these, the cosmopolite Ipomoea pes-capre occurs as a characteristic, scandent shrub. Locally, the boundary of dunes and beach is marked by a zone of Atriplex farinosa which is a low, salt resistant shrub. Surrounding houses and tourist hotels, in many places formations of Cocos nucifera or Casuarina equisetifolia mark the coastal line.

69 ECOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE KILIFI AREA MAP LEGEND UNIT PLANT PARENT MATERIAL HUMAN RELATIVE SÜOLOGÏ- FACIES INFLUENCE MOISTNESS COMMUNITY CAL PM (30IL-) 1.1 I 1.2a 1.2b 1.2c 1.2d 1.5a 1.3b 1.5c 1.3d H2 n H2 1.4 H2 1.5a 01, H2, A2 l-5b 01, HI K I L I N D I M I F M * MAINLY ROCK LOW MOIST SAND / ROCK RA HD ROCK CLAY SAND/Rl OCK»AND LOW J HIGH LUV I HIGH HIOH DRY MOIST MOIST N.S. MOIST 2.1 I 2.2a Gl, Hl, A2 2.2b 01, HI 2.3 HI 2.4 Hl, H2 MAOA RINI 3 A H P S A a D LOV HIOH LOW HIOH MOIST I.S. 5.1 I 5.2a PI, F2 3.2b 71, P2.S 3.20 5 4 5a 5.5b 5.50 5.5d 3-4 Fl PI, B K E U 7 U M Cl.AY/R. I. C L A Y E Y LOW MODERAT! \ HIOH 1 LoW HIOH N.S. MOIST SKY I MOIST DBY i MOIST HOIST 4.1 I KL - BS 4.2 S KL - BS 4.3a 02 KL-DS-MS 4.4 Hl 4.5 Hl, I XL-MS DS V A R I 0 U s LOW HIOH MOD./HIOH MOD./LOW T.MOIST HOIST RATHER MOIST 5.1 5.2 5-3 c, 5-4 B, Al, A2 Ä 3AND B, (A2) DS Bl, C DS/BS Si LND/CL AY CLAY LOW DRY/ R. MOIST R. HIOH DRY 6.1a 6.1b 6.2a 6.2b 6.2c Dl, B2 C Bl, D2 6.3 12, (Dl, D2) 6.4 Bl, Dl, B S B ;i ' : N T 3ILT CLAY UND M.S. R.LOW ^ R.HIOH LOW HIOH R. LOW I.S. 7.2 K :. SAM D R. LOW DRY U MOIST DUT I MOIST DRY MOIST MOISI! S A L T Ï I D A L TABLE TV.Til BCOLOOICAL TABLK 07 THK KILI7I ARKA, «bovin«relationships Utmn PARENT MATKRIAL, (SOIL PACIES), HUMAN INFLUENCE and RBLATIVB M0ISTKKS3 on the on* hand, and FL0RI3TIC VHDBTATION TYPE and MAP LEOEND UNIT on th«other hand. FM - (Oeologioal-) Formation DS - Duruaa Sande BS - (Pleletooene-) Bay Sedlnent KL - Kaabe Llaestone FM KFM - Klllndlnl fm MS - Hafarini Sand» N.3.- Not Significant C. - Calcareous H.H.- Rotten Rook (-) - and1 (/) «and,or,over R. - Rather 1 MOD. Moderate

70 The off-shore vegetation (subject to tides), is characterized by marine angiosperms (represented by three families: Potamogetonaceae Hydrocharitaceae Zosteraceae) Along with these, Phaeophyta, Rhbdophyta and Chlorophyta represent the seaweeds. The Chlorophyta seem to be in the majority. The off-shore vegetation has not been studied; information is given in (Floor et al., 1980) and by pers. comm. with Mr. J. Reitsma. CREEK SHORES (K. Sonneratia alba - Rhizophora mucronata) The shores of the Creeks are characterized by mangrove swamps (floristic group K). The mangrove swamps serve as a habit and roosting place for birds. These are abundant in these formations. The mangrove swamps are endangered, especially by the exploitation of the mangrove wood (for house construction). Presently, most of the mangrove near inhabited parts has disappeared or is brought down to poor, shrublike formations. With increasing population pressure, it is likely that this development will carry through, which will drastically change the outlook of these East African Creeks. 4.4 Some remarks on interrelationships in landscapes 4.4.1 Introduction The vegetation complex is determined by the following factors: climate soil and geology fauna and flora human activities Some kind of homogenity or constancy in the activity of these factors makes a LS into an entity. As a matter of course, the delineation of a certain LS depends to a degree upon the appreciation of the surveyor. Boundaries between LS may be clear, but are in many cases very gradual. Subsequently, some notes on the relationships between climate, soil and geology, fauna and human activities on the one side, and LS on the other side will be presented. It should be emphasized, that our LS are seen and defined from the standpoint of the vegetation; they are vegetation-landscapes. The main ecological qualities of the vegetation (mapping-)units are outlined in Table IV.VI.

71 4.4.2 Vegetation and climate In our area, the most important climatic factor is rainfall. The amount and distribution of the rain varies greatly thoughout the year, unfortunately in an unpredictable way. Generally, rainfall decreases along a SE-NW line; this tendency is noticeable in the area as a whole, but also within the defined LS. The rainfall determines land use in many ways. If e.g. soil conditions are suitable, coconuts are planted practically everywhere where rainfall is adequate. The transition of LS 4 to 5 is determined completely by a difference in rainfall; nearly the same goes, e.g. for the transition of unit 2 to 3 of LS 1. In the entire Kilifi area, rainfall (nor soil conditions) are really suitable for the growing of maize, which is nevertheless done everywhere. Rainfall then determines the (very big differences in) the yields. 4.4.3 Vegetation and soil Moisture regime, one of the most important factors for plant life, is not only determined by the amount and distribution of the rainfall, but also by the conditions of the soil. This is only one of the many ways in which the soil plays a crucial role in determining the outlook of the vegetation and the land. Subsequently, some examples of the relationship between soil and vegetation (or land use) for each landscape will be presented. LS 1 Near the coast, very shallow soils (Lithosols) occur. The possibilities of these soils are entirely different from the adjacent, comparable, deeper soils. This, however, is not reflected in the present (traditional) landuse yet, nor in the actual vegetation. Therefore, these areas are not separated on the vegetation and land use map. The large sisal estate, extending from LS 1 into LS 2, is planted on two major soil groups; Acrisols (LS 1) and Ferralsols* (LS 2). The transition between the two is gradual. The fallow shrub formations (dominating neglected parts of the plantation) reflect the transition, with the introduction of floristic group HI in LS 2, along with H2. * These appear not to be true Ferralsols, because of textural requirements.

72 LS 2 The Magarini sands of the coastal uplands are locally cleared by incising rivers, baring the underlying Mto Mkuu Shale Formation. The vegetation on the soils of these geological 'windows' is similar to that of LS 3, (developed on Mto Mkuu FM as well) and hence classified as such. LS 3 LS 3 is developed on the Mto Mkuu Shale FM. The heavy clay soils (often with vertic properties) are generally not suitable for tree crops such as coconuts, cashewnuts and mangos. Hence, these are not found in this LS, (except a local tree in a river valley). However, on some hilltops in LS 3, these tree crops do occur abundantly (e.g. Lutsangani). It appears that these hilltops are covered with remnants of overlying geological Formations (such as Magarini sands). The soils developed on these remnants are suitable for the favoured tree crops. In the northern, drier part of LS 3, Brachystegia woodland and derived secondary formations developed in such positions (e.g. Sokoke). These patches are classified in LS 5; the tree crop plantations mentioned above are classified in LS 2 or 4. LS 4 and 5 The transition of LS 4 to LS 5 is determined in the first place by the (decrease of) rainfall. A scala of soils occur in both LS, of which some are common. LS 4 is covered almost entirely by human induced formations (tree crops, arable land) and secondary bush formations. On some drier, sandy parts, small patches of Brachystegia-woodland such as of LS 5 occur. This indicates that probably not the amount of rainfall as such, but landuse responding to it, determines the differences in the outlook of the land. In the interior uplands (on which LS 4 and 5 are both formed) tongues of pleistocene bay deposits locally cover the Duruma sandstone. This is then reflected by the occurrence of floristic group Dl in such parts (which is elsewhere confined to LS 6). The Duruma sandstone FM consists mainly of sandstone, alternated with belts of shale and siltstone. Soils developing on such belts are rather heavy and clayey, in contrast with the surrounding mainly sandy soils. The vegetation on these spots is very similar to that of LS 3. The patches are all to small on a scale of 1:100,000.

73 LS 6 LS 6 is developed on heavy soils of pleistocene bay deposits. These are locally overlayed by sandy patches. On these spots, Brachystegia woodland occurs. These woodlands however, differ from those of LS 5;they are intermixed with Dl and D2. Therefore, these formations are not classified in LS 5, (as has been done in similar cases in LS 3) but as a unit of LS 6 (6.3). 4.4.4 Other factors If the influence of livestock on the land is classified under 'human activities', the influence of the fauna, at least of large mammals can be disregarded. The activity of insects (termites!) and of the micro-fauna (in the soil) plays a very important role, which should be studied much further. On the human influence on the land - land use - much has been said in this report, and this will not be elaborated here any further.

74 5 DISCUSSION An inventory has been made of the vegetation of the Kilifi area at the Kenyan coast. This inventory, both structurally and floristically, was based on (landscape-guided) API. As a result, a vegetation and landuse map (scale 1:100,000) was prepared, for which the legend was based on a floristic classification, combined with observations on landuse. The floristic classification has been compiled mainly to serve and support, the vegetation and landuse map. It could be seen, however, as a first proposal for the classification of the vegetation of (a part of) the Kenyan coast. The combination of vegetation and landuse for a survey like this, is not always consistent. Natural processes, out of which vegetation is born, generally tend to diversification, while human activities (land use) mostly work towards a simplification. In our area this can be seen e.g. in LS 1, when one compares the sisal plantation (1.4) (which is, in.a way, the most advanced form of landuse in this LS) with the surrounding formations, or with the original forests of such area. The use of Zea mays as a field crop, in the entire area and practically regardless of the suitability of the land for this crop, is another example. The vegetation and landuse map, and its legend, are not in all aspects logical. However, in my opinion, they are fit to serve their purpose, to present our inventory, providing a framework in which (possible improvements of) the landuse can be seen. As stated earlier, the preparation of a separate soil map of the area has been of consequence for this mapping. Copying of the soil map has been avoided, and soil differences of little consequence for the present vegetation or landuse (which, however, might be of consequence for potential land use) are not taken in account. This makes a comparison of the vegetation and land use map with the soil map very useful. In my opinion, the units of the vegetation and landuse map reflect ecological entities of the area. Comparison with a rainfall-evaporation map (Boxem, in preparation) is necessary to check the validity of this. It should be born in mind, that 1968 airphotos served as a basis for this survey. Mainly regarding landuse, considerable changes took place in the last decade. This is especially important for planning on a larger scale (1:50,000, 1:10,000) for which this map can not serve as an accurate picture of the actual situation. Much more work can be done on the vegetation in the area. Revision of floristic works for the coast is necessary. Classification of the vegetation could then be improved, and probably extended for the entire Kenyan coast.

75 Floristic inventory of original forests has not been attempted in this mapping for a number of reasons. Detailed study of these formations would however be very desirable, and indispensable for a sound landevaluation of the area. (L. Lap, in preparation).

76 6 Acknowledgements This survey would have been unthinkable without the facilities provided by the TPIP. I am grateful to prof. Bennema, for giving me the opportunity to participate in the project; to dr. T. de Meester, for his hospitality and his guidance on my first steps in pedology, and to ing. W. Boxern, for the perfect arrangement and management during my stay at the project. I thank all the cooperators of the TPIP for the pleasant time we shared in working together. I am indebted to dr. Henk Doing and prof. Zonneveld for their enthousiastic guidance and instruction during their visit. The East African Herbarium at Nairobi, in the persons of miss C.H.S. Kabuye and mr. V.C. Gilbert, has been most helpful in the determination of some difficult plant species, and in checking and naming most of my field-herbarium. Drs. V. de Meester-Manger Cats kindly lent me 4 relevées of coastal (salt-spray) shrub formations, and drew the front page for this report. Mr. Herman Klees gave much of his time for the lay-out of the map, the vegetation table and the report. Most of all, I am grateful to my friend Mr. Rexton Karisa; without his enthousiastic cooperation and his botanical knowledge, the floristic classification,- and thus this work, would never have had any proportion. With him, I thank the Kenyan people for their hospitality, wishing them a bright future. It is my sincere hope, that this work will help towards that future. I thank Ing. Karel Pavlicek for revising the report and supporting the preparation for publication of this report.

77 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Beek, K.J. Landevaluation for agricultural development. Ph.D. Thesis, ILRI, Wageningen, 1978. 2. Braun Blanquet, J. Plant Sociology. The Study of plant communities. Hafner, New York, 1972. 3. Doing, H. Syllabus colleges Landschaps- en fprmatiekunde en regionale vegetatiekunde. Studiejaar 1979/80. Vegetatiekunde en Plantenoecologie. Agricultural University, Wageningen. The Netherlands. 4. Floor J. et al.. TPIP Preliminary reports - "Kilifi series. Agricultural University, Wageningen The Netherlands. 1980. 5. Leser, H. Landschaftsökologie. UTB, Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1976. 6. Lind, E.M. and M.E.S. Morrison. East African Vegetation. Longman, London, 1974. 7. Raunkiaer, C. The lifeform of plants and statistical plant geography. University Press, Oxford, 1934. 8. Reitsma, J. Herbarium van het Kilifi gebied. Agricultural University Wageningen, The Netherlands. 1979. 9. Relevant Botanical works: - Dale, I.R. and Greenway, P.J. Kenya Trees and Shrubs. Nairobi, Buchanan's Kenya estates Ltd., in association with Hatchard's London, 1961. - Agnew, A.D.Q. et al. Kenya Wild Upland Flowers. Oxford University Press, 1972? - Hubbard, CE. and Milne-Redhead, E. (eds.). Flora of East Tropical Africa London, Crown Agents, 1952 in continuation. - Bogdan, A.V. A revised list of Kenya grasses. Ministry of Agr., A.H. and W.R. Govt. Printer, Nairobi, 1958. 10. Zonneveld, I.S., H.A.M.J. van Gils and D.C.P. Thalen. Aspects of the ITC approach to vegetation survey. Documents phytosociologiques N.S. Vol. IV. Lille, May 1979.

APPENDIX II: VEGETATION TABLE The Vegetation table consists of three parts (I, II, III) with each three sheets (1-3). On it, real coverage of about 380 plant spp. divided over 228 vegetation relevées are presented. (Each listed species has a 'presence' of at least 1.3 %). The real coverages (as derived from external- and internal coverage estimations) were rounded to 5 (1 and 2 downwards;3 and 4 upwards) except figures under 5. The plant species are presented, if known, with their botanic name; if possible, in full; if not, the genus or family name is given. If these are not known, the local name (Giriama or Swahili) is presented; entirely unnamed species have a number following UPS (Unidentified Plant Species). A list of plant species is given in App. V. Relevée site data are presented at the bottom of (sheets '3 of-) the vegetation table. They are the following: STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION: Bare Ground Litter Herb Layer (0 cm - 1 m) Shrub Layer (1 m - 8 m) Trees (more than 8 m) - : not appearing S : less than 20 % (real cover) 0 : 20-50 % M : 50-80 % C : more than 80 % " FLORISITIC COMPOSITION: Total number of plant species (appearing in the Table) recorded in the Relevée SITE DESCRIPTION: - Relevée area (m 2 ) Soil 'Type': RS : all kinds of sandy, loamy sand or sandy loam soils, lacking a textural B horizon, with red(dish) colour YS : as RS, but with white, yellow or brown colours RSC : as RS, but commonly overlying a clayey or sandy clayey layer, such as would probably qualify as a textural B horizon YSC : as RSC, but with colours such as in YS LS : shallow soils over (coral-) rock; Lithosols (FAO) CS : (immature) soils on highly calcareous beach sand BS : soils developed on pleistocene bay sediments BC : clayey soils developed on shales.

Final Map Unit Coordinates site: map coordinates of the relevée position. In some cases, detailed information is missing. This is e.g. the case with relevées VI - V5, borrowed from drs. De Meester-Manger Cats. N.B.: The soil 'types' as defined above merely presents a grouping for practical purposes; they do not correspond with units of the soil map (in preparation).

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- V.l - APPENDIX ViLIST OP PLANT SPECIEStVERNACULAR BOTANIC 3&SBcaissBns sis as ASS a* sas VERNACULAR NAME Budzi-fuka Chitadzi Chivumbani Dzadza lume Dzadza riche Handari Kaaahamoho Kabaruti tsaka Kadera Kaaga sina Kakwaju (Mpingwa) Kapupu Kashero Karisa pungu Kath'iml ka pala Kidunga-dunga Kikwata Kinuka muhondo Kiramatha Kimbiri Kirunju Kivuma nyuchi Kornba Konzi Lubugu Lwavi Maambalo Mbaazi-mwitu Mbathe Mbavu-bavu Mbavu-bavu wa mkone Mbelenga Mboga-boga Mbono Mchirà ng'ombe Mdala mwaka BOTAHIC EQUIVALENT Celosia schvreinfurthiana Ormocarpum klrkii Endostemon tereticaulis Commelina imberbis Conunelina africana Adenia globosa eg Alysioatpua gluoaoeus Psilotriohium scleranthum div. Cassytha Dalbergia vaccinifolia divo Cissampelos spp* Clerodendrum luseum Clausena anisata Bidens spp<> Acacia Senegal Sesbania pubescens Pipalia lappaceae Oxygonua aaliciifolium Nymphaea-capensis Aerva lanata Talinum portulacifolium, Gohatopus boivinii Secamone spp. Tragiella natalensia Erythrococsa kirkii Pseudanthria confertiflora Dioapyros sp. Clerodendrum capitatum Grewia glandulosa Deinbollia sp. Asystasia gangetia Ricinus communis Strychn08 mitis Deinbollia borbonica FAMILY Amaranthaceae Papilionaceae Labiatae Commelinaceae ii Passiflor&ceae Papilionaceae Amaranthaceae Cucurbitaceae Lauraceae Papilionaceae div. Meniapermaceae Verbenaceae Rutaceae Compositae Mimosaceae Papilionaceae Amaranthaceae Polygonaceae Nymphaeaceae Amaranthac eae Portulaccaceae Araceae Papilionaceae Euphorbiaceae Micranthaceae Ebenaceae Verbenaceae Tilliaceae Sapindaceae Acanthaceae Euphorbiaceae Loganiaceae Sapindaceae

VERNACULAR NAME Mdimu tsaka Mdunga-tundu Mdudungu Mdzala(Mbulushi) Mdzongodzongo Mfidzo fids Mfudzo (Mumahi) Mfudzo mulume Mfunda Mfundu Mfune Mfunga-tsanzu Mgalana (Mnywa madzi) Mgandi Mgugune Mgwada paka (Mtoli) Mgwale Mhalanda Mhandala Mjaji Mkadi Mkalakala Mkakazi Mkami Mkayukayu Mkihanga Mkilashangwe Mkimwemwe Mkindu Mkingiri Mkirindi Mkironda Mkoko Mkone Mkonga Mkuha (Mswaki) - V.2 - BOTANICAL EQUIVALENT Suregada zanzibariensis Maytenus Senegalensis Fagara chalybea Enneastemon fornicatus Xeromphis nilotica Lagynias littoralis Tinnea aethiopica Rytiginia cf loranthifolia Monanthotiaxis trichanta Stadmannia sideroxylon Sterculia appendiculata Haplocoelum inoploeum Teclea trichocarpa Ficus bussei Ziziphus mucronata Capparis stuhlmannii Grewia truncata Terminalia catappa Markhamia zanzibarica Strychnos spinosa Pandanus kirkii Bridelia cathartica sps melanthesoides Ageratum conyzoides? Heeria mucronata Secamone sp«rhus sp«haplocoelum inoploeum Phoenix reclinata Dichrostachya cinerea Vernonia wakefieldii Ehretia bakeri Sonneratia alba Grewia div.spp» Mallotus oppositifolius Salvadora persica FAMILY Euphorbiaceae Celastraceae Rutaceae Annonaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Labiatae Rubiaceae Annonaceae Sapindaceae Sterculiaceae Sapindaceae Rutaceae Moraceae Rhamnaceae Capparidaceae Tilliaceae Combretaceae Bignoniaceae Loganiaceae Pandanaceae Euphorbiaceae Compositae Anacardiac eae Asclepiadaceae Anacardiaceae Sapindaceae Palmae Mimo8aceae Compositae Boraginaceae Sonneratiaceae Tilliaceae Euphorbiaceae Salvadoraceae

VERNACULAR NAME Mkula-usiku Mkulu Mkunazi Mkuyu Mkvaju Mkwamba Mkwakwa Mkvang'a Mkwembe Mlala (Mkoaaa) Mlaza koma Mmangi Mnago Mng * ambo Mnyala Mnyukufu Morya Mpepe Mpera Mporojo Mrembe ganga Mrihi Mrinda zia Msasa Mshinda-alume Msokote Msumari (Mnene kanda) Mtanda mboo Mtondo Mtongazi Mtserere Mtunda kula Mtunguru Mudhahabu Mudzipo Mweza mere Muganga lungo Mugumo - V.3 - BOTANICAL EQUIVALENT Clerodendrum glabruo Dioepyros coraii Ziziphu8 mauritania Ficus syoomorus Tamarindus indica Securinega virosa Strychnos innocua ef Celtis africana Clerodendrum acerbianun Hyphaene coriacea Vernoraia hildebrandtii Polysphaeria parvifolia Manilkara mochisia Manilkara zanzibariensis Fernandoa magnifiea Lamphrothamnus zanguebaricua Sterculia rhynchocarpa Trema orientalis Vizinia orientalis Albizia anthelminthica Hibiscus aponeurus s.l. Brachystegia spiciiformis Scirpus articulatus Cordia ovalis Combreturn butyrosum cf Tarazzea sp. Lonchocarpus sp. Carisa bispinosa Solanum incanum Landolphia petersiana Hoslundia opposita Ximenia americana Capparis cartilaginea Notobuxus obtusifolia Pleurostylia africana Achyrothalamus marginatus Cyphostemna adenocaulis Borassus aethiopum FAMILY Verbenaceae Ebenaceae Rhamnaceae Moraceae Cae salpiniaceae Euphorbiaceae Loganiaceae Ulmaceae Verbenaceae Falmae Compositae Rubiaceae Sapotaceae ti Bignoniaceae Rubiaceae Sterculiaceae Ulmaceae Hypericaceae Mimosaceae Malvaceae Caesalpiniaceae Cyperaceae Boraginaceae Combretaceae Asclepiadiaceae Papilionaceae Apocynaceae Solanaceae Apocynaceae Labiatae acaceae Capparidaceae Buzaoeae Ulmaceae Compositae Vitaceae Falmae

VERNACULAR NAME - V.4 - BOTANICAL EQUIVALENT FAMILY Muhangusa mari Muhawa Muhowe Muhumba Mujundu Mulanza mwaruhe Mulanza mwiru Mumbo Munavu tsaka Munwa madzi Munyumbu Mupashula anzie Murare Murori Mushero Musuka mambo Mutamba kiko Mutarae Muthoro Mutsalafu Mutsatsa Mutsedzi Mutsemeri Mutsengedzi Mutulama anzie Mushosho Muvuma Muviru Muyu Muzhondohera nguluwe Mvundza jembe Mvadiga Mwanga Mware Reza Vombo Vuinba manga eg Abutilon mauritaniura Phyllanthes sp. Thespeaia danis Cassia sanguinea Brachylaenia hutchinsii Vitex stricheri Blepharospernum zanguebaricum Myrica kilimandscharica Solanum nigrum Teclea trichocarpa Lannea stuhlmanaii Tarrena nigrescens Clerodendrum cf acerbianum Uvaria cf acuminata? Memecylon sp. Meyna tetraphylla Clerodendrum eriophyllum Terminalia brevipes Cassia sp. Acalypha fructicosa Manilkara sulcata Acacia nilotica Xeromphis nilotica Helixanthera kirkii.heinsia jasminiflora Premna chrysoclada Vangueria tomentosa Adansonia digitata Asteranthe asterias Allophylus pervellei Adenium obesum Terminalia prunioides Bombax rhodognaphalon Adenia cf vightiana Corchorus trilocularis Ocimum hadiense Malvaceae Euphorbiaceae Malvaceae Caesalpiniaceae Compositae Verbenaceae Oompositae Myricariaceae Solanaceae Rutaceae Anacardiaceae Rubiaceae Verbenaceae Annonaceae Capparaceae Melastomataceae Rubiaceae Verbenaceae Combretaceae Caesalpiniaceae Euphorbiaceae Sapotaceae Mimosaceae Rubiaceae Loranthaceae Rubiaceae Verbenaceae Rubiaceae Bombacaceae Annonaceae Sapindaceae Apocynaceae Combretaceae Bombacaceae Passifloraceae Tilliaceae Labiatae

- v.5 - APPENDIX V.b : LIST OF PLAKT SPECIES; SCIENTIFIC NAMES & SOCIOLOGICAL GROUPS NAME FAMILY SOG SOCIOLOGICAL I GROUP Acacia cf etbaica A. mellifera A. nilotica A. polyacantha Mimosaceae 11 XV 11 XI 11 XXIV A. Senegal A. stuhlmannii A. zanzibarica Acalypha fructicosa Achyrahthes aspera Achyrothalamus marginatus Acridocarpu3 flaccidus (UPS 63) Adansonia digitata Adenia globosa Adenium obesum Aerva lanata Afzelia cuanzensis Agathisanthemum bojeri Agave sisalana Euphorbiaceae Amaranthaceae Compositae Malpighiaceae Bombacaceae Passifloraceae Àpocynaceae Amaran thac eae Caesalpiniaceae Rubiaceae Agavaceae XVII XXIV XI I XIX III V I iv XXXI Ageratum conyzoides Albizia anthelmintica A. gummifera Aloë sp. Allophylus pervellei Compositae XIII Mimosaceae XI 11 XVIII Liliaceae VII Sapindaceae XIX Anacardium occidentale Anchomanus dubiura Annona chrysophylla Annona sp. Annonaceae sp. Aristida adjunsonius Arum sp. Asteranthe asterias Asparagus recemösa Asparagus sp. cf Asystasia gangetia Anacardiaceae Araceae Annonaceae H 11 Graminae Araceae Annonaceae Liliaceae H Acanthaceae XXVI XXVIII XX XXI XXI V XII

- V.6 - NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GROUP Atriplex farinosa Avicennia marina Azedirachta indica Chenopodiaceae Verbenaceae Meliaceae XXXII XX Blepharospernum zanguebaricum Bombax rhodognaphalon Borassus aethiopium Brachystegia spiciiformis Bridelia cathartica asp melanthesoides Bruguiera gymnorhiza Compositae Bombacaceae Palmae Caesalpiniaceae Euphorbiaceae Rhizophoraceae I XII XXXII Canthium bibracteatum Capparia cartilaginea C. stuhlmannii Capparidaceae sp. Carissa bispinosa Cassia longiracemosa C. sanguinea Casaia sp. Cassytha sp. Celosia schweinfurthiana Cenchrus ciliaris C. setigerua Chloris roxburgiana C. virgata Cienkowskya sp. Cissarapelos sp. C issus quadran/vularis C. rotundifolius Citrus sinensis Clausena aninata Clerodendruin eriophyllum C. glabrum C. luseum Rubiaceae Capparidaceae ti ii Apocynaceae Caesalpiniaceae Lauraceae Amaranthaceae Graminae Zingiberaceae Menisperraaceae Vitidaceae Rutaceae H Verbenaceae III XXXI VI XXVII XXI XXXVII XXXVII XXXIV xxx rv VIII XXV III III XXVI1 XÏX

- v.? - NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GROUP cf Clitoria sp. Cocos nucifera Combretum butyrosum Commelina sp. Commiphora africana s.l. C. boiviana Conyza pyrrohopappa Cordia somaliensis C. subcordata Croton pseudopulchellus Cucurbitaceae sp. Cynanohum tetrapterum Cynometra suaheliensis Cyperus articulatus Cyperaceae spp 1-9 Cyphostemna adenocaulis Papilionaceae Palmae Combretaceae Commelinaceae Burseraceae ii Compositae Boraginaceae M Euphorbiaceae Cucurbi taceae Asclepiadaceae Caesalpiniaceae Cyperaceae n Vitidaceae XXVI XXII IV IX XI XXXI XXII VIII XXXI XXII XXXVII div. XVIII Dactyloctenium aegyptium D. geminatum Dalbergia vaccinifolia Beinbollia borbonica Deinbollia sp. Dichanthium radicans Dichrostachjrs cinerea Digitaria abyasinia D. macrobephara D. mombasana cf Dioscorea sp. Diospyros cornii Diospyros sp. Graminae H Papi1ionaceae Sapindaceae M Graminae Mimosaceae Graminae Dioscoreaceae Ebenaceae M XXXIV XVIII XXIII XVIII XXXVII III XIX XIX Echinogloa haploclada Edithcolea grandis Rhretia bakeri E. petiolaris Graminae Asclepiadaceae Boraginaceae XXXV XII XII

- V.ö - NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GROUP Eleusine indica Emilia javanica Encephalartos hildebrandtii Endostemon tereticaulis Enneastemon fornicatus Enteropogon macrostachyus Epinetrum delagoenaie Eragrostis ciliaris E. superba Eragrostis sp. Erythrococca kirkii Erythrococca spp. 1-2 Euphorbia candelabrum E. grandicornis E. tirucalli Euphorbia sp. 3 Graminae Compositae Gycadaceae Labiatae Annonaceae Graminae Menispermaceae Graminae u it Euphorbiaceae II II II XIII XI V XXXVI XXI XXXIII XXXIV XXXVI I V I Fagara chalybea Fernandos magnifica Ficu3 busaei F. sycomorus Flagellaria guineense Rutaceae Bignoniaceae Moraceae H Flagellariaceae XII XVIII XXIV VII Gesneria sp. (= Streptocarpus) Gloriosa simplex cf Glycine wightii Gonatopus boivinii Graminae sp. Grewia cf bicolor G. cf ectasicarpa G. cf forbesii G. cf glandulosa G. cf holstii G. cf microcarpa G. stuhlmannii «Gesneriaceae Liliaceae Papilionaceae Araceae Graminae Tiliaceae H M II II II XXX XXIII XV V IX IX XIII XIII XI

- v.9 - NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GROUP Grewia villosa Grewia spp 1 and 3 Guizotia scabra Tiliaceae ii Compositae XIX XIV Haplocoelum inoploeum Harrysonia abyssinica Heeria mucronata H. reticulata Heinsia jasminiflora Heliotropium sp. Helixanthera kirkii Heteropogon contortus Hibiscus aponeurus s.l. Holarrhena sp. Hoslundia opposita Hugonia sp. Hunteria zeylanica Hyphaene coriacea Sapindaceae Simaroubaceae Anacardiac eae H Rubiaceae Boraginaceae Loranthaceae Graminae Malvaceae Apocynaceae Labiatae Linaceae Compositae Palmae I XIV V II XXIV XXXIV II IX XVI Indigofera sp. Imperata cilindrica Papilionaceae Graminae XXI XXXVII Jasminum fluminens Jatropha spicata Justicia - Ansellia eaceae Euphorbiaceae? Acanthaceae VI Kalanchoe sp. Kieinia kleinioides Crassulaceae Compositae VI Lagynias littoralis Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus cf Landolphia petersiana Lannea stuhlmannii Lan tana caniara L. viburnoides Rubiaceae H Apocynaceae Anacardiaceae Verbenaceae V XIX I II X

V.10 NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GROUP Leptochloa pamica Leucas cf kilifiensis Lilium sp. Graminae Labiatae Liliaceae XXXV Mangif'era indica Manihot esculenta Manilkara mochisia M. sulcata M. zanzibarica Maytenus senegalensis Markhamia zanzibarica Memecylon sp. Meyna tetraphylla Monodora grandidieri Myrica kilimandscharica Anacardiaceae Euphorbiaceae Sapotaceae n H Celastraceae Bi^noniaceae Mela8tomataceae Rubiaceae Annonaceae Myricaceae XXVI V III XIV XX IV V V Notobuxus obtusifolia Nymphaea micrantha Buxaceae Nymphaeaec eae XX Ochna sp. Ocimum hadiense Ormocarpum kirkii Oxygonum saliciifolium Ochnaceae Labiatae Papilionaceae Polygonaceae III XI XIV XIII Pandanus kirkii Panicum maximum P. repens Papilionaceae sp. Parkia filicoidea Paspalum geminatum Pentodon pentandrus Pcïrotis hildebrandtii cf Phyllanthus reticulatus Phyl'lanthus sp. 1 Phyllanthus sp. 2 Pandanaceae Graminae H Papilionaceae Mimosaceae Graminae Rubiaceae Graminae Euphorbiaceae M H XXXIII XXXIII XX XXXVII XXXI II IV XX

- V.ll - NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GROUP Phymatodes scolopendria Piliostigma thonningii Pipalia lappacea Plectranthus flaccidus Pleurostylia africana Pluchea dio3corides Polypodiaceae sp. Polysphaeria parvifolia Portulaca sp. Premna chrysoclada Pseudantha confertiflora Psychotria amboniensis Polypodiaceae Caesalpiniaceae Lauraceae Labiatae Celastraceae Compositae Polypodiaceae Rubiaceae Portulacaceae Verbenaceae Micranthaceae Rubiaceae I XIX XXV XXXI XXIX XVII XXX XII IV XXVIII Ràuyolfia mombasiana Rawsonia sp. Rhizophora mucronata Rhoicissus revoilii Ricinus communis Apocynanceae Flacourtiaceae Rhizophoraceae Vitidaceae Euphorbiaceae XXIII III XXXII VI Salvadora persica Salvadoraceae XI Sansevieria kirkii Liliaceae VII Sansevieria sp. 11 XXIX Schlechterina mitostemmatoides Passifloraceae VII cf Scilla kirkii Liliaceae XXXI Securinega virosa Euphorbiaceae X Secamone sp. 1 Asclepiadaceae XIX Secamone sp. 2' H XX Sida cordifolia Malvaceae XI S. cuneifolius H XI Solanum incanum Solanaceae XI Sonneratia a]ba Sonneratiaceae XX XII Sorghum sp. Graminae XXXV Sphenostylis briartii Papilionaceae XVII Sporobolus mar^inatus Graminae S. pyramidalis H XXXV

- V.12 - NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GROUP Sterculia appendiculata S. rhynchocarpa Strychnos dysophylla S. cf innocua S. mitis S. spi.nosa Suregada zanzibariensis Sterculiaceae II Loganiaceae ii H Euphorbiaceae XVIII XIX V XXI II Talinum portulacifolium Tamarindus indica Tarrena nigrescens Teclea trichocarpa Tephrosia purpurea ïephrosia sp. Terminalia spinosa Tetracera boiviana Tetrapogon tenelius Themeda triandra Thespesia danis Thevetia peruviana Tinnea aethiopica Tradescantia sp. Tragielia natalensis Trema orientalis Tribulus terrestris Tridax procumbens Triumfetta rhomboidea Portulacaceae Caesalpiniaceae Hubiaceae Rutaceae Papilionaceae n Combretaceae Dilleniaceae Graminae H Malvaceae Apocynaceae Labiatae Commelinaceae Euphorbiaceae Ulmaceae Zygophyllaceae Compositae Tiliaceae XXI VIII XXXI IV XI XXIII XXXVII IX XXVII XXIX XI XXIX XXIII XXV Uvaria acuminata Annonaceae II Vangueria tomentosa Veronica sp. Vernonia hildebrandtii V. wakefieldii Vigna unguiculata Rubiaceae Scrophulariaceae Compositae Papilionaceae XIII II XXX

- V.13 - NAME FAMILY SOCIOLOGICAL GKOUP Vitex donianà V. cf mombaaaae V. stricheri Verbenaceae XIII XIX Xeromphis nilotica Ximenia americana Xylocarpus benadirensis Rubiaceae acaceae Meliaceae XI XIII Zanioculcas zaniifolins Zea mays Ziziphus mauritiana Araceae Grarainae Rhamnaceae I XXVII

rpip (KILIFI - KENYA) i \GRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (WAGENINGEN - THE NETHERLANDS) RELEVEE DATA SHEET DATE: NR: M. van Leeuwen VEGETATION DATA AREA : ALTITUDE (m) COORDINATES:, N;, E 32-6 4_ 16-3 2 DESCRIPTION OF SITE & LANDUSE 8-16 4-8 m 2-4 m 1-2 m 50cm-lm 25-50 12.5-25 12.5 RELEVEE AREA (m): 'SPOT' AREA: (m) 0-3cm GEOLOGICAL LITHOLOGY: LANDFORM : RELIEF TYPE: TERRAIN FM: DATA T/HS/D/V/P o Almost flat (0-2 ) o Hilly (16-30 ) o Undulating (2-8 ) o Steeply o Rolling (8-16 ) dissected (> 30 ) 0 PROV. VEG. UNIT SOIL real + 20 40 60 80 100% ext.cov i i DRAINAGE o Very Poorly o Poorly o Imperfectly o Moderately Well o Somewhat Excessively o Excessively LABOR ATORY DATA REMARKS SLOPE EXPOSITION SOIL TYPE Fig. U MICRO & MESORELIEF EROSION - SURFACE SEALING SOIL MAP UNIT Su 1 Li PHUi- 1 UH V m > \ DEPTH (cm) DRY COLOUR MOIST COLOUR TEXTURE MOTTLING coi^r /+'- 0-2 0 w 20-30 r A 30-40 ^^^t 40-50 50-60. A 60-70 1 w 70-80 ) A 80-90 90-100 V 100-110.110-120 W^ AM FINAL VEGETATION CLASSIFICA'! FINAL MAP UNIT

RELEVEE DATA SHEET NR : LIST OF SPECIES sy Do Ab So Nr SPECIES R sy Do Ab So Nr SPECIES TOTAL NR OF SPECIES:

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ISRIC LIBRARY k 32,-0^. Wapeningen, The Netherlands j

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ISRIC LIBRARY k:e 8?_.0> V/agenlngon, The Netherlands )

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6393 J SYNOP IC VEGETATION rable APP m PLANT SPECIES PtANT COMMUNITIES BrachysteglB aplciiformls Afzolla cuanzonsis Londolphla poterslana Achyrothalaoua marglnatus UPS 1 Euphorbia sp. 3 Haplocoelum lnoploeum Euphorbia grandlcornis Zantoculcaa zaniifolius Phymatodes acolopendrla Uvarla acuminata Surogada zanzlbarensis Phyllanthus retlculatus Laruioa stuhloannli Holnala Jasminlflora Vornonia hlldebrandtll IHbiacus aponeurua a.l. manilkara zanzlbarica Adenlua obesum Dichrostachis cinerea Ochna sp. Cissus rotundlfoltus Ravsonla ap. Canthium blbracteatum Clsaus quadrangularla Momecylon sp. Cons»Una sp. Agathlsanthomum bojerl Tophrosla sp. Phyllanthus sp. 1 Preizna chrysoclada Euphorbia tlrucalll Asparagus cf racemosa ourla Lagyhias littoralls Mcyna tetraphylla Enneastemon fornlcatus UPS 2 Conatopus bolvinll Sirychnos lnnocua otutlrt Aerva lanata Uanllkara sulcata Hoer la mucronata UPS 3 UPS 4 Monodora grandidierl Capperls stuhloannli su un go UPS 5 Rholclssus rovoilll UPS 6 UPS 7 Kalanchoß sp. Jatropha splcata Alod sp. SansevlerlB kirkil PlQgarla guineense outhurl thuri Schlechterina raltostommatoldi Cienkowskya ap. Toclea trlchocarpa Cucurbltaceae gp. 1 UPS 9 Hoalundla opposite ounyanga kltswa Grewla cf blcolor Crowia cf ectaalcarpa Theapesia danis Commiphora africana a.l. UPS 10 Lantana canari Securlnega vlrosa Toroinalia splnosa mukaol Slda cordlfolla Aca la ntlotlca Endostemon teretlcaulls Oclmum hadlenae Achyranthes aapora Alblzla enthelmintlca Xoromphls nllotica Slda cunelfollus Solanum incanud UPS 11 mutunguru Cofflmlphora bolvlana Salvadora persica Grelwa cf mlcrocarpa Tragiella natalenais UPS 13 UPS 14 Myrlca klllmandschartca Asparagus sp. Brldella cathartlca sap mei. Polysphaerla parvlfolla Fegara chalyboa Ehretla bakerl Ehretla petlolaris Bufodzohl Dutanda ufu Vltex cf mombassae Oxygonun selicllfolium Grewla cf holatll Ageratum conyzoides Grewla truncate Xin»nia aoerlcana Emilie Javanica Vanguerle tomentosa Growla 'Orbeall UPS 15 UPS 16 Grewla ap. 1 Manllkara mochlsia Lantana vibumoldes Acacia zanzlbarica Acacia etbaica Euphorbia candelabrum Growia stuhlmannii Conyza pyrrhopappa Erythrococca kirkil UPS 16 Veronica sp. A1 (10) 10 27 6 18 3.5 1.4 1.3 5.8 4.3 5 4.3 5 3 3.6 5 4 3 3.8 4 3.3 5 3.3 3.1 3.3 4 12.5 2' 6.5 1 5 1 10 1 3 A 15 A2 (23) 2.4 1.1 2.1 6 3 3.3 1.7 1.7 5 2.6 1.5 3.7 3.5 1.6 3.3 3 9 1.3 5.6 2 1 2 1 2 3.2 2 1.5 2 2B 2 2 1 1 2 2.B 2 2.2 1 2 3 1.3 B.c (20) (8) 1 3 2 2 1 2 A 10 A 3 A 4 9.5 2.9 7.5 7 6.3 5.9 5.6 1 1.5 2 1 2.1 2.6 2.7 2.6 1.8 1 17.5 2 2.3 3 1.7 3 5.4 A 1 1 0.3 3 15 3 3 1 3.7 4.3 5 7.7 2 4 17.7 1 3 3 12.5 4 3.7 3 9 3 15 3 15 3 2 3 2.5 4 1.3 3 10 1 1 1 3 4 28.3 1 3 1 3 A 15 1 D1 (22) 1.5 3.7 2.7 2.5 1.2 5.6 1 A 3 A 1 6.2 4.5 2.3 9 A 10 1 3.3 D2 (15) 1 2.7 3 1.7 2.9 3.3 1 A 5 1 15 2 1 1 14 7.7 7.5 5 15.6 1 2 1 2 A 1 1 2 1 10 2.7 7.5 E (ID 1 2 2 2 1 20 F1 F2 G1 G2 d») A 3 A 15 3 2.7 1.5 10 1.3 1 7.8 3.8 2.5 2.2 3.8 3.5 5.3 10 2.7 2 6 10.7 5 2.4 1 1 1 3 1 5 1 25 3.8 4.3 7.8 3 3.6 2.5 1.6 1 3 1.7 1 10 6.4 1.5 1.7 1.7 2 2 4.6 2 5.2 1.5 9.3 2.3 3.3 1.9 2.8 1.3 2.7 5 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 6.5 H1 (20) 2.5 5.3 1.3 2.1 3.6 2.2 1.9 2.5 2.9 4.4 2.3 4.4 2 4 1.7 8 20.9 5 6.3 H2 1 10 5.5 5.8 8.5 2. 3.4 3 1 15 2 10.5 5.5 5.3 1 13.7 > 8.1 3 11.3 2 4 2.5 5.7 3 11.7 2 1.5 3.3 3.4 1.7 2.6 2 4.3 3.7 2.8 2.5 I 2 2 2.3 1 1 3 1.5 4 10.2 1 3 2.5 1 10 2 7 1 5 1 3 1 3 2 15 2 1 1 3 2.7 J (8) 2 n.i~^'~ 1 1 K Tallnum portulacclfolium Ronbas rhodognapholon (P3 1» ira 20 "iiäytonud Dom>6olonola L'PS 21 Harrysonia abysslnlca OrDocarpum kirkil Gulzotla scabra UPS 22 Acacia melllfera cf Glycine wlghtll Hypneene corlacea Sphenostylis brlartll Acacia atuhlmannli Pluchoa dloscorldes karemba Dalbergia vaccinlfolla Fernandoa magnlflca kltola Cyphostemna adenocaulla Sterculla rhynchocarpe Delnbollia sp. UPS 23 UPS 24 Alblzla gumnlfera Clasampelos sp. UPS 25 Allophylus pervellel Dlospyros cornli mubono kooa UPS 26 mwlya Strychnoa dysophylla Socamone sp. 1 Adansonia dlglteta ospyroa ap. Clerodendrum glebrum UPS 27 Vltex atrlcherl Grewla vlllosa '.Lamprothamnua zanguebarlcus Plllostlgma thonnlngll UPS 28 UPS 29 ouaesa Li-ucas cf killflensls UPS 31 Grewla sp. 3 Encaphalartos hlldebrandtll koktra kaloaa ACcnia globosa kltunguu Acacia Senegal UPS 32 UPS 33 UPS 34 Zyzlphus maurltanla Hunterla zeylanlca Cnloala achweinfurthiana cf Clltorla sp. Paeudantha confortlflora Capparldaceae sp. 1 UPS 35 Socamone ap. 2 Phyllanthus sp. 2 Markhamia zanzlbarica Annona chrysophylla Azedlrachta lndlca Notobuxus obtuslfolla Papilionaceae ap. 1 Eplnetrum delagoensle Cassia sp. Strychnos mit la Tarrena nigreacens UPS 36 Indlgofera sp. UPS 37 Aoteranthe asterias 1 3 A 10 1 2.3 1 12.5 A 3 A 40 1 3.5 2 5.5 A 3 2 1 2 1 A 1 1 1.3 A 1 A 3 A 1 1 1 A 1 1 1.3 A 2 1 1 1 1.5 A 20 A 1 A 1 1 1 1 3 7 2 5 17.6 6 27.3 3 1 2.7 3.1 2.6 2 1.2 6 1.4 2 9.6 A 25 2 1. 2 15.3 1 3.5 3.8 1 5.3 1 1.' 1 12 A 10 1 1.7 A 3 1 1 5.4 4.2 1.7 5.3 7.5 2.3 6.5 2.5 1 2 2.Ü T 1 1.7 3.3 2.7 1.7 1 1 1 10 1 3 1 5 1 3 1.5 5.8 5 19.6 A 3 1 5 7 A 1 A 1 4.5 7.1 3 3.5 3 4.8 3 3 2.7 4 7.3 2 3.5 3 2.6 1 3.3 1 1.7 S 1 3 2 17.7 2 2 4 17.6 2 16.7 1 1 1 1 1 30 2 3.5 2 2 3 7. 3 10.3 2 4 1 30 1 4 2 6.5

Ufö -to lubugu 2 oiaobo tseka Annon«sp. cf Dloscorea sp. Cl*rodendrum luseuo Cdssi» sanguinoa Parkia filicoidoa Hoeria reticulata UPS ^9, UPS 40 Arum up. 2 kadunga tundu Croton pseudopulchellus Cynometra suahellenais Combrotum butyroaum Glorios««implex Dolnbollla borbonlea oocheobe gakuro UPS 41 Trldax procumbens Rouwolfla aombaslana Tetracera boivlana.ups 79 Holiotropium ap. Acacia polyacanthd Fic-- somorua Acal fructicose Triuc+.r:i*ta rhoraboidoa UPS 42 npalia lappacoa Cioaampelos ap. 2 Anncardiura occidontalo Cocos nue 1 fora Kangif^ra indica UPS 4 3 UPS 44 UPS 45 Holixanthera kirkil UPS 46 Cassia sp. 2 UPS 47 UPS 40 UPS 49 TaoarIndus Indica Ficus bussoi UPS 50 mvaalaga kuku Clausena anisata t'arissa bispinosa Ricinus communis UPS 31 ou 1 un gu miva 2 UPS 52 Vigr-a unkiilculata 2.4 4.6 A 10 2 2.3 A 1 2.5 3 A 11 3.5 3 2.5 2.6 5 13.2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1.4 1 7 11.1 5 4.6 3 8.5 3 1 9 3.5 6 10.2 4 6.4 2 1.7 1 5 1 3 3 3.5 8 5.2 10 18.8. ' 4 ' 3 4.3 3 1.7 1 5.5 1 25 3 1.3 A 25 2 5.2 3 11.6 4 2.4 5 1.3 2 4.4 2 11.3 2 1 5 10.1 5 18.6 3 11 1 1 4 10.4 3 10 ~ Cf Äsystesla ganreiin LPS 54 "Çhevot ia po ru vi ana Cassia longiracemosa Citrus sinensis L'PS 55 Zoa mays -Anchomanus dublun UPS 57 l'ps 5B Psychotrla anbonlonsl.s I'PS 59 UPS 60 UPS 61 UPS 62 Acrldoapornum flaccldus (UPS 63) UPS 64 Tlnnaa aethiopica Sansoviarla sp. kafldzo fldzo DuKanbl Pleurostylia africana UPS 65 Trema oriontalls UPS 66 Hugonla sp. Erythrococca sp. 2 Hollarrhena sp. UPS 68 Erythrococca sp. 1 Strychnos spinosa Vornonia wekefieldii Gosnerla sp. Polypodlaceao sp. UPS 69 Dryopotls riseloyi Li Hum sp. UPS 70 UPS 71 Justicia - Ansellia UPS 72 mlolo fflbuzl Portulacca sp. UPS 73 Dalechampla lpoooifolie Vi tax cf donlana UPS 74 Tradescantla sp. UPS 76 Clerodendrum erlophyllun Annonaceae sp. UPS 78 Sterculla appandlculate Blepharospernum zanguebarlcum Grewia glandulosa Agave sisalane Capparis cartilaginea cf Scilla kirkll Plectanthus flaccldus Pontodon pentandrus Cynanchum tetrapteruo Tephroala purpurea Cordla somallensis Just icisna'.flava Cordla aubcordata Jasiolnum flumlnens Trlbulus terrestrls Sonnerat la alba Orughuelrn gymnorhlza Avlcennla marina Rhisophora oucronata GRAMINAE L CYPERACEAE Eragrostis cillaria Cyperaceae ap. 1 Cyperaceae ap. 2 Panlcum repens Panicum maximum Eragrostis auperba Chlorls roxburglana Chloris virgata Hetoropogon contortis Dactyloctenium gealnatuffl Sporobolus pyramidalis Echinogloa haploclada Loptochloa pamica Sorghum sp. Cyperaceae ap. 3 Eragrostis sp. Cyperaceae sp. 4 Enteropogon macroatachyus Cyperaceae sp. 5 Cyperaceae sp. 6 Cyperaceae sp. 7 Cenchrus set 1gorus Cenchrus ciliaris Paaps 1um gern!natum Dlchanthlum radlcans Themeda trlandra Cyperus articulatus Ioperata clllndrica Tetrapogon tenellus Cyperaceae sp. 8 Cyperaceae ap. 9 Sporobolus marginatua Aristide adjunsonius Dlgltaria macrobephara Parotis hlldebrandtii Dlgltaria abysainla Dactyloctenium aegyptlun Graminae sp. 1 WNT COMMUNITIES 2 3 3 3 5 3.4 A1 (10) 1.6 5 2.3 1 3 3.3 2.6 2.5 5.1 5.4 2.5 A2 (23) NOTES: - adapted from vegetation table (Appendix II). A 3 A 3 1 15 5 3.3 2.7 3.3 6.3 6.3 4.8 6.5 5 6.5 5.5 1 8.5 A 10 A 5 1 2.5 B (20) 3 1 10 5 2 1 3 c (8) A 3 A 3 4.8 2.6 3.6 2.7 2.5 A 3 A 3 A 2 3 2.5 (22) 3 4.5 1 10 1 4 1 3 D1 D2 (15) 2 4.3 2 4 6 26.4 2 5.5 1 3 2 47.5 1 1 1 3 A 3 1 7 1 14 2 8.6 A 3 2 4.4 1 3.7 2 4.4 1 3 1 4.3 A 5 A 5 1 10.5 1 5.3 5.3 12.2 2 9.3 3 13.3 3 20.3 3 17.8 4. 18.7 1 6.5 1 5 1 1 1 3 6 4.1 1 10 - first figure per column : presence class: A occurs in less than 5 % of the relevee's ( of the plant community) E (m F1 (22) F2 (15) 1 2.7 3 G1 (14) 1 occurs in 5 to 15 % of the relevee'a (of the plant community) 2 " in 15 to 25 % " " '"'... etc, - second figure per column : mean real coverage of the occurring species (In the plant community) 5.7 7 8 12.2 2 6.5. G2 (12) A 1 1 11.3 1 5.5 4.3 5.5 2 3.5 3 1 5.3 1 3.3 1 A 1 H1 (20) 1 5 1 3 2 7 1 3 2 1 9.5 1 3 1 3 1 25 2 8.7 1 30 7 14 2 30 5 11 5 1.7 3 11.5 3 3 7.5 3 9 2 10 2 10 2 4.5 3 3 3 2.5 7.7 1 14 H 2 (13) J (6) 3 10 37.5 5 15 10 21 10 14. K (4) - between brackets : number of vegetation relevee's per plant community FROM : M. van Leeuwen : Vegetation of the Kilifi area, 1981.