Contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 CHAPTER 2 Short-Range Communications Systems 3 2.1 Radio-Frequency Spectrum and Propagation 3 2.1.1 Theory of Electromagnetism and Maxwell s Equations 3 2.1.2 RF Propagation and Interference 5 2.1.3 Basic Antenna Parameters 8 2.1.4 Range of a Radio Communications System 17 2.2 Spread-Spectrum Communications Systems 18 2.2.1 Frequency-Hopping Spread-Spectrum Systems 20 2.2.2 Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum Systems 20 2.3 WLAN 21 2.3.1 Basics of WLAN 21 2.3.2 WLAN Components 22 2.4 Wireless Personal Area Network 23 2.4.1 Bluetooth 23 2.4.2 ZigBee 26 2.5 Wireless Body Area Networks 27 2.5.1 About Wireless Body Area Networks 27 2.5.2 Technical Challenges of Body Area Networks 30 2.5.3 Principle of Inductive Coupling 32 2.5.4 Medical Implant Communication Service and Wireless Medical Telemetry Service Bands 38 2.5.5 Passive Wearable Electrostatic Tags 41 2.6 Ultrawideband Technology 42 2.6.1 Ultrawideband Description 42 2.6.2 UWB Technical Specifications 44 2.6.3 UWB Medical Applications 45 2.6.4 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing 46 2.7 Review Questions and Problems 47 References 49 v
vi Contents CHAPTER 3 Automatic Identification Systems 51 3.1 Bar Codes 51 3.2 Card Technologies 52 3.2.1 Magnetic Cards 52 3.2.2 Smart Cards 52 3.2.3 Optical Cards 53 3.3 Radio Frequency Identification 54 3.3.1 RFID Historic Background 54 3.3.2 RFID System Overview 54 3.3.3 Principles of RFID Operation 58 3.3.4 The Electronic Product Code System 63 3.3.5 RFID and Biometrics 65 3.3.6 Challenges of RFID Implementation 67 3.4 Wireless Sensor Networks 69 3.4.1 Basics of Wireless Sensor Networks 69 3.4.2 Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks 70 3.4.3 Concept of Ambient Intelligence 72 3.4.4 Sensor Networks Design Considerations 73 3.4.5 The Future of RFID Sensing 76 3.5 RFID Applications 77 3.5.1 Supply Chain Logistics 77 3.5.2 Product Authentication 78 3.5.3 Agriculture and Animals 80 3.5.4 Intelligent Transportation Systems 81 3.5.5 Document Management 83 3.5.6 Pharmaceutical and Health Care Industry 83 3.5.7 Indoor Localization for First Responders 86 3.5.8 Passive Keyless Entry 87 3.5.9 Military Applications 88 3.5.10 Other RFID Applications 89 3.6 Other Developments in AutoID Systems 93 3.6.1 RuBee 93 3.6.2 Visible Light Tags 94 3.6.3 RFID and Printable Electronics 94 3.6.4 RFID and Mobile Phone Integration 94 3.7 Review Questions and Problems 95 References 98 CHAPTER 4 RFID Standards Development Challenges 101 4.1 Regional Regulations and Spectrum Allocations 101 4.2 Key Players in RFID Standardization 103 4.3 ISO and EPC Approach 105 4.4 RFID Systems and Frequencies 106
Contents vii 4.4.1 Power Emissions Conversion 106 4.4.2 North American and International Frequency Bands 107 4.4.3 RFID Interoperability and Harmonization 109 4.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using 125-kHz Frequency 112 4.4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using the 13.56-MHz Frequency 112 4.4.6 Operation in the 433-MHz Band 114 4.4.7 Operation in the 900-MHz Band 115 4.4.8 Operation in the 2.45- and 5.8-GHz Bands 116 4.5 ISO/IEC 18000: RFID Air Interface Standards 119 4.5.1 About the 18000 Standards 119 4.5.2 ISO/IEC 18000-1:2008 119 4.5.3 ISO/IEC 18000-2:2009 120 4.5.4 ISO/IEC 18000-3:2010 120 4.5.5 ISO/IEC 18000-4:2008 120 4.5.6 ISO/IEC 18000-6:2010 121 4.5.7 ISO/IEC 18000-7:2009 122 4.6 UHF and EPCglobal Gen 2 122 4.6.1 The EPC Class Structure 123 4.6.2 UHF Gen 2 124 4.6.3 Electronic Product Code Information Services 125 4.6.4 UHF RFID Tag Example 126 4.7 Review Questions and Problems 128 References 129 CHAPTER 5 Components of the RFID System 131 5.1 RFID Engineering Challenges 131 5.2 Near-Field and Far-Field Propagation 132 5.2.1 Far-Field Propagation and Backscatter Principle 133 5.2.2 Near-Field Propagation Systems 143 5.3 Tags 150 5.3.1 Tag Considerations 150 5.3.2 Data Content of RFID Tags 152 5.3.3 Passive Tags 154 5.3.4 Active Tags 157 5.3.5 Active And Passive Tags Comparison 159 5.3.6 Multiple Tag Operation 159 5.3.7 Overlapping Tags 162 5.3.8 Tag Antennas 163 5.3.9 UHF Tags Circuits 168 5.3.10 Tag Manufacturing Process 171 5.4 Readers 172 5.4.1 Principles of Operation 172 5.4.2 Reader Antenna 174 5.4.3 Software Defined Radios in RFID Systems 175 5.4.4 Data Transfer Between a Tag and a Reader 176
viii Contents 5.4.5 UHF Reader Electronic Circuitry 183 5.5 RFID Power Sources 186 5.5.1 Power-Harvesting Systems 187 5.5.2 Active Power Sources 188 5.6 Review Questions and Problems 191 References 193 CHAPTER 6 RFID System Design Considerations 195 6.1 RFID System Main Considerations 195 6.1.1 Configuration Design 195 6.1.2 System Design Checklist 197 6.1.3 Carrier Frequency and Bandwidth 199 6.1.4 Frequency Band Selection 200 6.1.5 Power and Range 201 6.1.6 Link Budget 202 6.1.7 Collision Avoidance 206 6.1.8 Tag Reading Reliability 211 6.2 RFID Reader-Tag Communication Channel 212 6.2.1 Data Content and Encoding 213 6.2.2 Modulation 216 6.2.3 Data Encryption 219 6.3 Testing and Conformance 221 6.3.1 Test Equipment 221 6.3.2 Frequency and Bandwidth-Related Measurement 222 6.3.3 Polling and Timing Measurements 223 6.3.4 Collision Management 223 6.3.5 Multivendor Interoperability and Testing 223 6.4 Review Questions and Problems 226 References 229 CHAPTER 7 RFID Technology for Medical Applications 231 7.1 Integrating RFIDs and Sensor Networks 232 7.1.1 Basics of Biomedical Signals 232 7.1.2 Sensor Networks in Medicine 234 7.1.3 Medical Implants 236 7.2 Operational Challenges of Implanted Devices 240 7.2.1 Biomedical Materials Inside of the Human Body 240 7.2.2 Radio Propagation Inside the Human Body 243 7.2.3 Power Requirements for Implanted Devices 249 7.3 Development of Medical Devices 251 7.3.1 Technology Transfer 251 7.3.2 Medical Product Development 252 7.3.3 Laws and Regulations Regarding Wireless Body Implants 255 7.4 Wireless Neural Implants 257
Contents ix 7.4.1 The Brain and the Spinal Cord 257 7.4.2 The Neurons and the Neurostimulation 260 7.4.3 Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) 263 7.4.4 Wireless Neural Implants: Principle of Operation 269 7.4.5 Fully Implantable Wireless Neural Implants 270 7.5 Patient s Risks 271 7.5.1 Surgical Risks 271 7.5.2 Security and Privacy Risks 272 7.5.3 Ethical Issues 274 7.6 Review Questions and Problems 275 References 278 CHAPTER 8 Sociocultural Implications of RFIDs and Their Applications 285 8.1 Market Trends and Usage 285 8.1.1 Barriers to RFID Adoption 286 8.1.2 Globalization 288 8.2 RFID Security and Privacy Aspects 288 8.2.1 Access to Information 288 8.2.2 Privacy Threats and Protection 290 8.2.3 The Blocker Tag 291 8.2.4 Reader Signal Energy Analysis 292 8.2.5 Protecting the Public 292 8.2.6 Fair Information Practices 293 8.3 Health Risks from RFID 294 8.4 Ethical and Moral Dilemmas of Technology 296 8.4.1 Basic Concepts of Ethics 297 8.4.2 Major Ethical Theories 299 8.4.3 Moral Lessons of the Past Research 302 8.4.4 Ethics and Technology Today 304 8.4.5 Enhancing Humans 308 8.4.6 Ethical Decision-Making Process 313 8.4.7 Mathematical Modeling of Ethical Decisions 317 8.5 Review Questions and Problems 323 References 326 Appendix 329 Glossary 335 Acronyms 343 About the Author 347 Index 349