Supplementary Materials for

advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/7/13/eabe4414/dc1 Supplementary Materials for Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians Guido Alberto Gnecchi-cone, Elmira Khussainova, Nurzhibek Kahbatkyzy, Lyazzat Musralina, Maria A. Spyrou, Raffaela A. Bianco, Rita Radzeviciute, Nuno Filipe Gomes Martins, Caecilia und, Olzhas Iksan, Alexander Garshin, Zhassulan Zhaniyazov, Bakhytzhan Bekmanov, Egor Kitov, Zainolla Samashev, Arman Beisenov, Natalia Berezina, Yakov Berezin, András Zsolt Bíró, Sándor Évinger, Arman Bissembaev, Gaziz Akhatov, Aslan Mamedov, Akhan Onggaruly, Dmitriy Voyakin, Aidos Chotbayev, Yeldos Kariyev, Alexandra Buzhilova, Leyla Djansugurova*, Choongwon Jeong*, Johannes Krause* *Corresponding author. Email: leylad@mail.ru (L.D.); cwjeong@snu.ac.kr (C.J.); krause@shh.mpg.de (J.K.) The PDF file includes: Supplementary Text S1 Figs. S1 to S5 Tables S1 to S5 Legends for data files S1 to S4 References Published 26 March 2021, Sci. Adv. 7, eabe4414 (2021) DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe4414 Other Supplementary Material for this manuscript includes the following: (available at advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/7/13/eabe4414/dc1) Data files S1 to S4

Supplementary Text Text S1. Archaeological information. We generated new genome-wide data from skeletal remains of 117 ancient individuals: 1 from Hungary, 76 from Kazakhstan, 17 from Kyrgyzstan, 23 from sia. Hungary Hun, Hungary (n = 1) North Central / East, Kazakhstan: 37 Warriors, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Akbeit I, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Bektauata, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Birlik, Kazakhstan (n = 3) Eleke Sazy, Kazakhstan (n = 3) Karakemer, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Karashoky, Kazakhstan (n = 4) Kyzyl, Kazakhstan (n = 3) Kyzylshilik, Kazakhstan (n = 2) Nurken II, Kazakhstan (n = 2) Serekty II,Kazakhstan (n = 1) Taldy II, Kazakhstan (n = 3) Berel, Kazakhstan (n = 14) Borovoye, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Mayemer II, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Bidayk, Kazakhstan (n = 3) Karaoba, Kazakhstan (n = 1) West, Kazakhstan: Aigyrly 2 sanctuary, Kazakhstan (n = 5) Bisoba, Kazakhstan (n = 4) Chelkar, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Kaynbulak II, Kazakhstan (n = 3) Krasnoselsky I, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Sapibulak, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Segizsay II, Kazakhstan (n = 2) Southeast, Kazakhstan: Caspan (Kaspan), Kazakhstan (n = 5) Nurly, Kazakhstan (n = 1) 1 st millennium CE, Kazakhstan: Kurayly (Sand quarry North detour ), Kazakhstan (n = 1) Karakaba, Kazakhstan (n = 2) Konyrtobe, Kazakhstan (n = 5) Kayalyk Mausoleum, Kazakhstan (n = 1) Kyrgyzstan: Alai / Nura I, II, Tuyuk II, Kyrgyzstan (n = 9) Chilpek, Kyrgyzstan (n = 5) Ken-Su, Kyrgyzstan (n = 3) sia:

Bogdanovka, sia (n = 3) Bitiya, sia (n = 11) Kokonovka, sia (n = 3) Shadrinsk, sia (n = 2) Shmakovo, sia (n = 2) Vorobievo, sia (n = 2) Samples from Hungary Hungary Hun (Budapest, Vezér street skeleton/zugló burial) Hungary Hun (TU46): 1670±22 14 C years BP; 333-419 cal. AD (2-sigma) Zugló burial was accidentally found on 1 st December 1961 during construction work in the 14 th district of Budapest at the intersection of Egressy Road and Vezér-street. The excavation was carried out by archaeologist Tibor Nagy. The grave contained the skeleton of a male individual, estimated 20-25 years old, whose skull indicated a mixed ancestry presenting both Europoid and Mongoloid morphoscopic traits. An upside-down placed horse skull was found next to his legs along with gold foil covered horse trappings and a bronze and an iron bell with bell-clappers intentionally removed. The burial had several more artefacts, probably garment ornaments, with gold recesses inlaid with garnets. Only an iron knife was found as a weapon. It is possible that the rest of the weapons were buried nearby in a separate grave, which was previously observed in other Hun burials. The nature of the burial indicated that the skeleton could belong to a noble man from the Hun elite (67, 68). Samples from Kazakhstan 37 Warriors 37 Warriors mound 11 (WAR001.A): 2451±32 14 C years BP; 755-411 cal. BC (2-sigma) The cult-ritual complex Kurgan 37 Warriors consists of several parts. The core of the complex is a large mound with mustache. Typologically, it is composed of one main mound, one satellite mound located southeast of the main one, and two stone ridges (chains) which are called the mustache. The large (main) and small (satellite) mounds are surrounded by a system of 70 small annular constructions with a diameter of up to 1.2 m. They form a large rounded ring. From the north side of this ring, seven arc-shaped stone constructions are arranged in the form of a half-arc. To the north of the central section of the considered complex there is a chain of 37 mound-like hills, each of which forms a separate complex similar to the central one. The main excavation work was carried out by the Central Kazakhstan Archaeological Expedition in 1951-1952. Excavations of the large (main) and small (satellite) mounds did not yield any findings. According to available data, some mounds contained human remains and others did not reveal grave pits nor traces of human burials. In some mounds, individual sheep bones and fragments of pottery were also found. In 2012-2013 mounds 11 and 18 in the northern chain were excavated by A.Z. Beisenov. There was no grave pit in the mound 18. Mound 11 (WAR001.A) contained a grave pit, the internal structure of which had been destroyed as a result of a robbery. At the bottom of the grave pit, an incomplete human skeleton was found: the skull was oriented to the northwest with a slight shift to the west. The skeleton was disturbed during the lootings and the lower part of the body was slightly shifted to the southeast (69). Akbeit I Akbeit I mound 1 (AKB001.A): 2583±44 14 C years BP; 829-546 cal. BC (2-sigma) The burial ground of Akbeit I was discovered by A.Z. Beisenov. It is similar to the Taldy II burial ground. A clip decorated with images of four feline predators was found in mound 1. This object bears a strong similarity to the clip from the mound 5 of the Taldy II. The skull found in mound 1 belongs to a man (AKB001.A), estimated 55 years old or older, on which trepanation holes can be appreciated. The holes

have sharp edges, suggesting no signs of healing. There are suggestions about the intravital of trepanation shortly before death or after death before decomposition of soft tissues. Currently, out of the 210 known excavated mounds of the Tasmola culture, 13 skulls with trepanation are known. In the overwhelming majority trepanations are found only on adult male skulls; only in few mounds there are cases of trepanation on females and children. Trepanation, obviously, was performed with the aim of a longer preservation of the body. The necessity to make small openings in the back of the skull could have preceded the insertion of a preserved structure into the cranial cavity for purpose of mummification of the body, or with purging the skeleton of its soft tissues while preserving the body before obsequies. The considered data proves the existence of traditions in preparing the body of the dead for its transition to another world, which was widespread on the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia in ancient times. Apparently, representatives of the upper strata of society were subjected to this type of practice (70). Bektauata Bektauata mound 1 (BKT001.A): 2493±32 14 C years BP; 787-509 cal. BC (2-sigma) The Bektauata burial ground is an early Iron Age monument in Central Kazakhstan, and belongs to the Tasmola culture. Despite the fact that the mounds were looted in antiquity, a gold earring with a fixed coneshaped pendant decorated with granulation was found in mound 1. Early Saka cone-shaped earrings are distributed across the Sayano-Altai region in a significant number. The skeleton of a man was found in the same mound, interestingly with two through holes of irregular round shapes fixed on its skull (71-73). Birlik Birlik mound 21 (BIR010.A) Birlik mound 25 (BIR012.A) Birlik mound 29 (BIR013.A): 2491±33 14 C years BP; 786-490 cal. BC (2-sigma) The burial ground of Birlik, investigated by A.Z. Beisenov, is located near the village of Birlik, Bayanaul district, Pavlodar region of Kazakhstan. The Birlik monument of the early Iron Age (Saka era) belongs to the Tasmola archaeological culture of Central Kazakhstan, designated in the 1960 s by Kazakh archaeologist M.K. Kadyrbaev. Mound 25 did not stand out in size and probably belonged to an ordinary member of society. There was a woman of 40-45 years old buried in it according to anthropological date and a trepanation hole was found on the back of her skull. Author assumed that it was performed long before the death of the individual (74). An undisturbed female burial was discovered in the mound 29 of the Birlik burial ground. According to anthropological analysis, a woman aged 35 45 years old was buried in the mound. The skull belongs to the mixed Caucasoid-Mongoloid type with a significant proportion of Mongoloid components. On the left parietal bone there are traces of intravital trauma, which was not the cause of death. Among the things laid in the grave, an interesting bronze mirror decorated on the back with a sculptural figure of an animal - a boar or a bear was found. Judging by the quality of the manufacture of the item, the authors conclude that the mirror was specially cast for the funerary process and was not used in everyday life. The authors suggested that this bronze mirror was cast in a single copy and has no analogies with any other object associated with the Tasmola culture of Central Kazakhstan, or in adjacent territories. The design of the mirror and the stylistic techniques of the image of the animal make it possible to attribute this product to the circle of early antiquities of the Sako-Scythian tribes of the eastern steppe of Eurasia (74). Eleke Sazy II Eleke Sazy mound 4 (ESZ001.A): 2525±25 14 C years BP; 793-547 cal. BC (2-sigma) Eleke Sazy II/4 mound 4 (ESZ003.A) Eleke Sazy II/9 mound 9 (ESZ002.A): 2479±25 14 C years BP; 770-494 cal. BC (2-sigma) The Eleke Sazy II is a burial ground with mounds of the Early Saka period. The Eleke Sazy II burial ground is located on the Elek Sazy plateau (Tarbagatai district, East Kazakhstan region), where there are about 300 mounds and memorial structures organized into independent groups and chains.

In 2018, mounds 4 and 9 were studied. Mound 4 was interesting in that there were two burial places under the embankment - central and lateral. The central burial was robbed in antiquity, while the lateral burial was found in situ (untouched), with rich inventory and a lot of gold. The central burial of man (ESZ003.A), committed at the bottom of the grave, was completely plundered by ancient robbers who penetrated through the dromos. Only fragments of the cranial box are preserved, and the humerus which was drilled for medical manipulations during embalming. According to the preliminary anthropological examination, the skeleton belonged to a woman of 13-15 years old. A square object carved out of horn, presenting nine symmetrical rounded holes on its surface, was found. Regarding the function of this object, possibly it is not a decorative element of the costume, but a device for making a woolen thread or processing a leather strap. The second (lateral) burial of the mound 4 (ESZ001.A), which survived intact apparently due to the blockage of stones inside the grave, was located to the right, closer to its northern wall. It belonged to a noble young man of 17-18 years. The body was laid on its back, with the head to the west slightly deviated northward. The tubular bones of the hands and feet of the deceased were drilled for some medical or ritual purposes. To the left and above the skull, gold ornaments, possibly from a headdress where found. On the neck of the skeleton there was a massive golden hryvnia torc with a spiral-shaped rod and elongated rectangular ends. On the right side of the skull, under the zygomatic arch (in the groove between the coronoid and zygomatic processes of the lower jaw), there was a gold tube which, according to anthropologists, could have been used to embalm the body of the deceased. On the left collarbone of the skeleton there was a small plaque in the form of a figure of a cat predator curled into a ring, made in the classic Early Saka style. Near the skeleton s right thigh, a bronze dagger was found, which was placed in a luxurious golden scabbard (sheath), decorated with symbolic signs and figures of deer by granulation manufacturing technique. Its hilt with a relief ornament is crowned with two heads of predatory animals turned in opposite directions. On the dagger s scabbard, in the area of the crosshair, there was a small round bronze mirror, which represents a classic example of a product of the Scythian-Siberian world. Under the left hand of the deceased a gorytos was found. The wooden bottom of the gorytos was lined with gold leaf and decorated with deer figures made using the granulation technique. The long and narrow ears and round eyes of the animals depicted are inlaid with inserts of turquoise and lapis lazuli. The quiver set includes roughly 40 arrows. Arrows are cast from bronze; they are morphologically identical with only minor differences. The arrowheads are two-sided-two-blade, belong to the category of petiole. A large number of tubular short beads of gold that adorned the deceased's funeral shoes were found on the phalanges of both legs. Mound 9 (ESZ002.A) was in disrepair - two actively functioning country roads passed along the barrow. Due to many years of intense negative impact, the ground structure has undergone significant deformation. During the clearing of the grave pit, randomly lying bones of the deceased were recorded. A small number of objects were found: a rounded bronze mirror, a ceramic fragment, two gold earrings and beads made of turquoise stone, and fragments of plating from gold foil of some products (archaeologist Z. Samashev). Karakemer Karakemer mound 3 (KKM001.A) The burial ground Karakemer is an early Iron Age monument in Central Kazakhstan, and belongs to the Tasmola culture. The mound was robbed of all its contents in antiquity. The skeleton of a man was found in the mound 3. There were six trepanation holes on the skull (72). Karashoky Karashoky I/1 mound 1 (KSH001.A): 2515±27 14 C years BP; 791-542 cal. BC (2-sigma) Karashoky I/8 mound 8 (KSH002.A): 2649±31 14 C years BP; 894-790 cal. BC (2-sigma) Karashoky I/6 mound 6 (KSH003.A) Karashoky VI/1 mound 1 (KSH004.A) Karashoky is an early Saka burial ground in Central Kazakhstan belonging to the Tasmola culture. In the mound 1 of the Karashoky burial ground, a one-year-old child (KSH001.A) was buried with an adult

whose gender and age could not be determined due to severe fragmentation of the skeleton. Four trepanation holes were found on the baby's skull. There are only two items that survived robbery in mound 1 - a plaque made of sheet gold, in the form of a delicate openwork depiction of a cat predator and a bronze awl. The plaque expresses the idea of a generally fantastic creature combining the images of a tiger and an eagle, images characteristic of early Saka art (70, 73). Kyzyl Kyzyl mound 4, left (KZL001.A): 2491±33 14 C years BP; 786-490 cal. BC (2-sigma) Kyzyl mound 4 (KZL003.A) Kyzyl mound 5 (KZL004.A): 3109±22 14 C years BP; 1432-1301 cal. BC (2-sigma) The burial ground of Kyzyl was discovered by A.Z. Beisenov in 2006. This site is located in Central Kazakhstan, in the territory of the Aktogay district of the Karaganda region. It is located on the slope of Mount Begazy, on the right bank of the river Karatal. Based on the characteristics of land structures, funerary rite and inventory items, mounds 2-5 belong to the Tasmola culture. Unlike the bulk of the Tasmola burials, people in the barrows of the Kyzyl burial ground were buried in a crooked position (75). Kyzylshilik Kyzylshilik /2 mound 2 (KYZ001.A): 2421±29 14 C years BP; 747-584 cal. BC (2-sigma) Kyzylshilik /8 mound 8 (KYZ002.A): 2530±29 14 C years BP; 796-545 cal. BC (2-sigma) The Kyzylshilik burial ground was discovered in 1992 by A.Beisenov. The site is located in the territory of the Bayanaul district of the Pavlodar region. It is located in a wide valley and it consists of 10 different structures, arranged along a southwest northeast oriented chain. Two sites belong to the category of mounds with stone ridges. The mounds are extended to a length of 640 m. Mound 2 is represented by a complex of mounds with a mustache. The complex consists of the main structure (mound 2), two small satellites structure (mounds 2a and 2b) and two stone ridges (chain), the mustache. The central mound 2 is the burial of a man and there are traces of looting. The mound is 25 m in diameter and 1.8 m in height. During excavations, fragments of human skull (KYZ001.A) and fragments of human bones, as well as animal bones, were found. Studies have shown that the skull belonged to a man aged between 45 55 years old. The skull has three trepanation holes in the occipital area. At the foot of the grave, the human tibias were preserved in anatomical order. Furthermore, the small and hard-to-detect fragment of a bronze object, possibly a knife, was found in the grave. In the northeastern sector of mound 2, at a distance of 0.3 m from the crepidoma, a large fragment of a horse's femur was found (UBA-24915: 2396±29 14 C years BP) (76). During the excavations, mound 8 was found to have already been plundered. Scattered bones from human skeleton, individual animal bones (possibly a horse) were found at different levels of the grave. The skull was found separately in the central part of the grave. According to the study, the skull belonged to a woman aged between 18 25 years (KYZ002.A). The original orientation and position of the deceased could not be determined. In the lower layers of the grave pit, stone beads and gold items were found (76). Nurken II Nurken II/2 mound 1 (NUR002.A): 2504±27 14 C years BP; 785-540 cal. BC (2-sigma) The Nurken II burial ground is located at 10 km south of Nurken village (Central Kazakhstan). The core of the burial ground is composed of two structures - large mounds 1 and 2, studied in 2001-2002. These two mounds are monocultural monuments that share the same construction features. The distance between them is about 300 m. Most likely, these monuments arose as two separate mounds around which new burials were built over time. In addition to these two mounds of the Early Saka period, burials of the Korgantas period, Middle Age, as well as two mounds with a mustache and Kazakh burials were found in the burial ground.

The works on Nurken II burial ground showed that all the ancient structures were significantly destroyed due to the intensive plowing of the valley for the cultivation of crops, undertaken by Nurken state farm in the 1960-1970 s. It is also obvious that the mounds were looted multiple times. In mound 1, the bones of two human skeletons, lower and upper, were found outside the burial chamber. Bones from the lower skeleton (NUR002.A) were found in a layer of a predatory manhole, at a distance of 0.35 0.5 m south of the burial chamber, at a level of 0.3 0.6 m above the top of the stone structure covering the grave. Skeletal elements included an incomplete skull, bones of the arms and legs, etc. On the occipital bone of the skull a trepanation hole was found. The bones belong to a man in aged between 35-45 years old. In the nearby area fragments of two vases were found that might be associated with this skeleton. In the mound 2, only a few small fragments of bones of a human burial remain together with the fragment of a pestle and several ceramics fragments of one vase, found in the central part of the mound, under clay blocks, in the upper stone layers. On the northwestern and southeastern sides of the mounds are located systems of stone altars (credenza). Two findings are associated with the altar, located on the northwestern side of the mound 2 - a grain grater (0.46 m long) and a bronze plaque with relief images of a rider and other human figures (77). Serekty II Serekty II mound 6 (SRK001.A) Serekty II (mound 6) is an early Saka burial ground in Central Kazakhstan. It was discovered by A.Z. Beisenov. According to anthropological studies, the burial belonged to a man aged 35-45 (78). Taldy II Taldy II/4 mound 4 (TAL003.A) Taldy II/5 mound 5 (TAL004.A): 2540±40 14 C years BP; 800-540 cal. BC (2-sigma) Taldy II/8 mound 8 (TAL005.A): 2529±23 14 C years BP; 789-548 cal. BC (2-sigma) The burial ground Taldy II (located at 50 km north-east of Nurken village, Central Kazakhstan) is one of the most important monuments in the territory of Central Kazakh. It contains various types of mounds related to different time periods. Seven mounds of the Early Saka time were investigated by A.Z. Beisenov between 2009 and 2010 and attributed to the Tasmola culture (79). Six of them ( s 1-6) contained human remains. Mound 7 lacked human remains but contained a stone sculpture. It could have been a specially constructed ritual mound as a part of a funerary ensemble for representatives of one reigning dynasty, or maybe the body of the warrior it was meant to honour was not found and replaced by a statue. In mounds 1 to 4 and 6, the burial chambers were in the form of stone boxes arranged in a ground pit with the dromos running eastwards. In mound 5 the burial of a man (TAL004.A) was found at the level of the ancient horizon, on a site framed by six pits, probably to the left of wooden pillars. In mound 2, two individuals, a man and a woman, were buried in the same chamber. In mound 4 a man of 25-30 years old (TAL003.A) was buried. Persons of high social rank in richly decorated clothes were buried in the burial ground of Taldy II, some details of clothes are preserved, despite the fact that the mounds were robbed in ancient times. For example, the graves in mounds 3 and 6 were found completely empty a part from the human remains. Despite the lootings, over 200 gold items were found in mounds 1, 2, 4, 5, as well as over 34 thousand small items. Most of these items were found in mounds 2 and 5. The results of a spectral study on the gold items showed that the metal came from gold mines in Northern Kazakhstan (Bestobe) and is of high quality. The total weight of gold items is approximately 700 g. For many features (stratigraphy of the mounds, the design of funerary structures, the presence of menhirs in the mounds) Taldy II mounds are close to other large mounds of the Tasmola culture studied in Kazakhstan and also many items from mound 5 in the execution and style coincide with the ones found in the elite mounds of Tuva (especially Arzhan 2) (79). In the mound 8, a skeleton of a 35-45-year-old man was found (TAL005.A). The authors of the excavations assumed that this burial belongs to the Korgantas type (78), but the obtained 14 C dates allows to attribute it to the Tasmola culture.

Berel Berel 2013/44 mound 44 (BRE002.A): 2179±13 14 C years BP; 354-182 cal. BC (2-sigma) Berel 2013/5 mound 5 (BRE001.A): 2197±22 14 C years BP; 360-175 cal. BC (2-sigma) Berel 2017_80А/80Е, object 80A/80E (BRE003.A) Berel 2017_69, object 69 (BRE004.A): 1728±13 14 C years BP; 254-380 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel 2017_80, object 80 (BRE005.A): 1975±13 14 C years BP; 14 C.cal (2-sigma) 21 BC - 67 AD Berel 2017_67A, object 67A (BRE006.A) Berel 2017_76, object 76 (BRE007.A): 1789±13 14 C years BP; 143-323 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel 2017_90A, object 90A (.A): 1730±13 14 C years BP; 252-378 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel 2018_105, object 105 (BRE009.A): 1958±25 14 C years BP; 34 cal. BC - 125 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel 2018_108A, object 108A (BRE010.A) Berel 2018_90, object 90 (BRE011.A): 1720±25 14 C years BP; 252-409 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel 2018_76B, object 76B (BRE012.A): 1958±22 14 C years BP; 32 cal. BC - 123 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel 2018_68/ 2, object 68, 2 (BRE013.A): 1821±21 14 C years BP; 131-241 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel 2018_68/ 1, object 68, 1 (.A):1733±18 14 C years BP; 248-380 cal. AD (2-sigma) Berel is a necropolis of the Pazyryk culture of the Scythian-Saka tribes of the Altai, located in the East Kazakhstan region. From the moment of the first scientific research of Berel, stone fences (smaller burials) have been recorded near the bigger mounds representing the main elite monuments of the Berel necropolis. Until recently, the excavations of these small burials were episodic and random, and because of the similarity in the burial rite, they were classified as either burials of the early Türkic period or altars of the elite mounds. Systematic researches of these stone fences started in 2015 and continue to this day. During the course of the scientific work, a number of characteristic features of the burial structures were identified as typical of the Xianbei-Hun cultural-chronological horizon (between the epochs of the Xiongnu and the ancient Türks). To date, over fifty different-sized stone fences (mounds) have been investigated on the territory of the Berel necropolis, of which about a half are either cenotaphs or altars. The other half are simple shallow burials in soil pits (N=15) or in stone boxes (N=15) and in three cases the burials had wooden structures. The vast majority of these mortuary elements are located around two royal (tsar) mounds 1 and 2 belonging to the Pazyryk Culture. The materials obtained during the field work presents direct analogies with the monuments of Transbaikal, southern Siberia and the adjacent territories of the Altai. Some suggests that the analogies hold only with the cultural elements from the East Baikal region, and therefore it may indicate that the Xianbei monuments of Berel were made by tribes who came directly from there, in pursuit of the defeated Xiongnu. The ethnocultural variability of these monuments is indicated in particular by differences in the orientation of the deceased (the deceased were laid elongated on their backs, their heads oriented mainly to the east-north-east in 26 cases, in four cases to the west-southwest and north-northwest); specific characteristics of burial structures and rituals (the deceased were buried in a simple soil pit, in a stone box or in a wooden structure); or the co-occurrence of horses in the burial (sometimes a horse was buried together with deceased either next or above it). An interesting set of weapons were found in these burial grounds, which characterize a lightly armed equestrian warrior for offensive remote and close combat (arrowheads and bow fragments, some horse equipment). These are the main chronological marker highlighting the Xianbei-Hun period in the early medieval history of the Kazakh Altai. These Berel materials and their chronological layouts fit into the broad framework of the so-called era of the Great Migration of Peoples (II century BC - VI century AD) (80). Berel 2017_90A Before the excavation, the mound looked like a small hill with individual stones that formed an irregular circle. The original size of the mound before excavation was 3.5x3 m. At a depth of 60 cm, in the western part of the grave pit, a human skull was found. The complete excavation revealed the presence of an undisturbed skeleton. The skeleton was located in an elongated position on the back. The head was oriented to the west. The bones of the right clavicle and the hand of the right arm were displaced from the correct position, most likely moved by rodents. The left foot was missing. In front of the skull, bones of a sheep and a corroded iron object (probably a meat knife) were found. There were no other objects found with the buried man. Berel 2017_69 - It is the last mounds from the south, formed by in a group of three large monuments. Excavations of the grave pit showed that in the northern part there was a burial of two horses. Many parts of

the horse s skeleton were destroyed, one skull was almost not preserved - only a damaged and displaced upper jaw and folded limbs remain. No equipment or decorations were found with the horses. To the right of the horses there was a stone hill. Stones were removed and as a result a double burial was cleared. The first skeleton was located 10 cm from the carcass of the horse. It was laying on its back, but was turned to the left. The skull lied on the left side, slightly thrown back, facing the skull of the second individual buried. On the right side of the skull there was a fracture. A medium-corroded small iron knife was found lying parallel to the leg line. 25 cm to the left of the skull of the first skeleton, the skull of the second buried person was found. The preservation of the skull was extremely poor - it was completely broken and only the fragments of the skull and jaws could be traced. Based on their position the skull was probably laying on the right side and turned toward the front part to the skull of the first person. Other than the skull fragments, only the right arm and parts of the lower base of the spine were preserved for the second person. The right hand was under the left hand of the first skeleton. Other bones were either degraded or taken away by rodents. Several rusted iron fragments were found together with the skeletons. Berel 2017_67A Under a stone laying, a deceased was buried in a simple soil pit. The deceased was oriented towards northeast. Together with the deceased a horny cinch buckle and bronze and iron objects and fragments were found. Berel 2018_68 - The mound contained two burials. The first burial was in a stone box with overlapping slate slabs, with the deceased oriented toward the northeast, laid in an elongated position on his back, without any inventory. The second burial was made in the grave's niche with a mortgage of slate stones. A gold earring (damaged - the pin was found separately), an iron buckle and functional details of shoes were found; under the wing of the right iliac bone of the human pelvis, a cylindrically shaped tube made from a bone or a horn with ornaments was found. Berel 2018_108A - It is a two-level burial - under the bones of a horse the remains of a woman who, judging by the remains of wood, was buried in a wooden structure. The inventory included hat-shaped bronze plaques, stone beads and a cowrie shell. Berel 2018_90 - It contained the burial of an over 55 years old man in a stone box with a north-western orientation. The stone box presented several layers of slate slabs. Hunnic-type bow fragments, horn overlays of the composite bow with a pattern on the front in the form of the letter "X", bone and iron arrowheads, and a hollow bone tube were found with the deceased. According to the conclusion of the anthropologists that studied the physical parameters, the skull had Mongoloid features. There are practically no analogies in synchronous time on the territory of East Kazakhstan, probably its origin is associated with the territory of South Siberia and Mongolia (archaeologist Z. Samashev). Borovoye Borovoye#240/#15/ (BRV001.A) This hillfort belongs to the Gorokhov culture of the forest-steppe Trans-Urals and the Southern Urals dated to the VI - II centuries BC. The authors suggest a Finno-Ugric related ethnicity of the population of this site with the inclusion elite Sarmatian contingents. During the excavations, one burial was found in the cultural layer of the settlement, inside a house below its floor. A woman (BRV001.A) and an infant were found buried together with one ceramic vase. No other burials were found in Borovoye hillfort (81). MayemerII Mayemer II mound 1 (MMR001.A) The Mayemer II burial ground is a funeral-memorial complex consisting of burials of different eras - from the era of the early nomads to the Turkic times. The monument is located on the southeastern outskirts of the modern village Mayemer, on the left bank of the Narym River, in the Katonkaragai district of East Kazakhstan region. Three mounds were investigated - 1, 2 and 3. Mounds 2 and 3 are attributed to the Early Saka period. Of these, mound 2 turned out to be a burial (funeral) structure, and mound 3 was a memorial. Mound 1 was plundered. The skeleton of the deceased (MMR001.A) was disturbed and the bones were scattered. There were

no accompanying items found in the mound. The chronological define of the mound 1 was made on the basis of an analogy with the construction of the burial structure. In East Kazakhstan and adjacent territories, similar constructions are dated by the Turkic time (82, 83). Bidayk Bidayk mound 5 (BDY001.A): 2208±19 14 C years BP; 359-204 cal. BC (2-sigma) Bidayk mound 1 (BDY002.A): 2269±35 14 C years BP; 400-209 cal. BC (2-sigma) Bidayk mound 3 (BDY003.A): 2137±27 14 C years BP; 351-57 cal. BC (2-sigma) Bidayk burial ground was discovered by A.Z. Beisenov. It belongs to the Korgantas mound type of Central Kazakhstan. Three skulls from the Bidayk burial ground were investigated anthropologically (1 male from the mound 3; 2 females from the mounds 1 and 5) (78). Karaoba Karaoba mound 16 (KBO001.A): 2292±24 14 C years BP; 402-232 cal. BC (2-sigma) The Karaoba Necropolis is located 18 km southeast of the village of Krivinka along the Krivinka- Semiyarka highway in the Beskaragai district in East Kazakhstan. The monument occupies an elevated position of the main terrace on the right bank of the Irtysh river and it is formed by two different elements. One is an elite Saka burial ground located west of the road. The other one located to the east of the road, consists of a number of structures in the form of rectangular cists, made of raw and burnt bricks recessed into the ground. In this group, 4 brick structures are on the surface, including a barrow-shaped elevation with a depression in the center (84). Sample KBO001.A comes from 1 male skull (78) found in mound 16 which belongs to Korgantas period. Aigirly 2 sanctuary Aigirly 2 sanctuary, individual 1 (AIG001.A) Aigirly 2 sanctuary, individual 2 (AIG002.A) Aigirly 2 sanctuary, individual 6 (AIG003.A): 2236±24 14 C years BP; 384-207 cal. BC (2-sigma) Aigirly 2 sanctuary, individual 4 (AIG005.A): 1889±22 14 C years BP; 63-210 cal. AD (2-sigma) Aigirly 2 sanctuary, individual 3 (AIG006.A) The sanctuary of Aigirly 2, located 17.5 km southwest of the village of Taushyk, Tupkaragan district, Mangistau region was investigated in 2015-2016 (85). Planographically, chronologically and structurally, this sanctuary is not very different from the sanctuaries of the baitin type, which are characterized by complex of architectural structures, as well as monumental steles and statues, stone altars of the round or rectangular shape, etc. The main feature of these monuments is the presence of anthropomorphic sculptures (86). The central element of the sanctuary is the cult structure, which possibly have had a three-stage structure - two annular stone walls and a dome. The indoor space of the sanctuary had a cross-shaped shape; a sacrificial altar was installed in the center. A descent into the central room took place through a narrow entrance-corridor with a length of 2.5 and a width of 0.5 0.6 m. Anthropomorphic sculptures were not found in the territory of the sanctuary. Inside of this memorial monument several people were buried with their items. The sanctuary of Aygyrly 2 falls within the funeral-memorial rituals of the Iron Age nomads of the Aral-Caspian steppes and it is tentatively dated to the IV II centuries BC (87). Bisoba Bisoba mound 3, burial 1 (BSB001.A): 2493±24 14 C years BP; 771-540 cal. BC (2-sigma) Bisoba mound 3, burial 2 (BSB002.A) Bisoba mound 3, burial 3 (BSB003.A) Bisoba mound 8, burial 1 (BSB004.A) The Bisoba burial ground consists of ten mounds and located in West Kazakhstan (Martuk district, Aktobe region). It was recorded at the beginning of the 20 th century by the topographer S.P. Bannov. The first purposeful research of the monument in 1977 was organized by Aktobe local historian V.V. Rodionov (88).

Later in 1986, some mounds of the Bisoba burial ground were excavated under the direction of S.Yu. Gutsalov (89). During the excavations in 2018, three mounds ( 3, 8, 9) were investigated by A. Bisembaev. Studies have shown that mounds were built over the burials of both ordinary community members and socially significant members of a nomadic society. A proof of the latter is also the size of the mounds. Some mounds reach a diameter of up to 42 m, heights of up to 3.5 m. These mounds look like a steppe pyramids with complex gravestones. As a result of excavations, it was found out that under the mounds ancient nomads were buried, who lived in the middle and second half of the 1st millennium BC. Buried people lay on their backs, their heads face towards west and south. In the center of mound 8, the remains of three people were buried, next to which various items of weapons and household items, as well as three bronze cauldrons were found. The funeral rite of the mounds allows to assume that in the basin of the river Ilek in the middle and second half of 1st millennium BC nomadic tribes settled, migrating here from the Aral Sea region. All investigated burials according to finds were dated to the end of the VI-V centuries BC (archaeologist A. Bisembaev). Chelkar Chelkar #283/1 (CLK001.A) The Chelkar burial ground is located near Chelkar Lake in Western Kazakhstan. Mound 5, burial 1 is the main burial in the mound, formed by a wide oval pit with a hoard. It is a Savromat burial and dates back to the 5 th century BC (90). Kaynbulak II Kaynbulak II mound 4, burial 1 (KBU001.A) Kaynbulak II mound 4, burial 2 (KBU002.A) Kaynbulak II mound 4, burial 4 (KBU003.A) The monument is located in the Kaynbulak tract on the watershed elevation of the Butak and Zhaksy- Kargala rivers, 8 km north-east of the village Butak and 10 km southwest of the village Petropavlovka (West Kazakhstan). The burial ground was identified by S.Yu. Gutsalov in 1988. According to the report of S.Yu. Gutsalov the burial ground of Kaynbulak II consisted of 5 mounds of various sizes. During the excavations of 2017, mound 4, dating back to the Early Iron Age, was explored. In the mound, 4 burials were found: in burials 1 and 4 the deceased s heads were oriented westwards while in burial 3, to eastwards. Burial 2, built later, where the deceased were oriented with their head to the south. The shape of the burial structures (narrow soil pits with recesses along the long sides), abundant traces of meat (parts of the carcasses of small cattle and horses were found) and the position of the buried with their heads to the west and east indicates that this complex belongs to the Sauromatian archeological culture (91). Krasnoselsky I Krasnoselsky I, KII, P-1, K-3, package No. 18 (KSK002.A) Sapibulak Sapibulak, object (mound) 7, burial 1 (SBL001.A) The burial ground of Sapibulak is located along the basin of the Ilek River (Alginskiy district, Aktobe region, West Kazakhstan). The site consisted of 15 mounds with stone-earthen embankments and stone fences elongated in a wide strip from the northeast to the southwest. Mound 1, the largest in the burial ground, is located southwest of the main group of elements (mounds 2-5 and 9-15). Mounds 6-7 were located to the west and northeast and separated from the rest of the burial ground by a country road. Mound 8 was located to the east of mound 1, located away from the main part of the objects on a small cape. The analyses of the materials brought to the conclusion that the burial ground was used in the era of the early nomads and reflects the culture of the population of the Southern Urals of the VI II centuries BC. The territory of the burial ground during the early Iron Age was used periodically, which is also possibly reflected in the location of the mounds themselves. According to the funeral rite and found items, mounds 1, 6 and 7 look the earliest (92).

Mound 7 was destroyed as a result of geodetic work carried out earlier in this area, so it is difficult to determine its chronology. The grave pit contained three skeletons at different levels. The bones of two individuals lying higher at a shallow depth (adult and child - SBL001.A) were most damaged. Probably, the main burial is the lower skeleton, and the bones of those buried at the upper level were transferred during geodetic work. It is possible that a tiered burial was made in the grave, which was used in the burial practice of the population of the Southern Urals since the pre-scythian time. However, in this case, it is not entirely clear whether this is a single complex or whether the mound was used later to make an inlet (additional) burial. There were bronze bits and fragments of ceramic vessels found in the mound, which allow presumably dating the mound to the end of the VI V centuries BC (92). SegizsayII Segizsay /1, mound 1 (SGZ001.A): 2220±19 14 C years BP; 368-205 cal. BC (2-sigma) Segizsay /2, mound 2 (SGZ002.A) Segizsay is a grave complex consisting of three burial grounds discovered in 2011 (Segizsay I, Segizsay II, Segizsay III). All of them are located on the meridional watershed along the bank of the Wil River, near the village of Wil (Aktobe region, Western Kazakhstan). Two burial mounds were excavated in the burial ground of Segizsay II in 2012. Both mounds contained rich material illustrating the funerary rite and material culture of the nomads of the second half of the 1st millennium BC. First of all, these mounds were the tombs of representatives of the nomadic elite. Despite the fact that the external mounds are insignificant, the grave pits found beneath them were quite large and diverse in their construction style (graves with dromos, undercatacomb graves, square, oval, rectangular pits). The accompanying inventory was dominated by armaments and horse bridles (swords, arrowheads and copies, quivering hooks), and jewelry (various beads, torcs and temple rings made of bronze and gold, bracelets). In addition, objects of priesthood (stone dishes, mirrors, gold shackles and ritual stones) and household vases were discovered (archaeologist A.A. Bisembaev). Caspan (Kaspan) Caspan 2 mound 3 (CSP001.A): 2254±50 14 C years BP; 400-202 cal. BC (2-sigma) Caspan 6 mound 1 (CSP002.A) Caspan 6 mound 4 (CSP003.A): 2466±33 14 C years BP; 765-430 cal. BC (2-sigma) Caspan 6 mound 1, southwest corner (CSP004.A) Caspan 6 mound 1, Skull #2 (CSP005.A): 2597±23 14 C years BP; 808-774 cal. BC (2-sigma) The Saka site of the Kaspan valley (Kerbulak district, Almaty region, Southeastern Kazakhstan) was first discovered by A.Z. Beisenov in 2009. In 2012 2014, seven mounds were excavated here. According to archaeological and carbon dating, the sites are divided into two chronological groups. Four large mounds (Kaspan-6 burial ground) belong to the VIII - VI centuries BC, three mounds (Kaspan-2and Kaspan-11 burial grounds) belong to the VI - III centuries BC. The Kaspan-2 burial ground was damaged; many mounds have been leveled by plowing. Presumably, the burial ground had at least 10 barrows which extended in the meridional chain. The skeleton of a man was found in mound 3 of the Kaspan-2 burial ground. Next to the man s right shoulder was a ram s sacrum and a small bronze knife 6.5 cm long. When examining mound 1 of the Kaspan-6 burial ground individual bones of a man, woman, and child were found scattered, often lying interspersed with numerous animal bones because the burial place has been heavily looted. In the mound 4 of the Kaspan-6, in addition to small indeterminable bones, a fragment of a human skull was found (93, 94). Nurly Nurly, object 6, mound 1 (NUL001.A): 2478±24 14C years BP; 769-485 cal. AD (2-sigma) Kurayly (Sand quarry North detour ) Kurayly 2018 (KRY001.A): 1666±13 14 C years BP; 344-413 cal. AD (2-sigma)

A unique burial ground from the Hunnic time period was discovered during construction work on the sand quarry of Georgievka near the village of Kurayly (Aktobe region, West Kazakhstan). The burial was located at a depth of 3.5 m. Presumably, the burial belonged to a Hun warrior. Horse remains and a saddle were also found together with a rich inventory of gold, silver and bronze items. In the collected findings were large and small plaques, various buckles, a chalcedony sword overlay, various pads with inserts of precious stones and about 100 fragments of gold foil, probably adorning the saddle. In general, these items are created in a polychrome style which was common among the Huns. The absence of a high mound further suggests that this burial belongs to the Hunnic era rather than earlier Saka or Sarmatian times, who instead built mounded tombs. Furthermore, Huns did not leave any traces on the surface of the earth even for the burials of noble people (95). Karakaba Karakaba /9 mound 9 (KKB001.A): 1185±18 14 C years BP; 775-887 cal. AD (2-sigma) Karakaba /11 mound 11 (KKB002.A) The Karakaba burial ground consists of several scattered mound groups (Karakaba I and Karakaba II). To date, about 60 objects of different time period have been recorded at this burial ground. Mound 9 presents two pits (entrance pit and bottom pit). In the entrance pit there was an accompanying burial of a horse. An adult man (KKB001) was buried with his head oriented east in the bottom pit. A trepanation hole was found on the skull. The buried man lay on a mat (underlay) of barks and coniferous branches. A waist bag made of leather was found below the elbow. A wooden bowl and a wooden dish were found to the left of the skeleton. On the dish were found a vertebrae tail, ribs and the shoulder blades of a horse, as well as the vertebrae of small cattle. To the right of the skeleton were placed a set of weapons: a bow, a saber, a quiver with iron arrowheads. Under the bow several layers of large fragments of dense brown silk were found. A bridle set and a wooden saddle, a bronze clip, a buckle with fragments of leather belt, silver plaques with gilding, iron stirrups were placed at the feet of the buried man. Mound 11, like mound 9, included two pits (entrance pit and bottom pit). In the entrance pit there was an accompanying burial of a horse. A man (KKB002) was buried with his head oriented to the east in the bottom pit. The remains of the mat on which the buried lay were preserved. Also, the remains of cloth pants from a brown fabric have been preserved. There was a trepanation hole on the skull. Traces of a mask of a very thin silver plate were fixed on the lower part of the face. In the area of the right temporal bone, a rounded bronze wire earring was found. To the right of the buried was found a combat bow wrapped in birch bark. Near the right leg was found a wooden bowl, a ceramic vessel and a wooden dish, on which the tail vertebrae and the horse s rib, as well as an iron knife, laid. To the left of the buried laid a birch bark quiver with a closed pocket. The frame, bottom and top of the pocket were made of thinly cut boards, and the valve was made of leather. On the surface of the leather valve, nine rounded and one cross-shaped silver plaques were placed. Several arrows with iron tips were found in the quiver. At the feet was placed a wooden saddle and other parts of horse equipment. On top of the pelvic bones between the legs to the knees was placed a leather case for a combat bow decorated with silver plaques. Fragments of a saadak (saydak) belt were also found. Also, on the left leg of the skeleton (between the quiver and the case for the combat bow) were found fragments of a string musical instrument. It was similar to the sample found in Jargalant Khairkhan on the territory of the Mongolian Altai. In other mounds of Karakaba I and Karakaba II, accompanying horse burials and sets of weapons were also found. In two mounds also fragments of musical instruments were found. These mounds of Karakaba I and Karakaba II belong to two successive chronological periods, the Hun-Sarmatian and the early medieval (early Turks) period. There is a connection and continuity (succession) between two periods in their ritual practices (for example, accompanying horse burials and the construction of mounds). Although, there are some differences in the construction of mounds and rituals. For example, horses were buried without any equipment and the horse equipment were deliberately placed at the feet of a buried person in a bottom pit. These differences reflecting not different ethnocultural traditions, but rather the specifics of social stratification and some new world outlooks of the population of the region under study in the early Middle Ages. Findings of musical instruments in three mounds testify features of spiritual development, in particular with regards to the role of shamanism in the life of the ancient Turkic nomadic society. Cases of trepanation may be associated with the cult of shamanism (96).

Konyrtobe (Mardan-Kuik) Konyrtobe K1/16_1f, mound 1, burial 16 (KNT001.A): 1741±14 14 C years BP; 245-343 cal. AD (2- sigma) Konyrtobe K1/16_2f, mound 1, burial 16 (KNT002.A) Konyrtobe K1/17m, mound 1, burial 17 (KNT003.A) Konyrtobe K1/6m, mound 1, burial 6 (KNT004.A): 1762±14 14 C years BP; 236-331 cal. AD (2-sigma) Konyrtobe K1/1m, mound 1, burial 1 (KNT005.A): 1724±12 14 C years BP; 256-381 cal. AD (2-sigma) The Konyrtobe burial ground belongs to the Otrar oasis ancient city (South Kazakhstan) which was a large center of the Otrar-Karatau culture. Settlements and burial grounds of the Otrar-Karatau culture are located in the southern and northern spurs of Karatau, in the valleys of Arys and Buguni, in the middle reaches of the Syr Darya, extending from the northeastern spurs of Karatau in the north to the sands of Izakuduk in the south. Konyrtobe is located 0.3-0.4 km west of the Otrar hillfort and covers an area of 12-13 hectares. The excavations brought to light about 130 burials located close to each other. Burials were not disturbed; the bones lied in anatomical order and grave goods were found in situ. Burials were made in the so-called crypts style. Grave goods differed depending on the age and gender of the deceased. There have been some cases of burial of the deceased in ceramic vessels. The orientation of the burials was variable, but mainly the bodies heads were facing northeast and southeast. Anthropological examination of a series of twenty skulls found that fifteen of them had annular deformation. The burial ground was dated between the III V centuries AD. The analyses of the complex findings gave reasons to declare the relative synchronism of burials, despite the variability of the burial norms such as position of bones and cases of burial in ceramic vessels (97, 98). Kayalyk Mausoleum Kayalyk Mausoleum, individual 2 (KLK002.A) The ancient settlement of Kayalyk (Antonovskoye) is a medieval settlement located in the territory of Almaty, east of the Koylyk village (formerly Antonovka), on the banks of the Aschy-Bulak River. In the VIII- XIV centuries, it was the largest trade, craft and cultural center in the north-east of Semirechye, the capital of the Karluk state. The ancient settlement was surrounded by a3.5 4.5 m tall wall. The length of the northeastern side was 1200 m and the south-western one was 750 m. The remains of round towers located at a distance of 30-40 m from each other have been preserved, some of them being 6-8 m high. Archaeological research on the ancient settlement was carried out in 1964. Since 1998, annual excavations have been carried out at the site under the direction of Academician K.M. Baipakov. Buddhist and Manichaean temples, objects belonging to Muslim culture dating to the 12th-14th centuries (a cathedral mosque, a complex of mausoleums and a khanak) have also been excavated. In the vicinity of the settlement (6 km to the north-east), the supposedly Nestorian fortified settlement of Lepsy was excavated (99). Samples from Kyrgyzstan Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/1 (ALN001.A): 1736±21 14 C years BP; 244-380 cal. AD (2-sigma) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/3 (ALN002.A): 1822±25 14 C years BP; 131-324 cal. AD (2-sigma) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/4 (ALN003.A) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/5 (ALN004.A): 1725±18 14 C years BP; 253-404 cal. AD (2-sigma) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/6 (ALN005.A): 1696±22 14 C years BP; 258-402 cal. AD (2-sigma) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/8 (ALN006.A): 2439±22 14 C years BP; 748-410 cal. BC (2-sigma) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/10 (ALN007.A): 2332±22 14 C years BP; 413-378 cal. AD (2-sigma) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/12 (ALN008.A) Alai/Nura I, II, Tuyuk II #360/14 (ALN009.A) In the high Alai valley (a broad, dry valley running east to west across most of southern Osh Province in Kyrgyzstan) Saka mounds were excavated in 1961 1962 and in 1966 1967 under the guidance of archaeologists Yu. Baruzdin and A. Abetekov. In the first year, about 15 burial grounds were discovered and more than 100 mounds from different eras were excavated at seven sites. The material was not rich, since all

the large so-called royal mounds were looted in antiquity, and the mounds of ordinary nomads were represented by the simplest inventory: ceramics, arrowheads, and less commonly, short daggers - akinaks. But this material completely coincided with the finds of similar mounds of the Pamirs and was identical to finds from Saki mounds of other territories of Central Asia. The Nura burial ground is located at the confluence of the Nura river and the Kyzyl-Su river a few kilometers from the village of Irkeshtam. The burial ground counted 50 stone mounds of different times scattered on both sides of a stormy river. The Tuyuk burial ground is located on the right bank of the Gulcha River (145 km of the Osh-Khorog highway linking Ferghana valley with the Pamir). It is the largest among the famous burial mounds of the Alai. It contained over 150 mounds, the sizes of which reach 40-50 m in diameter and a height of 4-5 meters. There are four types of mounds: 1 - large earthen mounds with a moat at the base and a large funnel in the center; 2 - hemispherical earthen mounds; 3 - stone fences of a rectangular shape; 4 - low stone hills. 17 mounds of various types have been excavated so far. During the excavation, several bone plates were found on the bow of an ancient hunter or warrior. In one of the mounds, the upper wheel from a millstone (a home flour mill) was found. Probably, the nomad had already been engaging in agriculture in the Pamir regions more than 2 thousand years ago. A gold earring was also found. By analogy with other jewelry, it is possible to judge the ties of the population of the Alai with other areas of Ferghana, Tien Shan, and the Pamirs (100). Chilpek Chilpek #8186, mound 2 (CHK001.A): 2361±22 14 C years BP; 506-390 cal. BC (2-sigma) Chilpek #8187, mound 8 (CHK002.A): 2444±23 14 C years BP; 749-411 cal. BC (2-sigma) Chilpek #8188, mound 6 (CHK003.A): 2450±22 14 C years BP; 750-415 cal. BC (2-sigma) Chilpek #8189, mound 4 (CHK004.A): 1213±21 14 C years BP; 722-885 cal. AD (2-sigma) Chilpek #8191, mound 7 (CHK005.A) Two burial grounds are located near the village of Chilpek, 4-5 km from the city of Karakol. The mounds on these burial grounds are scattered in a disorderly manner on the gentle slopes of the spurs of the foothills. They were investigated in 1929 by M.P. Gryaznov and M.V. Voevodsky and dated by them no earlier than the III century BC up to the I century AD, attributed to the "Usun" burial grounds. The burial inventory of Chilpek mounds is quite poor. It consists of ordinary simple household items - a small amount of rather rough wooden and clay dishes, extremely small jewelry, among which the "luxury goods" are a bronze mirror and a pin. There were no gold and weapons in the graves. The remnants of bows found in two mounds were probably a hunting tool, and not a military weapon (101, 102). Ken-Su Ken-Su #551 (KEN001.A): 2170±23 14 C years BP; 357-165 cal. BC (2-sigma) Ken-Su #651* (KEN002.A): 2386±24 14 C years BP; 540-398 cal. BC (2-sigma) Ken-Su 2 #556 (KEN003.A) Samples from sia Bogdanovka Bogdanovka#228/1, burial 3 (BGD001.A) Bogdanovka#228/2, burial 5 (BGD002.A) Bogdanovka#228/4, burial 9 (BGD004.A) The ancient settlement of Bogdanovka is a monument of the Irtysh forest-steppe zone, attributed to the Sargat culture (second half of the V century BC - II III centuries AD). It was identified and examined by the reconnaissance detachment of the West Siberian expedition under the leadership of V.A. Mogilnikov in 1966 (103). Bogdanovka monument consists of rather large mounds (with a diameter of about 20 m and a height of about 2 m), located at great distances from each other and containing usually several burials - one main, central, over which the mound was originally constructed, and several inlet burials, chronologically close to the central within one relatively short period of time.

During the excavation, clay vessels, bronze cauldrons, horse harness, arrowheads, personal ornaments, bones of domestic and wild animals and birds were found in the ancient settlement (104). Bitiya (Mountain Bitiya) Bitiya#228/12, mound 1, burial 1 (BIY001.A): 2295±22 14 C years BP; 403-257 cal. BC (2-sigma) Bitiya#228/14, mound 1, burial 2 (BIY002.A) Bitiya#228/15, mound 1, burial 2 (BIY003.A): 2227±23 14 C years BP; 378-205 cal. BC (2-sigma) Bitiya#228/20, mound 3, burial 3 (BIY005.A) Bitiya#228/21, mound 3, burial 3 (BIY006.A) Bitiya#228/23, mound 4, burial 2 (BIY007.A) Bitiya#228/24, mound 4, burial 3 (BIY008.A) Bitiya#228/25, mound 4, sector 1 (probably burial 4) (BIY009.A) Bitiya#228/26, mound 4, burial 5 (BIY010.A) Bitiya#228/27, mound 4, burial 5 (BIY011.A) Bitiya#228/31, mound 4, probably burial 5 (BIY012.A): 2266±23 14 C years BP; 396-213 cal. BC (2- sigma) In total, there are 5 mounds in the Bitiya burial ground, of which mounds 1, 3 and 4 were excavated. The burial ground belongs to the Sargat culture (the archaeological culture of the forest-steppe zone of the Trans-Urals and the south of Western Siberia) which has a very long period of development, from the VIII century BC to V century AD. The Bitiya burial ground belongs to its third chronological stage. The third stage is characterized by strong Sarmatian influence, up to the inclusion of certain groups of Sarmatians in the Sargatian tribes (105). Probably the Bitiya burial ground was a clan cemetery, and each mound served as tombs of members of individual families. In graves, the bones lie, as a rule, on the back, elongated and hands are laid along the body or slightly folded. Only in one case (mound 3, burial 2) body was on the left side in twisted position. The orientation of the buried bodies was not a constant feature throughout the entire period of the existence of the Sargat culture. Mound 4 (burial 2) contained the burial of only two skulls without other bones of the skeleton. One of these skulls had two holes. Mound 4 (burial 5) was a collective burial: according to the archaeologist one of them is a child and four adults. The burial inventory consists of ceramics, tools, weapons, and personal ornaments. There were bones of domestic animals, mainly horses, less often cattle and small cattle, possibly as funeral food also in the mounds (105). Kokonovka Kokonovka #225/2, mound 3, burial 3 (KOK001.A) Kokonovka #225/3, mound 10 (KOK002.A): 2125±22 14 C years BP; 341-57 cal. BC (2-sigma) Kokonovka #225/4, mound 11 (KOK003.A) The author of the excavations refers the Kokonovka burial ground as belonging to the Gorokhov culture of the forest-steppe Trans-Urals and the Southern Urals of the VI - II centuries BC. The author supposed a Finno-Ugric related ethnicity for the populations of this site (103). Shadrinsk Shadrinsk #25/1, mound 3 (SHD001.A) Shadrinsk #25/2, mound 6 (SHD002.A) The author dates the burials of the Shadrinsk burial ground (Shadrinsky district, Kurgan region) within the VI-IV centuries BC. Burials were found in a destroyed state, with no cultural attribution was suggested by the excavator (106). Shmakovo Shmakovo #26/1, mound 1 (SMV001.A): 2288±22 14 C years BP; 401-236 cal. BC (2-sigma) Shmakovo #26/2, mound 2 (SMV002.A)

The Shmakovo burial ground (Shmakovo village, Ketovsky district, Kurgan region) consists of three mounds. The studied mounds 1 and 2 were strongly destroyed and plundered (V.F. Gening, 1961). The burial ground is attributed to the Gorokhov culture and dated to the IV century BC - early II century BC (107). Vorobievo (Vorobievo I) Vorobievo #22/2, mound 2 (VOR002.A) Vorobievo #22/3, mound 2 (VOR003.A) The Vorobievo I burial ground (Shadrinsky district, Kurgan region) is attributed to the Gorokhov culture and is dated to the VI - II centuries BC. The burial ground includes eight mounds, which were studied in 1961. In the arrangement of the mounds on the site of the burial ground, some regularity is observed: the largest of them (mound 8) is located in the center, the rest (mounds 1-5, 7) are grouped in a semicircle, and only mound 6 is located separately to the north of the compact burial group. The mound 2 was located in the northwestern part of the burial ground and included two burials. Both buried lay elongated on their backs, their heads to the north. Of items were found glass beads, fragments of two silver temple rings, two copper arrowheads and fragments of an iron knife (108).

Supplementary Figures

PC 2 (0.64 %) 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 PC 3 (0.32 %) 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 Nga Nga Nga Nga NgaNga Nga Nga Nga Nga Nga Nga Nga Nga Nga Nga Enk Chk Nga Ecs Chk Enk Chk EnkChk Enk Ecs Kry Chk Chk Slk Ykg Ykg Chk Enk Ecs Ite Kry Ykg Slk Ecs Enk Ite Ite Kry Ent Ykg IteKry Kry Ykg Kry Evt Ykg Slk Slk Slk Slk Slk Ent Slk SlkSlk Slk Ykg Ykg Slk Slk Slk Slk Ket Ket Ket Ket Ket Ket Ket Ket Slk Ket Evt Ent Slk Ykg Evt EvtEvt Ket Slk Evt Ykg Evn Tfl Mns MnsKet Slk Evt Mns Mns Ket Mns Tdz Tfl Tfl Tfl Tfl Tfl Tfl YkgDlg Evn Mns Atl Tfl Evn Tfl Tdz Mns Ykg Dlg Evn Dlg Ttz Ttz Ale Tdz Slk Atl Atl Ale Ulc Ale Ykg Ttz Khs Evf Tvn Ttz Ttz Ykg Ykg Evn Ulc Udm Udm Evn Skh Ack Khs SkhSkh Evn Ykt Ykt Ykt Ykt Ykt Orq Saa Ulc KOK001.A0101 Tvn Slk Smn Udm Smn Ack Smn Khs Skh Alt Ngd Ack Ack Nan Bsc TblAck Khs Khs Tvn TvnTvn Udm Udm Ykg Evn Ykt Ykt Ykt YktYkt Smn Smn Skh Alt Ack Ack Tbl Ngd Evf Ngd Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Alt Alt Alt Alt Nvh Bsc Bsc Bsc Kmn VepVep Nan Nan Nan Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bry Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc BscBsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Alt Bsc Bsc Bsc Bry Krl Krl Krl Khs Khs Khs Khs Ral Ral Khs Khs Khk Ral TtsTts Smn Khk Khk Tvn Udm Tvn Rap Smn Khk Tvn Tvn Dlg Ykt Udm Udm Ykt SaaBes Bes Tvn Cvs Khs Bsc Bsc Alt AltAlt Alt Kmn Bry Bry Bry Bsc Bsc Nvh Evf Nvh Nvh Bsc Bsc Bsc Bry Bry Kmn Kmn Krl Bry Krl Krl Rap Vep Ral Khs Khk Khk Khs VepVep Krl Krl Bry BryBry Bry Nvh Nan Nan Bsc Evf Bry Bry Kmn Bry Krl Krl Khk RakRak Rap Rap Rap Bes Ulc Ulc Ulc Cvs Ale Atl Tbl Tbl Tbl Tbl Orq Ale Cvs Tfl Bes Tbl Tbl Tvn Tts Ral Tts Tts Tbl Tbl Tbl Cvs Tts TtsTts Tbl Tbl Tbl Tbl Tvn Ulc Fin Cvs Ale Tbl Tvn Cvs Tvn Ulc Tbl Tbl Ulc Cvs Tts Tts Ulc Mdv Mon Khs Bry Bry Kmn Bry Kmn Nan Nan Nvh Kbd Abz Mdv Rak Ttk Tts Tts Rak Mdv Mdv Ttm Mon Rak Mdv Krk Mon Mdv Ng1 Krk Abz Ng1 Krk Krk Ng1 Krk Krk Nan Kbc Drg Drg Ahm Kbc Tbs Tbs Lak Lak Drg Ktg Lak Avr Krk KrkKrk Kzk Kzk Ggz KtgKtg Kbc Lak LakLak Kbc Kbc Avr Tbs Drg Lak Tbs Lak Ggz Ktg AvrAvr Ktg Avr Lak Avr Krk Krk KrkKzk Kzk Kzk KzkKzkKzk Kzk Kzk Mon Mon Mon Mon Cvs Tts Tts Tts Tts Ttk Ttm Ttk Ttk Ttk Evn Ttk TtmTtm Ttk Ttk Ttk Ulc Ulc Cvs Cvs Cvs Alt Ulc Ulc Fin Cvs Alt Orq Ulc Est Fin Mdv Alt Tvn Fin Lth Lth Mdv Fin Ulc Ulc Ulc Alt Alt Ukr UkrUkr Mdv Alt Tvn KZL004.A0101 Est Lth Lth Lth Tvn EstFin Mdv Mdv Orc Orc Blr Est Ttm KlmKlm Orq Orc Hzh Orc Orc Ukr Ukr Ng1 Ng1 Mon Mon Ng1 Ng1 Ng1 Ng1 Ng1 Ng1 Kzk Kzk Mon Uzb Ng1 Ng1 MonMon Mon Mld Mld Ggz Ggz Ggz Igs Tjl Uzb Ng1 Ng1 MldMld Tbs Kbd Kbd Mon Mon Ulc Mon Mon Orc Blr Mdv Blr Blr Blr Ukr Fin Ale ESZ002.A0101 Mdv Ice Orc OrqHzh Hzh Ugr Orq Orq Mld Tbs KrcKrc Krc Azr Krc Ggz Igs Igs Kbd Igs Kbd Igs Krc Krc Igs Ccs Krc Krc Krc Igs Azr Ahm Ahm Azr Azr Azr Kbd Kbd Ccs Ccs Adg Mld Kbd Ccs Ccs AbzAbz Ccs Abz Tjl Mon Mon Tjl Tjl Uzb Tjl Tjl Uzb Uzb Uzb Uzb Itn BsqBsq Klm Klm Ukr Ukr Cze Ice Cze HunHun Ice Pol Ulc Cze Ice Klm Klm Hun Cze Eng Ice Eng Eng Crt Nwg Nwg Nwg Nwg Kyg Pol Iru Nwg Pol Cze Nwg Kyg Kyg PolPol Eng Pol Hun Klm Hun Bsq Stl Stl Stl Stl Hun Ng1 Ccs TjlTjl Mon Tjl Tjl Tjl Mon Mon Ezd Azr Azr Ezd Azr Ahm Ahm Avr Ezd Grg Ost Ost TjlTjl Tjl Tjl Uzb Uzb Uzb ItnItn Blg Blg Lzg Tjl Tjl Tkm Uzb Klm Ng1 Ng1 Klm Adg Tjl Uzb Uzb Uzb Uzb Uzb Itn Itn Adg Ng1 Blg Ugr Itn Adg Adg Cch Lzg Ost Ng1 Lzg Lzg Lzg AdgAdg Grg Krd Krd Adg Ost Ezd Azr Azr Azr Azr Ahm Grg Grg Krd KrdKrd Ost Sar Sar SarSar Sar Sar Sar Sar Itn Itn Adg Kmk Cch Kmk Blk Adg Adg Adg Blk Kmk Ugr Ugr Dau Dau Orq Dau Dau Hzh Adg Ost Blk Ost Blk Ng1 Ng1 Uzb Uzb Tjl Tjl Tjl Tkm Tkm Uzb Spn Tjl Tkm Uzb Uzb Uzb Uzb Spa Spa Spn Stl Stl Sct Sct SctSct Sct Stl Kyg Srb GerGer Srb Pol Sct Kyg Spn Spa Crt Crt Kyg Crt Kmk Cch CchBlk Ost Kmk Ost Tkm Spa Abn Crt Kyg Bsq Kyg Kyg Crt Spa Spa Bsq Srb Srb SBL001.A0101 Iri Ger Iru IriIri Ger Srb Sct Iri Iri Iri Iri Iru Ger Iri Rom Rom Rom Rom ALN004.A0101 Rom Tra Tra KNT004.A0101 Spa Spa Blk Blk Tjl Ng1 Tkm Tkm Spa GrkGrk Grk Grk Tra Abn Tra Tra Tra Spa Abn Adg Tra Uzb Scl Abn Mlt Scl Trb Trb Abk Abk Ugr Ugr Ugr Ugr Ugr Mlt Scl Grk Scl Adg Ugr Scl Mlt Dau Sar Arm Grg Grk Its Scl Cyp Jas Tra Tra Tra Abk Scl Grg Scl Cyp Mlt Jgr Arm Grg Abk Abk Tra Tra Tra Tra Trb KNT005.A0101 Tra Tra Tra Its Tra Tra Tra Mlt JasJgr Tra Tra Tra Tra Tra Tra Tra Tra Its Its Tra DauOrq Grg Grg Arm Abk Grk Tra Tra Mlt Arm Scl Cyp Jgr Tra Tra Tra Tra Jgr Cyp Tra Tra Jgr Tra Hzh Hzh Cyp Hzh Xib Hzh Xib Xib Mgl Xib Xib Xib Xib Dng MglMglMgl Tuu TibShp Dng Dng Dng Mgl Tuu Shp Dng Dng Dng Dng Dng Tuu Yii Dng Dng Jap Tuu Tuu Jap Jap Jap Tuu Tuu Jap Jap Jap Kor Jap Han Kor Kor Nax Yii Han Nax Han Han Yii Han YiiYii Nax Moderns by language family Yii Han Han Nax Kor Han Han Han Tuj Han Han Isolate Sino_Tibetan Tuj Tuj Tuj Tuj Yii Han Han Mia Han Tuj Afroasiatic Japonic South_Caucasian Han Han Tuj Tuj Mia Mia Mia Mia She Tha Tha Han Mia Tuj She Han Han Lah Lah Mia She She Tha Mia Austroasiatic Koreanic Tai_Kadai Tha Tha Tha Tha Tha Cmb Cmb Cmb Cmb Lah Lah She Han Han Cmb Cmb Lah She Han Lah Kin Kin Austronesian Mongolic Tungusic Han Kin Tha Kin Dai Dai Cmb Dai Dai Chukoto_Kamchakan Na_Dene Turkic Kin Dai Dai Eskimo_Aleut Nivkh Uralic Brn Smd Smd Brn Brn Ami Brn Smd Smd Ami Smd Aty Aty Hmong_Mien Northeast_Caucasian Yeniseian Ami Aty Smd Aty Aty Indo_European Northwest_Caucasian Yukagir Krl Krl Lth Lth Est Lth Fin Vep Krl LthEst GerSct Krl Vep Lth Est Vep Est Krl Krl Vep Rap Lth Lth Est Est Krl Vep Rap Vep Rap Krl Krl Krl Vep Lth RakRak Krl Ral KrlVep Rap Rap Rak Ral Ral Fin Fin Fin Iru SrbBlr Fin Ukr Blr Est Saa Pol Srb Ice Pol Blr Fin Rak Ukr Mdv Mdv Abz Ral Mdv Mdv Ice Pol Blr Mdv Rak Ral Mdv Kbd Ukr Stl Sct Mdv Ale Saa Pol Srb Ukr Nwg Ice Blr Nwg Srb Ice Nwg Ukr Mdv Ice Blr Cvs Ukr Ukr Mdv Mdv Mdv Blr Mdv Mdv Aty Ice Nwg Pol Pol Sct Pol Pol Stl Sct Aty Bsq Orc Orc Orc Ice Nwg Sct Iru Srb Srb Pol Ukr Ukr Mdv Ukr Mdv Cvs Smd Ukr Cze Ale Ice Aty Aty Ami Cze Cze Ice Aty Ukr Brn Orc Smd Ami Nwg Stl Iru Ger Aty Eng Iru Iri Sct Pol Stl Ger Iri Pol Pol Stl Sct Ale Bsq Cvs Bsq Ice Ukr Orc Brn Mdv Ttm Ttm TtmCvs Atl BsqBsq Orc Orc Brn Orc Cvs Brn Brn Smd Smd Hun Sct Ale Stl Sct Sct Ger Mdv Brn Bsc Bes Udm Udm TtmTtk Udm Ttm Bsc Udm Udm Evn Udm Bes Brn Smd Aty Ice Cze Eng Sct Stl Iri Iri Ami Eng Hun Fin BsqGer Iri Spn Nwg Stl Mdv Cvs Dai Dai Ami Eng Eng Hun Cze Smd Bsq Spn Bsq Eng Iri Iri Iri Iri Sct Iri Iru Dai Han Bsq Ukr Spn Hun Hun Bsq Bsc Ttk Ttk Ttk UdmUdm BscBsc Ttm Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Ttk Ttk Ttk Ttk Bes Bes Ykg Cvs Smd Kin Spn Sct Iri Sct Iri Ger Sct Iru Sct Stl Sct Iri Ger Iri Pol Crt KOK001.A0101 Tha Han Hun Cvs Kin Spn Sct Slk Bsq Eng Ger Hun Cvs Kin Dai Cmb Han Eng Cmb Mia Han Mia Han Mia Udm Cmb Cmb Han Han Dai Lah Lah Dai Lah Lah She Bsq Hun Cvs Kin Kin Spa Mns Ale Mns Hun Cvs Mns Mns Kin Lah Tuj Han Han Atl Ttk Ttk Atl Cmb Cmb Mia She Spa Tuj She Crt Crt Hun Hun Slk Tfl Mns Mns Mns Ket Cvs Kin Mia Tuj Han She Spa Spa Crt Crt Rom Slk KZL004.A0101 Slk Ttk Ttk Bsc Bsc Bsc Ykg Bsc Bsc Ttz Ykg Bsc Bsc Bsc Tts Bsc Bsc Bsc Ack Ack Tts Ykg Cmb Cmb Han Tuj Spa Spa Crt Slk Lah Tuj Yii Mia Tuj Lah Ttz Evn Slk Han Han Tuj Ttz Slk Han Ykg Atl Nax YiiHan Blg Tts Bsc Bsc Tts Ttz Jap Han Han Spa Spa Crt Ket Ale Slk Slk Crt Ket Tha Tha Spa Tha Spa Spa Crt Ale Ket Slk Ket Spa Tha Tha Spa Hun Bsc Ack Mld BscBsc Bsc Tts Ttz Slk Yii Jap Tts Evn Bsc Tbl Evf Han Nax Nax Han Yii JapJap Yii Yii Bsc Bsc Bsc Bsc Tbl Khs Nax Han Kor Kor Spa Tha Mns Slk Slk Ket Ket Ket Slk Ket Slk Slk Ket Ket Ket Ket Han Jap Bsc Bsc Tbl Ack Ack Skh Mld Ng1 Tts Dng Dng Sar Bsc Khs Bsc Bsc Bsc Skh Ack Ack Skh Khs KhsKhs Khs Khs Mld Mld Tts Tbl Jap Smn Tts Tts Tts Tts Dng Dng Dng Evn Tbl Smn Tbl Jap Dng Mld Ggz Khs Smn Tts Tts Smn Skh Tts Ack Khs Khk Evf Khk Khs Khk Alt Evf Mld Mld Ng1 Smn Ggz Tts Tts Tbl Tbl Evn Jap Jap Itn Tuu YiiKor Nax Nax Kor Spa Spa Tha Yii SpaSpa Han Yii Jap Sar Jap Jap Sar Tbl Tbl Dng Dng Dng Jap Sar Sar Itn Itn Mgl Tuu Rom Spa Rom Rom Slk Ket Ket Blg Slk Ket Ket Ent Ket Tha TuuTuu Kor Mgl Mgl Yii Itn Blg Rom Blg SBL001.A0101 Ket Slk Tuu Tuu Mgl Hzh Dau Tbl Tbl Tbl Dng Xib Sar Dng Itn Mgl Dau Xib Blg Ent Shp Hzh Orq Xib Xib Xib Slk Tib Tuu Xib Hzh Kzk Ggz Mld Tbl Khs Ggz Tbl Alt Khs Alt Ggz Khk Mon Ng1 Ng1 Ng1 Smn TblTbl Mon Ng1 Tbl Tbl Sar Sar Sar Itn Dau Itn Blg Tra Xib Sar Itn Tra Tbl Alt Khs Mld Tts AltKhs Khk AltKhk Alt Alt Kmn KrkKrk Krk Kzk Tvn Mon Kzk Kzk Mon Ng1 Tvn Ykt Klm Tvn Shp Sar Sar Tvn Orq Krk Kzk Kzk Kzk Kzk Alt Bry Bry Nan Nan Alt Bry Kmn Krk Bry Kmn Bry Bry Nan Ngd Alt Nvh Evf Evf BryBry Bry Nvh Ngd Bry Ggz Krk Kmn Bry Bry Bry Nvh Nan Nan Kmn Bry Kmn Ggz Krk Kzk TvnEvn Orq Dau Hzh Sar Sar Blg Kzk Mon Tvn Mon Mon Mon Ykg Dau Dau Hzh Sar ItnAbn Spa Kyg Ent Tfl Klm Klm Klm Ng1 Ng1 Ng1 Kzk Krk Kzk Ng1 Tvn Tvn Mon Mon Khk Evt Krk Kzk Mon Tdz Mon Enk Ykt Orq Orq Itn Enk Enk Grk Kyg Ecs Tdz ItnItn Blg Alt Klm Tvn Chk Ecs Ulc Evn Ykt Dau Ng1 MonMonMon Ykt Ykt Mon Ykt Hzh Itn Klm Tvn Klm Dlg Alt Tvn Tfl ESZ002.A0101 Alt Alt AltDlg Tvn Tvn Tvn Grk Abn Grk Kyg Kyg Kyg Tfl Kyg Slk Enk Ng1 Tdz Kzk Kzk Mon Mon Uzb Ng1 Ecs Ykt Bry Bry Bry Ykg Bry EvtYkg Ykg Hzh Ulc Grk Tfl Orq Ulc Abn Ahm Uzb KrkNg1 Krk Kzk Krk Mon TvnMon Ykg Ykg Orq Bry Bry Bry Chk Kry EvnUlcUlc Nvh Ngd Uzb Bry Kmn Chk Ecs Ulc Itn Itn Grk Grk Tkm Hzh Ugr KlmTvn Ecs Ugr Ugr Enk Enk ChkIte Nga Grk Abn Kyg Tfl Tfl Grk Abn Kyg Chk Chk Chk Ykt Ykt Kry Ykg Ugr Ykt Ykt Ykg Ugr Ugr Ugr Ykt Ykt DlgNga Uzb Tvn Ecs Ulc Ulc Abn Tfl Tfl Nga Grk Dlg Ite Kry Chk Evn Evt Nvh Nvh Nvh Ng1 Uzb Uzb Uzb Ykt Ugr Ugr Ite Ykg Ulc Grk Grk Nga Nga Uzb Ykt Kry BryEvt Evt EvtEvt Ykg Ulc Grk Uzb IteNga NgaNga ALN004.A0101 Tra Uzb Uzb Uzb Uzb Ugr Nga Nga Kry Nga Scl Scl Grk Tra Tjl Uzb Ng1 Uzb Scl Ng1 Uzb Grk Tjl Ng1 Uzb Mlt Scl Jas Tjl Tkm Uzb Tkm Mlt Scl Its Jas Uzb Its Scl Scl Scl Tjl Tjl Tjl TjlNg1 Tjl Tjl Tjl Tjl Tjl Ng1 Uzb KNT004.A0101 Uzb Scl Scl ItsMlt Adg Tjl Tjl Uzb Mlt Jas Jas Tjl Tkm Scl Adg Tjl Tjl Ng1 Tkm Mlt Tra Tra Its Its Tjl Ng1 Tjl Uzb Mlt Tra Trb Tra Tjl Tjl Ktg Tra Uzb Ng1 Tjl Mlt Tra Trb Trb Ktg Tjl Tjl Ktg Tbs Tbs Ktg Avr Tra Tkm Tkm KNT005.A0101 Ktg Kmk Avr Ktg Tbs Drg Tbs Adg Krc Kbc Lak Lak Avr Lak Trb Ng1 Cyp Kmk Kbd Tra Kbc Avr Ktg Kbd Abz Grk Drg Tbs Drg Lak Ccs Tra LzgLzg Drg Azr Lak Tbs Kbc Drg Lak Avr Blk Abz Kbd Lak Drg Lak Igs Krc Ccs Kbc Avr Igs Kbd Ccs Tra Kbd Abz Adg Adg Adg Ccs Ost Tra Cch Lzg Avr Tbs Tbs Adg Igs Azr Krc Krc Kbd Tbs Kbc Igs Adg Krc Krc Abz Ost Ccs Abz Abz Abz Kbc KtgCcsCcs Kbd Adg Adg Cch Lzg Blk Tra Kmk Kmk Tra Cyp Ost Tra Tra LzgBlk Ost Cch Kmk Adg Cch Krc Tbs Igs Adg IgsIgs Adg Azr Azr Blk Blk BlkTra Lzg Adg Tra Tra KmkOst Ost CchBlk Abz Ccs Adg Adg Blk Ost Krc Azr Igs Adg Adg Ost Ost Tra Cyp Tra Kmk Cch Tra Tra Tra Tra Tra Krc Adg Tra AzrKrc Azr Adg Lzg Igs Azr Adg Azr Ccs Ost Azr Adg Tra Cch Tra Grg Azr Azr Ost Adg Tra Ost Grk Cyp Arm Tra Arm Tra Ost Azr Krd Azr ArmEzd Tra Jgr Tra Ahm Tra Abk Ezd Ancient Cultures Adg Ost Arm Krd Arm Tra Jgr Grg Ahm Ezd Ezd Grg Krd Krd Cyp Arm JgrAvr Krd Grg Krd Ezd Krd Azr Arm Jgr Tra Grg Grg Tra Jgr steppe_mlba Sargat Arm Abk Grg Abk Abk Ezd Grg Arm Tra Ahm Tra Abk Ezd Ahm Grg GrgGrg Abk Tasmola Sarmatian Ahm Grg Abk Grg Pazyryk Antiquity Grg Grg Ezd Korgantas Medieval Abk Saka 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 PC 1 (4.87 %) Ancient Cultures Tasmola Pazyryk Korgantas Saka New ancient sites Sargat Sarmatian Antiquity Medieval Kyzyl 1300 BCE Karashoky 750 BCE Akbeit 700 BCE Taldy 650 BCE Serekty 700 BCE Kyzyl 640 BCE Birlik 640 BCE Kyzylshilik 660 BCE Eleke Sazy 650 BCE Nurken 660 BCE Warrior 600 BCE Bektauta 650 BCE Karakemer 700 BCE Berel 50 BCE Bidayk 300 BCE Karaoba 300 BCE Caspan 700 BCE Nurly 500 BCE Caspan 300 BCE Chilpek 300 BCE Ken Su 250 BCE Alai Nura 500 BCE Shadrinsk 400 BCE Vorobievo 350 BCE Shmakovo 350 BCE MtBitiya 300 BCE Kokonovka 200 BCE Bogdanovka 150 BCE Borovoye 50 BCE Bisoba 650 BCE Chelkar 500 BCE Sapibulak 450 BCE Kaynbulak 400 BCE Krasnoselsky I 400 BCE Aigyrly 300 BCE Segizsay 300 BCE Aigyrly 150 CE Berel 300 CE Alai Nura 300 CE Hungary Hun 350 CE Kurayly Hun 380 CE Konyr Tobe 300 CE Kayalyk 950 CE Chilpek 800 CE Karakaba 830 CE Abz Abazin Abk Abkhasian Adg Adygei Abn Albanian Ale Aleut Atl Aleut_Tlingit Alt Altaian Ack Altaian_Chelkans Ami Ami Arm Armenian Ahm Armenian_Hemsheni Aty Atayal Avr Avar Azr Azeri Blk Balkar Bsc Bashkir Bsq Basque Blr Belarusian Bes Besermyan Brn Borneo Blg Bulgarian Bry Buryat Cmb Cambodian Cch Chechen Chk Chukchi Cvs Chuvash Ccs Circassian Crt Croatian Cyp Cypriot Cze Czech Dai Dai Drg Darginian Dau Daur Dlg Dolgan Dng Dungan Ent Enets Eng English Ecs Eskimo_CS Enk Eskimo_NK Est Estonian Evn Even Evf Evenk_FarEast Evt Evenk_Transbaikal Ezd Ezid Fin Finnish nch Ggz Gagauz Grg Georgian Ger German Grk Greek Han Han Hzh Hezhen Hun Hungarian Ice Icelandic Igs Ingushian Iri Irish Iru Irish_Ulster Itn Italian_North Its Italian_South Ite Itelmen Jap Japanese Jas Jew_Ashkenazi Jgr Jew_Georgian Kbd Kabardinian Ktg Kaitag Klm Kalmyk Krc Karachai Krk Karakalpak Krl Karelian Kzk Kazakh Kazakh_new Ket Ket Khs Khakass Khk Khakass_Kachins Kmn Khamnegan Modern populations Kin Kinh Kor Korean Kry Koryak Kbc Kubachinian Kmk Kumyk Krd Kurd Kyg Kyrgyz Lah Lahu Lak Lak Lzg Lezgin Lth Lithuanian Mlt Maltese Mns Mansi Mia Miao Mld Moldavian Mon Mongol Mgl Mongola Mdv Mordovian Nan Nanai Nax Naxi Ngd Negidal Nga Nganasan Nvh Nivh Ng1 Nogai Nwg Norwegian Orc Orcadian Orq Oroqen Ost Ossetian Pol Polish Rom Romanian sian Rak sian_krasnoborsky Ral sian_leshukonsky Rap sian_pinezhsky Saa Saami Sar Sardinian Sct Scottish Slk Selkup Smd Semende She She Shp Sherpa Stl Shetlandic Skh Shor_Khakassia Smn Shor_Mountain Scl Sicilian Srb Sorb Spa Spanish Spn Spanish_North Tbs Tabasaran Tjl Tajik Ttk Tatar_Kazan Ttm Tatar_Mishar Tts Tatar_Siberian Ttz Tatar_Zabolotniye Tha Thai Tib Tibetan Tdz Todzin Tfl Tofalar Tuu Tu Tbl Tubalar Tuj Tujia Tra Turkish Trb Turkish_Balikesir Tkm Turkmen Tvn Tuvinian Udm Udmurt Ukr Ukrainian Ulc Ulchi Ugr Uygur Uzb Uzbek Vep Veps Xib Xibo Ykt Yakut Yii Yi Ykg Yukagir Fig. S1. Principal component analysis. On the top left is shown PCA (PC1 vs PC2 on top and PC1 vs PC3 at the bottom) of present-day Eurasian populations on top of which the new 111 ancient individuals are

projected. Individuals are grouped on the site based and colored according to the cultural affiliation (top right legends). In red in the PCA spaces are reported the label of the outlier individual removed from their respective cultural group (see Extended Data Table 1). The bottom legends show the list of present-day Eurasian populations used for calculating the PCA colored by language family. The new data of 96 ethnic Kazakh individuals (KZN, Kazakh_new) are colored in dark blue.

Konyr_Tobe_300CE K16 K15 K14 K13 K12 K11 K10 K9 K8 K7 0.5850 Aigyrly_150CE Chilpek_800CE Konyr_Tobe_300CE_out Konyr_Tobe_300CE Alai_Nura_300CE Kayalyk_950CE Karakaba_830CE Hun_elite_350CE Xiambei_Hun_Berel_300CE Sarmatians_CaspianSteppe_350BCE 0.5875 K6 0.5900 Sarmatians_450BCE CV-error Sargat_300BCE 0.5925 K5 K4 K3 K2 Aigyrly_150CE Chilpek_800CE Konyr_Tobe_300CE_out DevilsCave_N Alai_Nura_300CE Khovsgol Kayalyk_950CE C Hun_elite_350CE Saidu_Sharif_IA Loebanr_IA Udegram_IA K=12 Karakaba_830CE K=9 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 K=7 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 K=5 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 K=3 Xiambei_Hun_Berel_300CE BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 I0576 AIG001 WHG I0577 ZHR003 EHG TAL004 I0574 KSH004 ZHR001 AKB001 SGZ002 Anatolia_N KYZ002 BSB002 KSH001 SGZ001 WAR001 AIG002 CHG KYZ001 Ganj_Dareh_N BSB003 KZL001 Hajji_Firuz_C CLK001 Iran_ChL BKT001 AIG003 KSH002Tepe_Hissar_C KBU001 KKM001 KSK002 TAL001 KBU002 TAL005 Afanasievo I0575 ESZ001 BSB001 KZL003 KBU003 Yamnaya_Kalmykia ESZ002 AIG006 BRE005 DA144 Yamnaya_Samara BRE006 DA145 MA1 BRE010West_Siberia_N DA139 Botai BRE012 DA141 BRE001 DA134 Okunevo BRE009 DA143 BRE003 BRE004 AG3 BIR012 Karasuk BRE011 BIR013 CentralSteppe_EMBA BRE013 Dali_EBA BIR010 Geoksiur_EN KBO001 Sarazm_EN BRE007 BDY002 Parkhai_EN BDY001 Bustan_BA KRY001 BDY003Dzharkutan1_BA HUN001 Dzharkutan2_BA BRE002 KKB001 CSP004 Gonur1_BA KKB002 CSP002 KLK002 CSP005 ALN005 Sappali_Tepe_BA CSP003 ALN003 ALN006 ALN008 Caucasus_MBA_North_Caucasus Caucasus_Late_Maykop CHK002 ALN002 Caucasus_Kura_Araxes CHK003 ALN009 CHK005 Corded_Ware_Germany ALN001 KEN003 KNT003 KEN001 KNT001 Srubnaya KEN002 KNT002 BGD001 KNT004 BIY001 KNT005 BIY003 AIG005 BIY005Sintashta_MLBA CHK004 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 Oy_Dzhaylau_MLBA SHD001 Maitan_MLBA_Alakul BIY002 Zevakinskiy_BA Zevakinskiy_LBA VOR001 Zevakinskiy_MLBA BGD002 Krasnoyarsk_MLBA SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 Aktogai_MLBA Kazakh_Mys_MLBA ZHR003 Dali_MLBA I0574 Tagar_900BCE ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002Sargat_300BCE SGZ001 Aldy_Bel_700BCE AIG002 BSB003 Tasmola_650BCE CLK001 AIG003 Saka_Kazakhstan_600BCE KBU001 Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE KSK002 Saka_TianShan_600BCE KBU002 Eleke_Sazy_650BCE_ESZ002 I0575 Saka_TianShan_400BCE BSB001 Pub_Saka_TianShan_200BCE KBU003 AIG006 DA144 Sarmatians_450BCE DA145 DA139 DA141 Sarmatians_150BCE DA134 Sarmatians_CaspianSteppe_350BCE DA143 Tasmola_Birlik_640BCE BRE004 Korgantas_300BCE Pazyryk_Berel_300BCE_o BRE011 Xianbei_Hun_Berel_300CE BRE013 Hun_elite_350CE Alai_Nura_300CE BRE007 Konyr_Tobe_300CE Konyr_Tobe_300CE_out Kangju_250CE KRY001Chilpek_800CE Aigyrly_150CE Karakaba_830CE Kayalyk_950CE HUN001 KKB001 Khovsgol KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 Baikal_EBA ALN003 ALN008UstBelaya_EBA ALN002 ALN009 Baikal_EN ALN001 KNT003 DevilsCave_N KNT001 Ekven_IA KNT002 McColl_SEA_GR1 KNT004 McColl_SEA_GR2 KNT005 McColl_SEA_GR3 AIG005 McColl_SEA_GR4 CHK004 Karitiana Pima Ojibwa Chipewyan BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 I0576 Mbuti AIG001 I0577 ZHR003 TAL004 Yoruba I0574 KSH004 ZHR001 AKB001 Brahui SGZ002 KYZ002 BSB002 KSH001 Burusho SGZ001 WAR001 AIG002 KYZ001 Punjabi BSB003 Sindhi_Pakistan KZL001 CLK001 Brahmin_Tiwari BKT001 AIG003 KSH002 Kharia KBU001 KKM001 KSK002 Lodhi TAL001 KBU002 Mala TAL005 I0575 Onge ESZ001 BSB001 KZL003 Bengali KBU003 Borneo ESZ002 Semende AIG006 BRE005 DA144 Ami BRE006 DA145 Dai BRE010 DA139 BRE012 DA141 Han BRE001 DA134 BRE009 Lahu DA143 BRE003 BRE004 Miao BIR012 She BRE011 BIR013 Tujia BRE013 Yi BIR010 Naxi KBO001 BRE007 BDY002 Mongola Daur BDY001 Hezhen KRY001 Xibo BDY003 HUN001 BRE002 Uygur KKB001 Oroqen CSP004 Nanai KKB002 CSP002 KLK002 CSP005 ALN005 Ulchi CSP003 ALN003 Nivh ALN006 ALN008 Evenk_Transbaikal CHK002 ALN002 Yukagir CHK003 ALN009 CHK005 Chukchi ALN001 KEN003 Koryak KNT003 KEN001 Itelmen KNT001 Dolgan KEN002 KNT002 BGD001 Mongol KNT004 BIY001 KNT005 BIY003Khamnegan AIG005 BIY005 Buryat CHK004 BIY009 BRV001 Tuvinian Khakass_Kachins BIY008 Shor_Mountain BIY007 SHD001 Altaian BIY002 Altaian_Chelkans VOR001 BGD002 Nganasan SMV002 SMV001 Enets Ket AIG001 ZHR003 Kazakh_Elder_zhuz I0574 ZHR001 Kazakh_Junior_zhuz SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 Kazakh_Middle_zhuz AIG002 BSB003 Kyrgyz CLK001 Kalmyk AIG003 Dungan KBU001 KSK002Karakalpak KBU002 Turkmen Uzbek I0575 Tatar_Siberian BSB001 Tatar_Siberian_Zabolotniye KBU003 Tatar_Kazan AIG006 Mansi DA144 DA145 Chuvash DA139 Udmurt DA141 Mordovian DA134 DA143Tatar_Mishar Besermyan BRE004 sian_archangelsk_krasnoborsky sian_archangelsk_leshukonsky BRE011 sian_archangelsk_pinezhsky Veps BRE013 Karelian BRE007 Adygei KRY001 HUN001 Georgian KKB001 KKB002 Greek KLK002 ALN005 Bulgarian ALN003 Ukrainian ALN008 ALN002 Hungarian ALN009 ALN001 nch KNT003 Finnish KNT001 Estonian KNT002 KNT004 Sardinian KNT005 Sicilian AIG005 CHK004 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 K=11 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 K=9 Sarmatians_CaspianSteppe_350BCE BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 I0576 I0577 TAL004 KSH004 AKB001 KYZ002 KSH001 WAR001 KYZ001 KZL001 BKT001 KSH002 KKM001 TAL001 TAL005 ESZ001 KZL003 ESZ002 BRE005 BRE006 BRE010 BRE012 BRE001 BRE009 BRE003 BIR012 BIR013 BIR010 KBO001 BDY002 BDY001 BDY003 BRE002 CSP004 CSP002 CSP005 CSP003 ALN006 CHK002 CHK003 CHK005 KEN003 KEN001 KEN002 BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 K=7 Sarmatians_450BCE BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 Aldy_Bel_700BCE ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 Tasmola_650BCE CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 Eleke_Sazy_650BCE_ESZ002 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 Tasmola_Birlik_640BCE BRE013 BRE007 Korgantas_300BCE KRY001 HUN001 Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE_o KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 Saka_TianShan_600BCE ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 Saka_TianShan_400BCE KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 LBA Sargat_300BCE BGD001 BIY001 BIY003 BIY005 BIY009 BRV001 BIY008 BIY007 SHD001 BIY002 VOR001 BGD002 SMV002 SMV001 AIG001 ZHR003 I0574 ZHR001 SGZ002 BSB002 SGZ001 AIG002 BSB003 CLK001 AIG003 KBU001 KSK002 KBU002 I0575 BSB001 KBU003 AIG006 DA144 DA145 DA139 DA141 DA134 DA143 BRE004 BRE011 BRE013 BRE007 KRY001 HUN001 KKB001 KKB002 KLK002 ALN005 ALN003 ALN008 ALN002 ALN009 ALN001 KNT003 KNT001 KNT002 KNT004 KNT005 AIG005 CHK004 A K=2 K=3 K=4 K=5 K=6 K=8 K=10 K=12 K=2 B K=4 K=6 K=8 K=10 K=11 D 0.5975 0.5950 0.5825 0.5800 0.5775 0.5750 K genetic components tested (10 runs per K)

Fig. S2. Unsupervised ADMIXTURE analyses. A) Set of present-day worldwide populations included. B) Set of ancient Eurasian individuals. C) Highlight of the new individuals and some key reference groups. The colored symbols match the ones in Figure 2. D) Boxplot of cross validation errors (CV-error) for 10 independent runs for each K tested (from 2 to 16), showing that K=11 and K=12 minimize the error.

0.265 0.275 0.285 f3(mbuti;eleke_sazy_650bce,x) BRE004 UstBelaya_EBA Khovsgol Okunevo EHG Taldy_650BCE Sintashta_MLBA_o1 Kumsay_EBA CentralSteppe_EMBA Dali_EBA Botai Karakemer_700BCE Sintashta_MLBA_o3 West_Siberia_N Kanai_MBA 0.265 0.280 0.295 f3(mbuti;karashoky_750bce,x) Okunevo BDY003 Baikal_EN Dali_EBA Kolyma_M CentralSteppe_EMBA Baikal_EBA BRE002 Botai Kanai_MBA West_Siberia_N UstBelaya_EBA Khovsgol Saka_Kazakhstan_600BCE Akbeit_700BCE 0.265 0.275 f3(mbuti;berel_300bce,x) EHG Baikal_EBA CentralSteppe_EMBA Kumsay_EBA Saami_IA Mereke_MBA Okunevo Sintashta_MLBA_o3 Khovsgol UstBelaya_EBA BRE004 Botai Dali_EBA Kanai_MBA West_Siberia_N 0.265 0.275 f3(mbuti;caspan_450bce,x) Georgievsky_LBA Saka_Kazakhstan_600BCE Okunevo CentralSteppe_EMBA EHG Eleke_Sazy_650BCE Karakemer_700BCE Kumsay_EBA Sintashta_MLBA_o3 Mereke_MBA Dali_EBA Kanai_MBA Botai Akbeit_700BCE West_Siberia_N 0.265 0.275 f3(mbuti;ken Su_250BCE,X) Aktogai_MLBA Yamnaya_Samara Oy_Dzhaylau_MLBA SHG Kyzlbulak_MLBA1 Afanasievo Botai Georgievsky_LBA Satan_MLBA_Alakul EHG Mereke_MBA Kumsay_EBA Sintashta_MLBA_o3 West_Siberia_N Dali_EBA 0.265 0.275 f3(mbuti;mtbitiya_250bce,x) Priobrazhenka_LBA Georgievsky_LBA Sintashta_MLBA_o1 SHG Zevakinskiy_BA Kanai_MBA Shmakovo_350BCE SHD001 EHG Mereke_MBA Kumsay_EBA Sintashta_MLBA_o3 Dali_EBA Botai West_Siberia_N 0.270 0.280 f3(mbuti;bisoba_400bce,x) West_Siberia_N Lisakovskiy_MLBA_Alakul Chanchar_LBA Poltavka Afanasievo Aktogai_MLBA Kashkarchi_BA Solyanka_MLBA Sintashta_MLBA_o2 Zevakinskiy_BA SHG EHG Kyzlbulak_MLBA1 Kaynbulak_400BCE Georgievsky_LBA 0.270 0.280 f3(mbuti;aigyrly_550bce,x) West_Siberia_N Kumsay_EBA Zevakinskiy_BA Kyzlbulak_MLBA1 EHG Poltavka Krasnoyarsk_MLBA Mereke_MBA SHG Aktogai_MLBA Yamnaya_Samara Afanasievo Satan_MLBA_Alakul Karagash_MLBA Georgievsky_LBA 0.290 0.300 f3(mbuti;bir013_640bce,x) Saqqaq.SG Baikal_EBA Khovsgol UstBelaya_EBA Yana_MED KBO001 LateDorset.SG Kayalyk_950CE BIR012 BRE002 Baikal_EN UstBelaya_N DevilsCave_N 0.285 0.300 f3(mbuti;bdy002_300bce,x) UstIda_LN Saqqaq.SG DevilsCave_N BIR013 Khovsgol UstBelaya_EBA Kayalyk_950CE BIR010 Yana_MED Baikal_EBA Baikal_EN BRE002 KBO001 0.290 0.305 0.320 f3(mbuti;bre002_250bce,x) Yana_MED BDY002 Khovsgol LateDorset.SG Baikal_EBA Kayalyk_950CE Saqqaq.SG UstBelaya_EBA DevilsCave_N UstBelaya_N Baikal_EN KBO001 BIR012 0.290 0.300 0.310 f3(mbuti;_300ce,x) Khovsgol BDY002 Saqqaq.SG BIR013 LateDorset.SG Baikal_EBA Kayalyk_950CE UstBelaya_EBA BIR012 Yana_MED KBO001 BRE002 UstBelaya_N DevilsCave_N Baikal_EN 0.275 0.290 f3(mbuti;hungary_hun_350ce,x) McColl_SEA_GR4 Magadan_BA Kayalyk_950CE Khovsgol Baikal_EBA Yana_MED BIR013 KBO001 BRE002 UstBelaya_EBA DevilsCave_N Baikal_EN UstBelaya_N 0.280 0.295 f3(mbuti;kurayly_hun_380ce,x) Baikal_EBA UstBelaya_EBA BDY002 Magadan_BA BIR013 Kayalyk_950CE KBO001 Saqqaq.SG UstBelaya_N BIR012 Baikal_EN DevilsCave_N BRE002 0.264 0.270 0.276 f3(mbuti;konyr_tobe_300ce,x) Mereke_MBA Corded_Ware_Germany Krasnoyarsk_MLBA Kashkarchi_BA Sintashta_MLBA_o2 Zevakinskiy_BA Aktogai_MLBA Muradym8_Srubnaya Kumsay_EBA Srubnaya Karagash_MLBA Yamnaya_Samara Afanasievo Georgievsky_LBA Kyzlbulak_MLBA1 0.265 0.275 f3(mbuti;karakaba_830ce,x) Kanai_MBA BDY002 UstBelaya_N Baikal_EN LateDorset.SG Saqqaq.SG KBO001 BRE002 Magadan_BA Kayalyk_950CE Yana_MED Baikal_EBA Khovsgol UstBelaya_EBA

Fig. S3. Outgroup f3-statistics. Outgroup f3-statistics in the form f3(mbuti; Test, X) for a selected set of new sites (Test) as representative of the main cultures reporting the top 15 ancient groups (X) showing the highest affinity with the Tests. Plots are colored coded according to their cultural affiliation of the Test. Overall all Kazakh Steppe Scythians show a higher affinity towards other Kazakh Steppe Scythians or with preceding steppe_mlba groups and earlier BA/Eneolithic Steppe populations (Botai, West_Siberi_N, Okunevo). The eastern Scythians (Tasmola and Pazyryk) with respect to the Sarmatians show high affinity also with Khovsgol and Baikal_EBA in line with them carrying higher eastern ancestry. The Iron Age Tasmola, Pazyryk, Korgantas eastern outliers and the post-iron Age Xianbei-Hun individuals show the highest affinity with each other or other ancient East Asian such as Devils_Cave_N. Key reference groups are highlighted in green.

Weighted AC (x 10 4 ) 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 Sargat_300BCE_Khovsgol.steppe_MLBA 1 pulse (31.77 ± 4.29); dist=0.5cm 0 5 10 15 20 Distance (cm) Sarmatians_450BCE_Khovsgol.steppe_MLBA Sarmatians_150BCE_Khovsgol.steppe_MLBA 55 50 1 pulse (29.78 ± 10.74); dist=0.5cm 40 35 1 pulse (43.45 ± 7.7); dist=0.5cm Weighted AC (x 10 4 ) 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Weighted AC (x 10 4 ) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 5 10 10 15 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 Distance (cm) Distance (cm) Hun_elite_350CE_DevilsCave_N.steppe_MLBA Karakaba_830CE_DevilsCave_N.Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA Kayalyk_950CE_DevilsCave_N.steppe_MLBA Weighted AC (x 10 4 ) 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 1 pulse (0.79 ± 8.15); dist=0.5cm Weighted AC (x 10 4 ) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 1 pulse (12.39 ± 4.28); dist=0.5cm Weighted AC (x 10 4 ) 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1 pulse (17.82 ± 11.32); dist=0.5cm 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 Distance (cm) Distance (cm) Distance (cm)

Fig. S4. DATES admixture dating curves. Weighted ancestry covariant decays for some the key admixtures events described in the text. The target groups and the 2-way admixing sources tested are reported on top of each panel in the form Target_source1.source2. The red curves represent the fitted exponential function from which the number of generations since admixture are retrieved (reported in the top right box).

A B Elder_zhuz Junior_zhuz Kazakh_HO Middle_zhuz other PC2 (1.21%) 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2 Kazakh Zhuz Elder_zhuz Junior_zhuz Middle_zhuz other 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 PC1 (1.23%) C 43.19 39.94 36.69 33.45 30.2 26.95 23.7 20.45 17.21 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Karachai Gagauz Kazakh Uygur Kumyk Uzbek Kyrgyz Azeri Karakalpak Mongol Balkar Kalmyk Turkmen Kazakh_new 13.96

Fig. S5. Genetic structure of present-day ethnic Kazakhs. A) Map showing the birthplace of the newly produced genome-wide data for 96 Kazakh individuals belonging to the three main Zhuzh hordes existing in Kazakhstan. B) PCA performed on Kazakh individuals. C) finestructure clustering dendrogram (top) and CHROMOPAINTER chunklength matrix calculated on all present-day southern Steppe populations from Jeong et al., 2019.

Supplementary Tables Table S1. Outlier removed based on the median of the first 3 principal components. The first column reports the median ± 2SD calculated within each culture group for each of the 3 PCs. Samples highlighted in red are the ones excluded from the respective group because exceeding 2SD from the median of the PC or PCs highlighted in red. Culture & PC medians ± 2SD Tasmola_650BCE PC1 = 0.00165 ± 0.0109 PC2 = 0.00865 ± 0.00297 PC3 = -0.00325 ± 0.0064 Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE PC1 = 0.0023 ± 0.0175 PC2 = 0.01 ± 0.0026 PC3 = -0.00015 ± 0.00616 TianShan_all PC1 = -0.0048 ± 0.01075 PC2 = 0.00525 ± 0.0063 PC3 = 0.0041 ± 0.0124 Sargat_300BCE PC1 = -0.00265 ± 0.00566 PC2 = 0.0128 ± 0.00821 PC3 = -0.00455 ± 0.0146 Sarmatians_450BCE PC1 = -0.0132 ± 0.0146 PC2 = 0.006 ± 0.00812 PC3 = -0.0023 ± 0.0202 SampleID PC1 PC2 PC3 ESZ001.A0101 0.0004 0.0098-0.0056 ESZ002.A0101-0.0069 0.0066 0.0037 ESZ003.A0101 0.0016 0.0098-0.0047 TAL003.A0101 0.0001 0.0113-0.0019 TAL004.A0101 0.0017 0.0097-0.0032 AKB001.A0101 0.0037 0.0084-0.0063 BKT001.A0101-0.003 0.0078-0.0018 KKM001.A0101 0.0009 0.0063-0.0047 KSH001.A0101 0.0019 0.0095-0.0033 KSH002.A0101 0.0018 0.0091-0.0021 KSH003.A0101 0.0023 0.0068-0.0013 KSH004.A0101 0.0058 0.0086-0.0018 KYZ001.A0101 0.0018 0.0075-0.0026 KYZ002.A0101 0.0059 0.0091-0.0049 NUR002.A0101 0.005 0.009-0.0035 SRK001.A0101 0.0061 0.0082 0 WAR001.A0101 0.0012 0.0087-0.0017 KZL001.A0101-0.0009 0.0097-0.0044 KZL003.A0101-0.0024 0.0056-0.0045 BIR010.A0101 0.0195 0.0094 0.0057 BIR012.A0101 0.0308 0.0119 0.0129 BIR013.A0101 0.0268 0.0029 0.0053 BRE001.A0101 0.0038 0.0087-0.0049 BRE002.A0101 0.0287 0.0102 0.0062 BRE003.A0101 0.0012 0.0115-0.0036 BRE005.A0101-0.0006 0.0089 0.0001 BRE006.A0101 0.0031 0.0098 0 BRE009.A0101 0.0007 0.0115-0.0027 BRE010.A0101 0.0022 0.0094-0.0003 BRE012.A0101-0.0008 0.0123-0.0016 CSP001.A0101-0.0018 0 0.0088 CSP002.A0101 0 0.0092-0.0042 CSP003.A0101-0.0075 0.0038-0.0005 CSP004.A0101 0.005 0.0075-0.0011 CSP005.A0101 0 0.0083-0.0049 ALN001.A0101-0.0101 0.0012 0.013 ALN002.A0101-0.0026 0.006-0.0043 ALN003.A0101 0.0014 0.0078 0.0032 ALN004.A0101-0.0061-0.0019 0.0121 ALN005.A0101-0.0003 0.0071 0.0001 ALN006.A0101-0.011 0.0063 0.005 ALN007.A0101-0.0119 0.0035 0.0145 ALN008.A0101-0.0013 0.0055 0.0021 ALN009.A0101-0.0128 0.0019 0.0114 CHK001.A0101-0.0053 0.005 0.0084 CHK002.A0101-0.0091 0.0033 0.0019 CHK003.A0101-0.0043 0.0062 0.0032 CHK004.A0101 0.0027-0.0008 0.0143 CHK005.A0101-0.0053 0.0065 0.0053 NUL001.A0101-0.0124 0.0024 0.0053 KEN001.A0101-0.0069 0.0041 0.0045 KEN002.A0101-0.0066 0.0046 0.0038 KEN003.A0101-0.0067 0.0050-0.0009 BGD001.A0101-0.002 0.0102-0.001 BGD002.A0101-0.0082 0.0134-0.0021 BGD004.A0101-0.0086 0.007-0.0067 BIY001.A0101-0.0056 0.013-0.0105 BIY002.A0101-0.0011 0.0168-0.0063 BIY003.A0101-0.0017 0.0155-0.0043 BIY005.A0101-0.0048 0.0141-0.0023 BIY006.A0101-0.0104 0.0073-0.0219 BIY007.A0101-0.0024 0.0126-0.0028 BIY008.A0101-0.0014 0.0196-0.0074 BIY009.A0101-0.0009 0.011-0.0048 BIY010.A0101-0.0041 0.0119 0.001 BIY011.A0101-0.005 0.0137-0.0115 BIY012.A0101-0.0031 0.0097 0.008 BRV001.A0101-0.0064 0.0098-0.0008 KOK001.A0101-0.0015 0.0207-0.0189 KOK002.A0101-0.0024 0.0096 0.0029 KOK003.A0101-0.0029 0.0126 0.0016 SHD001.A0101-0.0014 0.0156-0.0083 SHD002.A0101-0.0001 0.0222-0.0156 VOR001.A0101-0.0023 0.0091-0.0101 VOR003.A0101-0.0067 0.016 0.0026 SGZ001.A0101-0.0128 0.006-0.0003 SGZ002.A0101-0.0123 0.0063-0.0023 AIG001.A0101-0.0126 0.0093-0.0045 AIG002.A0101-0.0134 0.0042 0.0002 AIG003.A0101-0.0133 0.0051-0.0022 AIG006.A0101-0.0148 0.0035-0.0043 BSB001.A0101-0.0127 0.0067-0.0048 BSB002.A0101-0.0137 0.0057-0.0005 BSB003.A0101-0.0131 0.005-0.0028 BSB004.A0101 0.0133 0.0102 0.0019 CLK001.A0101-0.0146 0.0098-0.0015 KBU001.A0101-0.0132 0.0065-0.0035 KBU002.A0101-0.0146 0.0068-0.0025 KBU003.A0101-0.0133 0.0058-0.0058 ZHR003.A0101-0.0131 0.0055 0.0027 KSK002.A0101-0.0162 0.005-0.0094 SBL001.A0101 0.0037 0.0065-0.0053 ZHR001.A0101-0.012 0.0077-0.0007

Table S2. Significant (Z-score > 3 ) f4-statistics in the form f4(mbuti, group1; group2, group3) summarizing the key findings outlined in the text. Negative f4 values means closer genetic affinity (e.g. for gene-flow) of group2 to group1 with respect to group3 and the opposite for positive f4. Middle IA main groups Sargat, Pazyryk and Tian Shan Sakas show higher affinity with BMAC related ancestry that is highest (Z << -3) in the youngest southern Saka group. Sargats presents extra affinity to an ancient Siberian ancestry source distally related either to north western (Levanluhta_550CE, Scandinavia) or north eastern (Ekven_IA, Beringia) ancient proxies available. The western Sarmatians present less Khovsgol-like and more BMAC-like ancestry than the eastern groups. The middle IA Korganatas and Pazyryk outliers show a marked ancestry shift with respect to the preceding/main group, towards an East Asian, DevilsCave_N like ancestry. Outgroup group1 group2 group3 F4 SD Z Mbuti.DG postbmac Saka_TianShan_600BCE Tasmola_650BCE -0.00106 0.00018-5.87 Mbuti.DG postbmac Saka_TianShan_400BCE Tasmola_650BCE -0.00139 0.00012-11.05 Mbuti.DG postbmac Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE Tasmola_650BCE -0.00049 0.00014-3.476 Mbuti.DG postbmac Sargat_300BCE Tasmola_650BCE -0.00083 0.00014-5.918 Mbuti.DG Khovsgol Sarmatians_450BCE Tasmola_650BCE 0.00474 0.00016 28.68 Mbuti.DG postbmac Sarmatians_450BCE Tasmola_650BCE -0.00235 0.00013-17.31 Mbuti.DG Levanluhta_550CE Sargat_300BCE Tasmola_650BCE -0.00087 0.00018-4.84 Mbuti.DG DevilsCave_N Korgantas_300BCE Tasmola_650BCE -0.00593 0.00022-27.22 Mbuti.DG DevilsCave_N Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE_o Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE -0.00662 0.00032-20.96 Mbuti.DG DevilsCave_N Xianbei_Hun_Berel_300CE Pazyryk_Berel_50BCE -0.00573 0.00024-23.86

Table S3. Admixture dating results from DATES. 2-way sources admixture dates estimated for all the main groups analyzed in the study as well as individual based dates for the outlier individuals. Individual based dates are often nosier (large standard errors) as expected given the lower coverage of individual samples. age_of_admixture (BCE_CE) Archaeo_date_upper_bound (BCE_CE) Archaeo_date_lower_bound (BCE_CE) N. of years since adxmiture ± std.err N gen. since admixture ± std.err Target Sources Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Tagar_900BCE 18.79±1.98 545.05±57.59-925 -811-1413 Khovsgol;BMAC Tagar_900BCE 19.51±2.35 565.96±68.29-925 -811-1433 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Aldy_Bel_700BCE 12.35±12.81 358.41±371.49-750 -650-1058 Khovsgol;BMAC Aldy_Bel_700BCE 2.94±16.50 85.49±478.52-750 -650-785 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Tasmola_650_BCE 20.48±1.4 593.949±40.36-894 -411-1246 Khovsgol;BMAC Tasmola_650_BCE 22.23±1.70 644.69±49.24-894 -411-1297 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Pazyryk_Berel_50_BCE 27.72±5.24 803.93±152.19-360 123-922 Khovsgol;BMAC Pazyryk_Berel_50_BCE 30.03±5.90 871.07±171.12-360 123-989 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Saka_TianShan_600_BCE 19.78±2.49 573.85±72.35-808 -592-1273 Khovsgol;BMAC Saka_TianShan_600_BCE 21.25±2.21 616.36±64.20-808 -592-1316 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Saka_TianShan_400BCE 20.50±4.56 594.76±132.26-506 -100-897 Khovsgol;BMAC Saka_TianShan_400BCE 25.88±9.52 750.54±276.25-506 -100-1053 Khovsgol;BMAC Alai_Nura_300CE 41.40±8.94 1200.62±259.434 131 404-933 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Sargat_300BCE 31.77±4.29 921.42±124.50-403 -57-1151 Khovsgol;BMAC Sargat_300BCE 32.03±5.22 928.81±151.24-403 -57-1159 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Sarmatians_450BCE 29.78±10.75 863.50±311.61-771 -205-1352 Khovsgol;BMAC Sarmatians_450BCE 25.03±7.57 725.81±219.56-771 -205-1214 Khovsgol;steppe_MLBA Sarmatians_150BCE 43.45±7.71 1259.99±223.45-323 128-1357 Khovsgol;BMAC Sarmatians_150BCE 40.18±9.45 1165.25±273.99-323 128-1263 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA admixed_eastern_out_ia 3.05±2.38 88.62±69.19-400 -204-390 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA admixed_eastern_out_ia 3.82±3.35 110.86±97.29-400 -204-410 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA Eastern_out_IA 30.23±13.52 876.64±392.08-790 -182-1363 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA Eastern_out_IA 23.63±18.87 685.39±547.35-790 -182-1171 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA Xianbei_Hun_Berel_300CE 15.28±8.20 443.18±237.86 143 380-182 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA Xianbei_Hun_Berel_300CE 12.97±6.48 376.10±188.01 143 380-115 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA Hun_elite_350CE 0.79±8.15 22.91±236.29 333 419 353 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA Hun_elite_350CE 3.05±13.78 88.54±399.74 333 419 287 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA Karakaba_830CE 8.40±2.58 243.48±74.88 755 887 578 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA Karakaba_830CE 12.39±4.28 359.25±123.98 755 887 462 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA Kayalyk_950CE 17.83±11.32 516.93±328.16 800 1100 433 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA Kayalyk_950CE 127.77±88.83 3705.33±2576.19 800 1100-2755 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA BDY001-0.17±1.58-4.90±45.91-359 -204 131 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA BDY001 0.51±1.93 14.79±55.83-359 -204 112 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA BDY002 1.71±2.48 49.68±71.89-400 -209 64 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA BDY002 0.20±2.60 5.83±75.46-400 -209 108 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA BIR010 8.46±6.75 245.40±195.75-700 -300-145 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA BIR010 13.34±12.34 386.95±357.95-700 -300-287 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA BIR012 2812.70±1083.8 81568.21±31430.37-790 -546-81144 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA BIR012 863.74±329.57 25048.58±9557.59-790 -546-24625 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA BIR013 26.39±10.85 765.22±314.65-786 -490-423 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA BIR013 20.70±24.09 600.21±698.67-786 -490-258 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA BRE002 23.82±14.05 690.64±407.57-354 -182-595 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA BRE002 22.69±16.92 658.13±490.56-354 -182-562 DevilsCave_N;steppe_MLBA KBO001 63.63±38.22 1845.24±1108.26-400 -200-1745 DevilsCave_N;Tasmola_Pazyryk_IA KBO001-180.92±102.48-5246.77±2971.80-400 -200 5347

Table S4. Globetrotter analyses admixing sources. Contributing western (source1) and eastern (source2) Eurasian sources of admixture for the three main Kazakh Zhuzs (Elder, Middle and Junior). One date PC1 source1 target source1 prop.source1 target source1 prop.source1 target Middle_zhuz prop.source1 Elder_zhuz Europe 0.337544 Junior_zhuz Europe 0.354216 Middle_zhuz Europe 0.329473 total South_Asia 0.188237 total South_Asia 0.196452 total South_Asia 0.204497 proportion Siberia 0.0421822 proportion Siberia 0.0317835 proportion Siberia 0.0421978 source1=0.44 NE_Asia 0.0273994 source1=0.42 NE_Asia 0.0181851 source1=0.44 NE_Asia 0.0323173 SE_Europe 0.00702233 Beringia 0.00923661 SW_Europe 0.0169868 Beringia 0.00626218 SE_Europe 0.00588145 SE_Europe 0.0124428 SW_Europe 0.00339128 West_Asia 0.00422089 Beringia 0.00792898 West_Asia 0.000812292 America 0 West_Asia 0.00521646 America 0 East_Asia 0 America 0 East_Asia 0 Others 0 East_Asia 0 Others 0 SW_Europe 0 Others 0 One date PC1 source2 target source1 prop.source1 target source1 prop.source1 target Middle_zhuz prop.source1 Elder_zhuz NE_Asia 0.796729 Junior_zhuz NE_Asia 0.769695 Middle_zhuz NE_Asia 0.769695 total South_Asia 0.0998519 total South_Asia 0.108771 total South_Asia 0.108771 proportion Siberia 0.0516287 proportion Siberia 0.0503464 proportion Siberia 0.0503464 source1=0.56 East_Asia 0.0296812 source1=0.58 Caucasus/Iran 0.0390204 source1=0.56 Caucasus/Iran 0.0390204 Caucasus/Iran 0.0201873 East_Asia 0.032144 East_Asia 0.032144 Europe 0.00192163 Others 2.25E-05 Others 2.25E-05 America 0 America 0 America 0 Beringia 0 Beringia 0 Beringia 0 Others 0 Europe 0 Europe 0 SE_Europe 0 SE_Europe 0 SE_Europe 0 SW_Europe 0 SW_Europe 0 SW_Europe 0 West_Asia 0 West_Asia 0 West_Asia 0

Table S5. Globetrotter analyses admixture dates. Results of Globetrotter one date-multiple sources admixture (i.e. the best fitting model) for the three Kazakh Zhuzs testing the sources in Extended Data Table 4. bestmatch.date2.sources bestmatch.date1.sources maxscore.2events gen.2dates.date2 gen.2dates.date1 bestmatch.event1.sources fit.quality.2events fit.quality.1event maxr2fit.1date gen.1date best model target null.ind=1 null.ind=0 Elder_zhuz Junior_zhuz Middle_zhuz Elder_zhuz Junior_zhuz Middle_zhuz onedate onedate onedate onedate onedate onedate 15.266 0.884444 0.99945 0.999974 Bulgarian - Xibo 16.099 0.889704 0.99930 0.999972 Bulgarian - Oroqen 16.023 0.913266 0.99922 0.999975 Bulgarian - Xibo 15.479 0.894404 0.99944 0.999973 Bulgarian - Xibo 16.010 0.888084 0.99935 0.999972 Bulgarian - Oroqen 15.933 0.910697 0.99922 0.999973 Bulgarian - Xibo 12.53 17.786 0.062169 Oroqen - Xibo 3.622 17.286 0.055370 Nanai - Oroqen 14.97 18.852 0.116141 Bulgarian - Oroqen 13.83 18.485 0.060804 Oroqen - Bulgarian 14.09 21.436 0.043809 Bulgarian - Oroqen 14.82 18.151 0.088638 Oroqen - Bulgarian Xibo - Hazara Bulgarian - Xibo Xibo - Hazara Xibo - Oroqen Xibo - Oroqen Xibo - Oroqen

Supplementary Data files The following data files as provided as separate spreadsheet files: Data file S1. Information about the new ancient individuals reported in the current study. Data file S2. Information about the modern populations used in the present study. Data file S3. Information about reference ancient individuals used in the present study. Data file S4. Results of all the qpwave/qpadm genetic admixture modeling performed in the present study.

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