Possibilities and Limitations for Herb Production in Nordic Countries

Possibilities and Limitations for Herb Production in Nordic Countries B. Galambosi Agricultural Research Centre Ecological Production, Karila Mikkeli, FIN-50600, Finland S. Dragland Norwegian Crop Research Institute Apelsvoll Research Centre, Division Kise, N-2350 Nes Hedmark, Norway Keywords: Nordic climate, Finland, Norway, spices, medicinal plants, herb research, organic production, growing techniques Abstract During the last decades several factors have increased the importance of domestic grown raw material in Scandinavian countries. During 1984-2000 research concerned with herbs and medicinal plants was quite intensive in many parts of Finland. The first herb research started in Norway in 1993. All efforts in research and development aimed to help develop domestic production of herbs and medicinal plants, as a new alternative utilisation of cultivated land due to the surplus in traditional agricultural production. The main limiting factor for commercial herb production is the Nordic climatic condition. Growers have to use special growing techniques for counterbalancing the short and cool growing period. The other important hindrance seems to be the Nordic sociogeography. The dispersed locations of small farm units limit the concentrated and economical cultivation in many parts of the region. Contrary to the difficulties and realities, during the last 1-2 decades the basis has been founded for new crop production in the Nordic countries. Even the herb production culture is still young in these countries, the continued interest and the starting of the production on a real economic base has made herb production to be a small, very specialized, but constant element of the Nordic countryside. INTRODUCTION A great interest has arisen during the last decades in the cultivation and utilisation of herbs and medicinal plants within Nordic countries. Some research projects have been initiated at universities and research institutes over the last decade. In the light of the experiences of these projects, we will try to assess the realistic potential for herb production in the Nordic countries. There are five Nordic countries, but we will concentrate on the situations in Finland and Norway. The main limiting factor for commercial herb production is the Nordic climate. The Nordic countries are close to the North Pole. Compared to the situation in Greenland and Alaska, it is difficult to believe that we actually grow vegetables, strawberries and several herbs in the northern part of Norway. This is only possible because of the Gulf Stream, which brings temperate seawater from the Mexican gulf to the coast of Norway. The main climatic features are: short growing seasons and long winter periods, low effective sum of temperature, low winter temperatures (-0 C at the coast and -35 to 40 C in the inland), long and deep snow cover with great local variation, long days during summers with midnight sun in the northern part, intensive light and solar radiation, high moisture conditions in the long coastal areas, great topographical variability, and abiotic and biotic stresses for plants: snow, ice, wind, radiation, and fungi. The shorter vegetation periods, the low temperature sum in summer, the long and cold winter, as well as the mechanical injuries of snow and ice, all limit the range of cultivated herb species, and their biomass production. We may start sowing and planting in open field late April in the southern part, but up in North the same work start could be late May or even in June. Then the first frost may arrive in September. Another important hindrance seems to be the Nordic sociogeography. The dispersed locations of the small farm units limit the concentrated cultivation in the northern parts of the region. Due to the sparse population, the long distances lead to Proc. Int. Conf. on MAP Eds. J. Bernáth et al. Acta Hort. 576, ISHS 2002 215

expensive transport and logistics. The high cost of living in the Nordic countries results in generally high production costs in agriculture. Since herb production is relatively new, the above mentioned factors together with the lack of herb production infrastructure (education, research, advising, marketing, special machinery, etc.) result in mainly small scale and uneconomic herb production in the Nordic countries at the present time. Due to the Nordic climatic conditions, these countries have never been significant herb producing countries. The consumption of herbs, spices and medicinal plants was based on import. Well-known herbs, which originate from the North, are angelica (Angelica archangelica) and caraway (Carum carvi). These two plants have had some commercial importance during last century. Presently some rapid changes could be observed during the last two decades especially in the herb consumption, but also in production. This change is due to several factors: - The intensive tourism during the 1980s, caused the society became more open for the new tastes, new herbs, new types of foods, and the herb consumption started to increase. -An increase in ecological awareness caused alternative production systems (organic cultivation) and the alternative medical treatments became well-known and popular. -The popularity and additional income possibilities in production of the aromatised local food specialities. -The surplus of the traditional agricultural cultivation forced to find new alternative crops, including herbs and medicinal plants. - The hope to replace some parts of the imported herb raw materials and supporting the domestic production. -The low environmental pollution in the clean Nordic environment is in favour of high quality raw material for the pharmaceutical industry. -There exists a partly justified confidence in higher aromatic contents of plants grown in the North. During the last decade these factors have increased the importance of domestic grown raw material and necessitated large-scale cultivation and development of herb production. Realising the necessity of the changes in agriculture, the state and different institutes have organised numerous courses, research and developing projects on alternative crops, including herbs. During 1984-2000, research concerned with herbs and medicinal plants was rather intensive in many parts of Finland. The first herb research started in Norway in 1993, and the activity has been moderate. Generally, all efforts in research and development are aimed at helping establish domestic production of herbs and medicinal plants as a new alternative utilisation of cultivated land avoiding surplus in traditional agricultural production. RESEARCH AND PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES DURING THE LAST TWO DECADES Main Subjects of Herb Research in Finland a./ Obtaining information on the basic production techniques of herb species under Nordic climatic conditions (cultivation, collection, handling and processing), and on the suitability of species for local herb production (Galambosi et al,. 1991, Galambosi, 1997a). b./ The effects of Nordic latitudes, processing, and extraction techniques on the quality and quantity of the biologically active substances of herbs were studied (Aflatuni, 1999, Aflatuni et al., 2000, Kerrola, 1994, Nykänen et al., 1991, Pääkkönen et al., 1999). c./ Acclimatisation of cold tolerant new herbs (Arnica, Leuzea, Gentiana, Myrrhis) and the introduction of wild growing medicinal plants indigenous to Scandinavia were studied (Urtica, Myrica, Rhodiola). (Galambosi, 1993a, Galambosi et al., 1993, Galambosi et al., 1998, Galambosi et al., 1999, Galambosi et al., 2000, Svoboda et al., 1998). 216

d./ The latest objectives of some research were to elucidate Good Agricultural Practices for some medicinal plants, test registered herb varieties from central european countries and research cultivation of some endangered medicinal plants. Main Directions of Research in Norway a./ Testing of different herb species and varieties in different districts of Norway for overwintering, yield and quality (Dragland and Aslaksen, 1995, Dragland, 1996, Dragland et al., 1996, Dragland and Hagen, 2000). b./ Cultivation studies on native herb species: Carum carvi, Rhodiola rosea, Tanacetum vulgare, and Angelica archangelica for production methods, possibilities and challenges, (Dragland et al., 1999). c./ Elaboration of growing methods suitable for Nordic conditions: fertilisation effects on peppermint and nettle (Dragland, 1997, 1998), utilisation of different plastic mulches and fibre cloth in herb production, soil temperature, effect on yield, essential oil content and over-wintering ability. d./ Storing of dried camomile flowers at different temperatures (Dragland and Aslaksen, 1996). Content of cadmium and lead in herbs obtained from different parts of Norway (Dragland, 1996). Organisation and Financing of Research Activities 1. Industry. Industrial interest in financing herb and medicinal plant research is periodic in nearly all Nordic countries. Unfortunately large industry companies are not involved in the research and development processes. Only the state-owned alcohol company in Finland done research on aromatic plants used in the alcohol industry for its own requirements. Additionally some natural remedies and health-food producers involved in financing agronomic research in Finland use domestic raw material in their products (Echinacea, Gentiana and Rhodiola). No companies have been involved in the research and development processes in Norway, but a new firm called Norske eteriske oljer (Norwegian essential oils) is in close contact with the researchers and they are planning a joint project. 2. Universities and Research Institutes. This is the largest field of research subjects concerning herbs and medicinal plants in both countries. The universities are taking part in both local and national research and development projects. The results of the research programs are generally published in dissertations. Some universities and institutes are taking part in major long-term development projects. In Finland six institutes have done several herb research projects (Table 1). In Norway, the University of Oslo and University of Trondheim have taken part in several research and development projects on herbs. With the exception of the Institute of Pharmacy at the University of Oslo, research has mainly been performed by students. At the University of Trondheim, a laboratory for chemical analysis of herbs originating from research pays an important role. The Norwegian Crop Research Institute has been the most active organisation in both local and national research and development projects. 3. Financing of Research. The financial backing for this research work is state support, through different channels such as the Finnish Academy, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, other ministries and research foundations. In Norway, research is financed by state regional support funding and by state support to agriculture. An important feature of these research and development projects is in nearly all cases the lack of an end-user industry. Herb production and cultivation is not strong and extensive enough. Therefore the food and other industries use cheaper imported raw materials. No direct interest from industry or the wholesale companies has yet been expressed in taking part in the development process. After some years research, a few market oriented enterprises have started to organise the herb and other special crop production. Presently, caraway production in Finland is organised by two companies. In Norway, a growers co-operative organises caraway production, and another organises the sale of ecologically produced teas and 217

spices. The same co-operative has started a project to collect information about harvesting and harvest equipment. Some natural remedy producers have signed contracts with domestic herb growers. The Present Situation in Herb Production 1. Finland. General tendencies: The total herb growing area has increased rapidly during the last 15 years (Fig. 1). Production was about 100-200 ha between l984-l990. When state support for green manure crop cultivation started in l991, the growers began to grow spice seeds (mustard, caraway). The area reached a peak during 1995-1997 (2000-2235 ha). After this time some decrease in production occurred due to uneconomic cultivation in small units, but the good export possibilities for caraway increased the area from 2000 to 2700 ha. Nearly all herbs produced in Finland are cultivated in open fields (Table 2). The area of the greenhouse or other covered surfaces is only 12 ha with dill and parsley being the main species. Basil, chives, lemon balm and other herbs are cultivated only in small quantities. The special part of the greenhouse herb cultivation is the production of fresh-cut herbs (Table 3). During the last 10 years a rapid increase in the production of lettuce for fresh-cut use was observed. At present 38 million fresh-cut lettuces are produced annually. The market seems to be saturated. At the same time, the production and consumption of fresh-cut herbs are increasing continuously, reaching nearly 9 million pots during 2000. About 10-12 growers are engaged in fresh-cut herb production all year round (Galambosi, 1997a). Cultivated species: The most important herb is the biannual, caraway, since its mechanisation is relatively simple. At present the caraway cultivation area has reached 2200-2500 ha. The second most important spice seed is mustard. At its peak in 1991 the growing area was about 400 ha, but due to price and quality problems its cultivation has now nearly stopped. The third most important herb is the popular leaf dill. In 1999 it was cultivated on 162 ha (323 farms) open field areas and 8.2 ha under covered areas. Nearly all dill is used in fresh form for direct sales or in the food industry. Only a few tons are dried in Finland. Parsley is the fourth most important herb. It is cultivated outdoors and indoors, in total 20-28 ha, mainly for fresh consumption. During the last 4-5 years, the cultivation of garlic has increased to 24 ha. Production is widely distributed and on a small scale. Nearly 170 farms are engaged in garlic cultivation. About 10 different herbs, including some medicinal plants (e.g. coriander, angelica, oregano, peppermint, cornflower, nettle, tarragon), are cultivated on areas between 1 and 15 ha each. These plants are produced for further processing, for the health food industry or for the growers own products. The harvested raw material is dried, frozen or extracted. Nearly 20 different herb and medicinal plant species (St. John s wort, hyssop, camomile, anise hyssop, pot marigold, valerian, etc) are cultivated on less than 0.5 ha/species. Types of herb farms: According to the statistical data, during l999 a total of 1260 farms had been engaged in herb production. Under open field conditions 1052 farms cultivated herbs and 207 farms cultivated herbs in greenhouses. Depending on many factors, the herb farms can be grouped as follows: - Small herb farms for local consumption. The area of herbs is less than 0.5 ha/farm. They grow 10-20 different species for fresh and dry consumption. Marketing is to the local market, to local institutional kitchens, where they produce their own tea and spice mixtures. - Small contract growers produce leaf herbs for health food stores or the food industry. The share of cultivation based on contract is quite low. The contracting growers produce mainly dill, parsley or some medicinal plants (echinacea, mint). - Spice seed growers generally grow caraway on 2-20 ha/farm. They make contracts with marketing firms for the domestic market and for exports. Cultivation is mechanised 218

using grain machinery. - Fresh-cut herb producers grow pot herbs for fresh-cut consumption all year round in a hydroponic growing system. Nearly the whole production process is automated. The most important fresh-cut herbs in 1999 were dill (3.6 million pots), parsley (1.5 million pots), basil (1.1 million pots), chives (0.6 million pots) and lemon balm (0.37 million pots). Due to the high capital investment required for this growing method, production is very concentrated. - There are about ten specialised herb farms in Finland, which cover all aspects of herb production: they educate growers and consumers, process a wide range of herb products, produce their own raw materials and make contracts for buying raw materials, supply seeds, seedlings and advise on production (Galambosi, 1997b). Farm size and yield level: The general features of Finnish herb farms are the dispersed location all around the country and the small size. The average size of the caraway farms in 1999 was 4.8 ha/farm, but some of them grew caraway on 20 ha. The yield level ranges between 500 and 1500 kg/ha. The average outdoor and indoor dill cultivation area is about 0.5 and 0.2 ha/farm and the parsley area is about 0.2 and 0.1 ha/farm. The fresh leaf dill and parsley yield indoors is 4-5 and 3-7 t/ha, respectively. Due to the small quantities, the income of the farmers from herb production generally is not of importance, the income usually serve as additional profit. No accurate cost analyses or economic calculations are available due to the small sizes and quantities. Mechanisation: Generally, the level of mechanisation of herb production is quite low. The spice seed production is the only one fully mechanised, since the growers use grain machinery. Skilled farmers perform separation of caraway seed with sophisticated cleaning machinery. There is a lack of small, affordably priced leaf herb harvesters and root diggers. The traditional dryers are suitable for herb drying, but there are big differences in their energy consumption. With no special machinery for the post-harvest processing, the level of manual labour is quite high for small herb producers and the cost is high as well. The growers use machinery developed and constructed by themselves. At present there are some small projects running in machinery development. Organic production: Organic production is expanding continually in Finland. Since the health drug stores require organically grown raw materials, all medicinal plants are grown organically. Finnish consumers prefer herbicide-free products. Since weed control is not mechanised in organic production, the plots and yields remain small. Organic herb production is increasing, but still is very small. In 1995 the controlled organic growing area was 41 ha, in 2000 it was 155 ha. Collection of wild growing medicinal plants: The number of wild growing medicinal plants of any commercial importance is about 50 in Finland (Hälvä, 1988). Accurate data on the quantity of wild-growing medicinal plants collected is quite difficult to obtain. Many of these plants are collected for personal consumption by thousands of families. Numerous small local herb farms produce dry tea mixtures or other products. The quantity of dried wild grown medicinal plants is estimated to be about 4000-5000 kg/year. The annually collected drug quantities of some indigenous plants are: Urtica, and Betula leaves 1-5 t/year, Calluna and Achillea flowers, and Juniperus berries 500 to 1000 kg/year, Solidago, Filipendula, Taraxacum, Epilobium and Vaccinium leaves between 100-500 kg. In addition to this amount, there is a special product, collected by the Oulu District group of the Finnish 4H Association. During the last 10 years, 1000-2200 kg of fresh sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) was collected from peat lands and marketed primarily to Switzerland and partly domestically. Organisation of production: Herb production is distributed quite unequally over the country. The most important open field growing areas are situated in the south and south-west parts of the country due to the favourable climatic conditions. Greenhouse cultivation is concentrated in areas where the population density is 219

highest, suitable for the marketing and consumption of fresh herbs. West coast areas have significant production of dill and parsley. In the northern parts of the country the growing areas are naturally smaller, focusing on the collection and utilisation of indigenous medicinal plants. At present there is no marketing organisation for herb growers in Finland. The growers find marketing possibilities for themselves by direct contacts in the food and health food industry. Only caraway production has its own market-oriented organisations. Two firms (Arctic Taste Oy and Trans Farm Oy) make contracts and supply seeds and technology for the growers. There are initiatives for exports of herb raw materials or processed products, but generally the quantities are too small and the production costs are high. Caraway (500-1000 t), sundew (1-2000 kg), some medicinal plant extracts and chewing gums are only exported (Galambosi, 1997c). 2. Norway. The problems of herb production in Norway are similar to the situation in Finland, but the size of the production is much smaller. The total herb production area during 2000 was only about 100 ha. The most important cultivated species is caraway, whose production almost covers the 80 tonnes consumed per year in Norway. Fresh cut leaf herbs are sold in sealed plastic bags, and there is also an increasing production of herbs as pot-plants. About 4-6 tonnes dry leafy herbs are produced in locally dispersed herb farms (parsley, dill, peppermint, sage, thyme, lemon balm, oregano, etc.). Herb production is mainly distributed in the middle and southern part of the country due to the more favourable climatic conditions. We can find some herb growers also up to the North, selling their small production to the local market. Greenhouse cultivation is concentrated in areas near to Oslo where the population density is highest. The majority of dry leafy herbs is cultivated ecologically. OIKOS, the ecological society in Norway, has about 500 members in the herb division. The marketing organisation for organic herb growers called Norsk Øko-Urt has about 260 members. Long distances and small production units hinder effective co-operation. Therefore many growers have to find local marketing possibilities for themselves. After an optimistic start to herb cultivation in the first part of the 1990 s, marketing problems have stopped the increase of production area in the last years. Future Possibilities 1. Realities. Despite the positive changes and research, the international competitiveness of the Nordic herb farms is questionable. This is mainly due to the production being widely dispersed over large countries. The herb farms are small, and there is a contract organisation only for caraway cultivation. The production is not sufficiently mechanised except for spice seeds. Generally, there is no active central organisation for the herb growers. The industry and the growers make contracts directly. There are many beginners among the farmers and their yield and quality is variable. The herb production is expensive and marketed mainly domestically. In Finland, only caraway, sundew and some herb extracts are exported under the organisation of some market oriented firms. Herb research financed by the state and the EU makes continuous efforts to develop this special new production culture. Nevertheless, at present, herb production can only provide supplementary income for the growers. 2. Possibilities. On the basis of the experiences obtained, we see the following possibilities for further herb development in these countries: Choice of plant material: - Better utilisation of endemic herb species well adapted to the Nordic climate, such as Rhodiola rosea, Urtica dioica, Angelica archangelica, Tanacetum vulgare, Carum carvi, Drosera spp. and Myrica gale. - Introduction of cold tolerant herb species such as Arnica montana, Gentiana lutea, 220

Leuzea chartamoides and Myrrhis odorata (Galambosi et al., 1999). - Utilisation of the clean Nordic environment (low environmental pollution, organic cultivation) for high quality raw material for the medicinal industry (Dragland, 1996) - Utilisation of modern technology in the processing of herb raw material, thus counterbalancing the higher raw material costs (soft and dry extraction, new formulas, functional foods, infrared drying), (Korhonen, 1999). Choice of production techniques: Various growing techniques have been tried to compensate for the cool climatic conditions. Plastic mulches affects the soil temperature (Table 4), and therefore also mineralization. Some of these mulches are also widely used in ecological herb production to reduce the weed problem. Fibre cloth as a cover above the plants also increases the soil temperature. Covering all year round will give both better growth and less winter damage. At the same time there will be a reduction in light. What we have seen so far is that the effect of fibre cloth is dependent on herb species. There is not only an effect on growth and yield, but also an effect on the concentration and quality of essential oils. Results will be published by Dragland in 2002. In the future, using sophisticated growing techniques, growers may compensate in a certain degree the negative effects of the cool climatic conditions: year round indoor herb production (Galambosi, 1997a), transplanting of seedlings as opposed to direct seeding (Galambosi and Szebeni-Galambosi, 1992), using plastic mulches, fibre cloth and raised beds accelerate the growth (Galambosi and Szebeni-Galambosi, 1992, Dragland unpublished). CONCLUSION The Nordic countries have never been significant herb producing countries. At the same time, a rapid change has occurred during the last 15 years, especially in production. Due to the Green movement, alternative production systems (ecological cultivation) and natural remedies became better known and more popular. Realising the necessity for change, the state and different institutes have organised numerous courses, research and development projects for education on alternative crops including herbs. After some years, a few enterprises have started to organise market-oriented production of herbs and special crops. As a consequence of the different factors, the production of herbs has increased significantly. The cultivation area grew in Finland from 100 ha to 2700 ha. The development in Norway started later and was slower. In contrary to the difficulties, during the last 1-2 decades the basis has been founded for a new production culture in the Nordic countries. The research done and the dissemination of its results with continuous education resulted many new growers and even more new consumers. Although herb production culture is still young in these countries, the continued interest and the starting of the production on a real economic basis has made the herb production to be a narrow, very special but constant element of the Nordic countryside. Continuous research and developmental work is necessary for effective utilisation of the possibilities of the Nordic climatic regions. Literature Cited Aflatuni, A. 1999. Construction and experiments of standing oil distillery. In: Salo, R.(ed.): Mint research in Finland. Publications of Agric. Res. Centre of Finland. Serie A. 66:103-113. Aflatuni, A., Heikkinen, K., Tomperi, P., Jalonen, J. and Laine, K. 2000. Variation in the extract composition of mints of different origin cultivated in Finland. J. Ess. Oil Res. 12: 462.466. Dragland, S. 1996. Content of cadmium and lead in chamomile (Chamomilla recutita L.) and feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium L.) grown in different parts of Norway. Norsk landbruksforskning 10(3-4):181-188. (In Norwegian, English summary) Dragland, S. 1997. Effect of fertilisation on yield and quality of essential oil of peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.) The Norwegian Crop Research Institute, N-2350 221

Nes på Hedmark, Norway. Rapport nr. 20/97, 17. (In Norwegian, English summary) Dragland, S. 1998. Fertilization of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.). Effects on growth, yield and concentrations of N, NO 3 -N, P, K, Mg and Ca. The Norwegian Crop Research Institute, N-2350 Nes på Hedmark, Norway. Rapport nr. 10/98, 13. (In Norwegian, English summary) Dragland, S. and Aslaksen, T.H. 1995. Yield and quality of Plantago lanceolata L. grown in Hedmark, Norway. Norsk Landbruksforskning 9:101-106. (In Norwegian, English summary) Dragland, S. and Aslaksen, T.H. 1996. Storing of dried chamomile flowers at different temperatures and with different packaging. Norsk landbruksforskning 10(3-4):167-174. (In Norwegian, English summary) Dragland S., Paulsen, B.S., Wold, J.K. and Aslaksen, T.H. 1996. Flower yield and the content and quality of the essential oil of chamomile, Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert, grown in Norway. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 10(4):363-369. Dragland, S., Hagen, R. and Berentsen, E. 1999. Varieties, fertilisation, seed rate and sowing time of caraway (Carum carvi L.).Results from trials and research in Norway 1993-1998. The Norwegian Crop Research Institute. N-2350 Nes på Hedmark, Norway. Rapport 04/99, 22. (In Norwegian, English summary) Dragland, S. and Hagen, R. 2000. Yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.) a comparison of ten clones from Nordic growers. The Norwegian Crop Research Institute. N-2350 Nes på Hedmark, Norway. Rapport 13/2000, 11. (In Norwegian, English summary) Galambosi, B. 1993a. Introduction of Echinacea purpurea and Leuzea carthamoides into cultivation in Finland. Acta Hort. 331:169-178. Galambosi, B. 1993b. Consideration and experiences regarding the cultivation of medicinal wildflowers in Finland. Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31:161-166. Galambosi, B. 1997a. Use and production of fresh herbs in Finland. In: Concerted Action Air 3 CT 94 2076- Final Report Volume IV: Case Studies, Part 1. 295-305. Galambosi, B. 1997b. Traditional family herb production with organically grown domestic raw material. In: Concerted Action Air 3 CT 94 2076 - Final Report Volume IV Case Studies, Part 1. 177-184. Galambosi, B. 1997c. Market oriented processing of plant-based raw material with high technology. In: Concerted Action Air 3 CT 94 2076 - Final Report Volume IV. Case Studies, Part 1. 185-194. Galambosi, B. and Szebeni-Galambosi, Zs. 1992. The use of black plastic mulch and ridges in the introduction of herbicide free herbs. Acta Hort. 306:353-356. Galambosi, B., Kaukovirta, E. and Szebeni-Galambosi, Zs. 1991. Cultivation of spices and medicinal herbs. Dept. of Horticulture. University of Helsinki. Publications No. 18. 104. Helsinki (in Finnish, English summary) Galambosi, B., Honkala, Y. and Jokela, K. 1993. Production potential of wild and cultivated Golden-rod (Solidago virgaurea L.) populations in Finland. Acta Hort. 344:249-255. Galambosi, B., Sz-Galambosi, Zs., Svoboda, K.P. and Deans, S.G. 1998. Flower yield and antioxidant properties of Arnica montana L. grown in Finland. Drogenreport 11(19): 10-13. Galambosi, B., Galambosi, Zs., Repcak, M. and Takkunen, N. 1999. The effect of artificial feeding on growth, yield and quality of Drosera species grown indoor. Drogenreport 12(22):9-18. Galambosi, B., Galambosi, Zs. and Repcak, M. 2000. Growth, yield and secondary metabolite production of Drosera species cultivated in peat beds in Finland. Suo 51(2):47-57. Hälvä, S. 1988. Culinary herbs and spices of Finland. In: Craker, L.E., Simon, J.S. (eds.) Herbs, Spices, and Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in Botany, Horticulture, and Pharmacology 3:1-23. 222

Julkunen-Tiitto, R. and Meier, B. 1992. Variation in growth and secondary phenolics among field-cultivated clones of Salix myrsinifolia. Planta Medica 58:77-80. Kerrola, K. 1994. Essential oils from herbs and spices: isolation by carbon dioxide extraction and characterisation by gas chromatography and sensory evaluation. Academic dissertation. Dept. of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry. University of Turku 52. Korhonen, J. 1999. Construction and experiments of mobil oil distillery, In: Salo, R. (ed.) 1999. Mint research in Finland. Publications of Agric. Research Centre of Finland. Serie A 66:114-116. Mäkinen, S., Hälvä, S., Pääkkönen, K., Huopalahti, R., Hirvi., T., Ollila, P., Nykänen, I. and Nykänen, O. 1996. Maustekasvitutkimus SA 01/813; Loppuraportti 112. (Final report) Nykänen, I., Nykänen, L. and Alkio, M. 1991. Composition of angelica root oils obtained by supercritical CO 2 extraction and steam distillation. J. Ess. Oil Res., 3:229-236. Ojala. A. 1986. Variation, reproduction and life history strategy of Angelica archangelica subsp. archangelica in northern Fenno-Scandia. Academic dissertation. Reports from the Department of Biology, University of Turku, Finland 13:16. Pessala, R., Hupila, I. and Galambosi, B. 1996. Yield of different basil cultivars in pot culture indoors. Drogenreport 9:15. Pääkkönen, K., Havento, J., Galambosi, B. and Pyykkönen, M. 1999. Infrared drying of herbs. Agricultural and Food Science in Finland 8:19-27. Svoboda, K., Inglis, A., Hanpson, J., Galambosi, B. and Asakawa, Y. 1998. Biomass production, essential oil yield and composition of Myrica gale L. harvested from wild populations in Scotland and Finland. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 13:367-372. Tables Table 1. Institutions engaged in herb research in Finland Institution Projects/ herbs Publications University of Helsinki Academic Herb Research 1983-1985 Pumalan Herb Project 1984-1988 Mäkinen et al., 1996 Galambosi et al., 1991 University of Turku Angelica, Anethum, Betula Ojala, 1986, Kerrola, 1994 University of Oulu Special Plants of Nordic Finland 1996- Aflatuni, 1999 1999 University of Joensuu Salix myrcinifolia Julkkunen-Tiitto and Meier, 1992 Technical Research Supercritical carbon dioxid extraction of Nykänen et al., 1991 Center herbs Agricultural Research Cultivation techniques of herbs Galambosi, 1993a, 1993b Centre Introduction and acclimatisation of herbs Pessala et al., 1996,1999 Galambosi et al., 1999, 2000 223

Table 2. Herb cultivation in Finland 1996-2000 (ha) OPEN FIELD 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Spice seeds and medicinal plants: 1826 1894 1451 1421 2479 Leafy herbs: dill 158 164 162 157 parsley 25 28 17 17 others 43 23 73 44 Leafy herbs total: 167 220 215 252 218 Root herbs: 38 33 34 30 22 OPEN FIELD TOTAL 2031 2147 1700 1703 2719 INDOOR Leafy herbs: dill 7 8 8 8 8 parsley 2 2 2 3 4 Leafy herbs total: 9 10 10 11 12 INDOOR AND OUTDOOR TOTAL 2040 2157 1710 1714 2731 Table 3. Production of fresh-cut herbs in Finland in 1996-2000 Production (1000 pieces) 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Lettuce 26,822 30,835 33,405 33,331 38,490 Herbs: dill 2,789 2,977 3,452 3,668 3,765 parsley 1,310 1,574 2,652 1,529 2,271 others 1,374 2,064 1,800 2,667 2,986 in which: basil 1,144 - chives 592 - lemon balm 370 - mints 150 - Herbs total 5, 473 6,615 7,904 7, 864 9, 022 Table 4. Soil temperature ( o C) at 10 cm depth on a sunny day in August at Planteforsk Kise, Norway. The soil was covered with plastic or paper, and the effect is compared with the control without covering (Dragland, unpublished) Time of day Control Black plastic Brown plastic Woven black plastic White plastic Brown paper 00:00 20.4 + 1.3 + 1.1 + 0.5-1.0-2.0 02:00 19.3 + 1.4 + 1.2 + 0.6-0.5-1.5 04:00 18.3 + 1.7 + 1.3 + 0.8-0.2-1.2 06:00 17.6 + 1.9 + 1.4 + 0.9-0.1-0.8 08:00 17.3 + 2.0 + 1.5 + 1.0-0.1-0.4 10:00 18.3 + 1.5 + 1.2 + 0.6-0.7-0.5 12:00 20.4 + 0.8 + 0.7 0.0-1.6-1.3 14:00 22.8 + 0.2 + 0.3-0.4-2.7-2.4 16:00 23.8 + 0.2 + 0.5-0.3-2.9-2.6 18:00 23.2 + 1.1 + 1.0-0.2-2.4-2.4 20:00 22.2 + 1.6 + 1.2 0.0-1.8-2.2 22:00 21.1 + 1.6 + 1.1 + 0.1-1.3-2.0 24:00 19.9 + 1.8 + 1.3 + 0.3-0.9-1.5 224

Figures 3000 2731 2500 2000 1924 2235 2040 2157 1709 1714 ha 1500 1266 1000 670 621 500 0 219 233 213 101 79 88 120 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Fig. 1. Herb cultivation in Finland 1984-2000 225