Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials

The Open University of Tanzania Institute of Continuing Education Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials ODC 027 First Edition: 2013 Copyright 2013 All Rights Reserved Published by THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA Kawawa Road, P. O. Box 23409, Dar es Salaam, TANZANIA

2 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Contents Lecture 1 The Concept of ICTs 5 Lecture 2 Types of ICTs 9 Lecture 3 Historical Overview and Justification for the Use of ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning 15 Lecture 4 The Potential Benefits of ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning 33 Lecture 5 The Uses of ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning 41 Lecture 6 ICTs for Visually Challenged Students 59 Lecture 7 ICTs for Developing Instructional Materials 63 Lecture 8 Resources from Websites 79

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 3 LECTURE 1 The Concept of ICTs 1.1 Introduction The concept of ICTs has become a buzz word because almost everybody talks about it. Nearly all sectors all over the world, whether in industry, modern farming, office workers, education, leaders and politicians, just to mention a few talk about ICTs and how such technologies act as a fulcrum to lever national development both directly and indirectly. To what extent, do all these groups of people are aware and perhaps know about the meaning of ICTs, its types and the best ways to harness the benefits of ICTs in education has often remained a challenge. In this particular course, an attempt is made to articulate such an important knowledge. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Explain the meaning of ICTs; Identify technologies which constitute ICTs; Discuss major functions of ICTs in education; Demonstrate the role of ICTs in national development. 1.2 The Meaning of ICTs ICTs is an acronym that stands for Information and Communication Technologies. In the Wikipedia (2008), ICTs refer to a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store and manage information. Such technologies include computers, Internet, broadcasting technologies (like radio and television), telephone, etc. Other examples include technologies such as cellular telephone, fax machine, satellite dish, CD player, TV, VCR, Video Disk player, answering machines and so on. Ayala (2000) has defined Information and Communication Technology as "electronic means of capturing, processing, storing, and communicating information" which is based on digital information using computer hardware, software, and networks. Information and Communication Technology covers a wide range of facilities that can be used in

4 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials education as well. They form what is known as interactive multimedia that includes computers, Internet, e-mail, CDs, television, video, radio, camcorders, electronic texts, computer-fax, scanners and many others. All of these technologies that formally operated as separate entities are now pooled in one system of computer technology under the umbrella of ICT as multimedia systems. For example, one can now listen to the radio programmes using a computer as a receiver instead of the traditional radio receiver. Similarly, one can read electronic printed materials from books, journals and so on using computers and other electronic gadgets such as ipads and Kindle. Some of the printed material can be downloaded for printing and photocopying. This is a remarkable technological development that the 20 th century has offered. Pioneers are now working on computer technology to emulate human intelligence (artificial) that will be capable of predicting/recognising human thinking and sound to facilitate interaction between human and the computer, just as it is between humans. Such technological development would also be useful in distance education where by university lecturers will be able to interact with their students as if they were on the face-to-face mode. It is to be noted that the conceptualization of ICTs is often times confined to computer hardware and software, telecommunication devices and computer-based networks that facilitate productivity and enhances quality of output. The technology is very much articulated in such way that it is adaptable to various fields, different tasks in each field and is user-friendly. 1.3 Major Functions of ICTs in Education Within the education industry, ICT is flexible to perform various tasks such as teaching and training of students; educational administration; provision of digital library services and data collection, statistical analysis and graphing in research. These are some of the major functions that ICTs can do in education. Within each of these functions there are more specific tasks that ICT is adaptable to perform according to instructions given by a teacher or a student. Apart from various tasks a computer can do, the birth of Internet and E-mail have made it possible to connect computer users in the world to access information and materials. The emergence of ICTs has thus significantly influenced the global discourse on social and economic development in many ways. The use of technologies to create and apply knowledge is becoming a characteristic of all human activities and in sharing information through communication. The need for developing countries to optimize the use of ICTs for sustainable socio-economic development ought to be a permanent agenda across countries.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 5 1.4 ICT and National Development Essentially, if a Nation is to be transformed and developed faster, then the Information and Communication Technologies should be given adequate attention and application in day-to-day work. In this age of science and technology, globalization through ICTs is increasingly making an impact not only in education but also in other sectors such as business, industry, health and other sectors of the economy. One of the challenges facing developing countries such as the SADC Member States is the utilization of ICTs at various levels in all sectors for national development. The proliferation and development of science and technology has substantially contributed, among other things, to knowledge construction, technology transfer and the diversification of global economies in general. Information and communication technology in particular, has proven unremarkable facilitation in communication, teaching, knowledge, skills and research, to mention a few (Gunawardena, 1999). Most people in developing countries are becoming aware of the computer and its role in work places including in education. However, in most cases the potential is underutilised. Moreover, majority of the people are like pedestrians walking along paved highways describing how good the passing by vehicles are without riding them. Fortunately, majority of the institutions of higher learning are presently exploring various ways of meaningfully integrating the technology in teaching, research, administration and communication. ICTs are very useful tools in solving problems, accomplishing specific tasks and increasing work-efficiency, which is a prerequisite to increasing productivity. This point will become more apparent in the lecture on the historical overview on ICTs. In the case of Tanzania - and of course other SADC Member States, the Government has developed a general ICT national policy from which all sectors at all levels can draw and chart out specific ICT policies relevant to their unique local needs. This general policy directs that every sector in the country should improve work efficiency by integrating ICTs in work places. Activity Make list of technologies which constitute ICTS

6 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Summary In this lecture, we have discussed the meaning of ICTs and identified technologies which constitute ICTs. We have noted that ICTs refer to a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store and manage information. Such technologies include computers, internet, broadcasting technologies (like radio and television), telephone, etc. Other technologies are cellular telephone, fax machine, satellite dish, CD player, TV, VCR, Video Disk player and answering machines. Unlike in the past when these technologies were available separately, the rise of the internet has made it possible for ICTs to be accessed from one spot a computer with internet connectivity. Information and Communication Technology is, therefore, defined as electronic means of capturing, processing, storing, and communicating information. It is based on digital information using computer hardware, software and networks. It has also been noted that ICTs contribute to national development as they facilitate communication, teaching, research and transfer of knowledge and skills. These activities are essential in a situation in which the proliferation and development of science and technology are contributing to knowledge construction, technology transfer and the diversification of global economies in general. In the next lecture, we shall deal with types of ICTs. Exercise 1. In your own words, explain what you understand by the term Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). 2. Mention any three major functions of ICTs in education. 3. Explain how ICTs can promote national development in any SADC Member State. References Barker, J. and Turker, R. N. (1990). The Interactive Learning Revolution: Multimedia in Education and Training. New York: Nichols Publishing. Gilbert, S. W. (1995). Technology and Change in Higher Education: Symptoms and Suggestions.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 7 Grimes, G. (1993). Going the distance education with technology. Kaye, A. (1995). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, in N. Heap, et al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Miyasato, E. (1998). Setting the stage for dynamic use of distance learning technologies in education. Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.

8 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials LECTURE 2 Types of ICTs 2.1 Introduction ICTs can be grouped under two broad categories namely interactive communication technologies and non-interactive communication technologies. The most common examples of the interactive communication technologies include computers, telephones, fax machines, voice mail service, internet access service, on-line charts, interactive television programs etc. The interactive technologies are also collectively referred to as synchronous communication technologies. Non-interactive communication technologies obtain, store and communicate information in one way traffic. Such technologies include information in print media, television, video cassettes, CDs and so on. Information obtained from these technologies is either for reading only if it is written in texts or graphics or listening if it is in audio form. The information is stored in static form and the reader or listener cannot interact directly with the owner of information or even the media itself as one would do with the computer or telephone. Non-interactive technologies are also collectively referred to as asynchronous communication technologies. In this lecture, we will provide examples of interactive and non-interactive communication technologies and technologies which are classified under ICTs. We will also discuss types of computers, computer-based and web-based technologies. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Distinguish between interactive and non-interactive communication technologies; Identify technologies classified under ICTs; Differentiate computers in terms of size and memory capacity; Analyse the differences between computer and web-based technologies.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 9 2.2 Interactive and Non-interactive Communication Technologies Interactive technologies enable us to communicate with other people directly or instantaneously. Such technologies are telephones, fax machines, e-mail or a programmed machine such as computers and any other computerised technologies/ machines such as photocopiers and so on. For example, when a photocopier is out of paper it will inform the user to add paper just as it would inform when the toner is either low or finished. Such communication is said to be interactive as a human being responds to the machines notification. The computer itself is the most complex technology in interactive communication. It is the most efficient technology in obtaining, processing, storing, and organising, manipulating and exchanging information. The interactivity is a two-way traffic. As already stated, non-interactive technologies include print media, television, video cassettes, CDs, radio and so on. 2.3 Technologies Classified under ICTs A variety of technologies dealing with information and communication have been categorised under ICTs. These include: computer, internet, cordless telephone, cellular telephone, fax machine, satellite dish, CD player, TV, VCR, Video disk player, answering machines and so on. Most of these technologies are however dependent on the computer technology in order to function well and efficiently. For example, various isolated technologies use a computer microchip to be able to function efficiently. Examples of such technologies are photocopiers, music systems, printing machines, fax, video players, factory machines and even motor vehicles. It is, therefore, obvious that various technologies have been embedded (integrated) with the computer to work as departments within it. For example, typewriter, telephone, print media, calculator, TV, radio, fax, scanner, video, slides, etc., have been integrated into one family of a computer. This is the essence of ICTs. For this reason, you do not need to buy these technologies in isolation if you have a computer with internet connectivity. 2.4 Types of Computers A computer can be seen as a collection of cabinets, devices, components and wires that you can touch, see, drop, break and cut. This combination of equipment is referred to as computer hardware. Examples include the monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, disk drive etc.

10 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Figure 2.1: Typical Microcomputer System A Computer system has hardware (computer, primary storage, secondary storage, input devices, output devices), software (different types of programs application software and system software) and user (without human beings a computer cannot work). All computers, regardless of size, have the same basic components, which are input devices, CPU (ALU, Control Unit), primary memory, secondary storage and output peripherals. They require software in order to process information. Basically, there are two types of computers, i.e., microcomputers and mainframe or minicomputers. The essential differences between microcomputers and mainframe or minicomputers are that microcomputers have smaller memory and less power. They are also physically smaller and permit fewer peripherals to be attached. Figure 2.2: Laptop Computer However, microcomputers (both handheld like laptops and palm computers) are becoming more popular than other categories of computers because of affordability in prices and their portability in size. Hence individuals and small organisations can purchase them and can work with them anywhere at any time.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 11 Just as other categories of computers they are also very useful tools in solving problems, accomplishing specific tasks and increasing work-efficiency, which is a prerequisite to increasing productivity. 2.5 Computer-based and Web-based Technologies Most technologies have been engulfed or rather integrated with either computer or internet or both, thus are referred to as computer-based or web-based technologies respectively. The common examples of such kinds of technologies include: compact discs (CDs), digital versatile discs (DVDs), audiotapes, videotape, television (TV), video conferencing and mobile learning (m-learning). That being the case, the following section provides a brief description of computer-based and/or internet-based technologies in the context of education. These are the internet, electronic-mail (e-mail), Compact Discs (CDs), Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs), television, video conferencing and mobile telephones. 2.5.1 Internet The Internet is made up of millions of computers linked together around the world in such a way that information can be sent from any computer to any other computer in 24 hours a day. The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks that connects university, government, commercial, and other computers in over 150 countries. The Internet offers so many things you can do and participate in once you are connected to the Internet. They include using a range of services to communicate and share information. Many people, both young and old and from diverse cultures around the world use the Internet. 2.5.2 Electronic Mail (e-mail) Electronic mail (e-mail) permits a person to send and receive mails by using a computer which has internet infrastructure. Essentially electronic mail is one of the most popular features of the Internet. 2.5.3 Compact Discs (CDs) and Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs) Compact Discs (CDs) and Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs) form part of information and communication technologies. They provide a way in which a large amount of multimedia materials can be stored and made available to end-users when online or offline. According to Bridge (2005), CDs and DVDs are among the most common

12 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials methods of delivering e-learning education today. Bridge argues that one advantage to using this delivery method is that CD drives are standard on nearly all of the personal computers. Another advantage is that duplicating CDs and DVDs is a simple and inexpensive process that can be handled by even a novice user. Alternatively, audiotapes and videotapes can also be used in more or less similar way. 2.5.4 Television (TV) Television (TV) refers to a receiver that displays visual images of stationary or moving objects both live or pre-recorded and mostly accompanied by sound which is electronically captured, processed and re-displayed. Television can improve communication and delivery of messages in different ways such as by showing processes and activities that may not otherwise be available to the viewer or learner. 2.5.5 Video Conferencing Video conferencing is a system where two or more participants, based in different physical locations, can see and hear each other in real time using special equipments. It is a method of performing interactive video communications over a regular high-speed Internet connection. A videoconference can be either two-way (point-to-point) or multipoint, linking three or more sites with sound and video. It can also include data sharing such as an electronic whiteboard where participants can draw on, or text based real time 'chat'. Interactive whiteboard is simply a surface onto which a computer screen can be displayed, via a projector (Department for Education and Skill, 2004). 2.5.6 Mobile Telephones These are useful devices for communication and interaction between individuals. Such a technology can sometimes be linked and enabled by Internet (Hunsinger, 2005). These technologies have enormous potential in e-learning. Activity Make a time-line of computer development Summary In this lecture, we have provided examples of interactive and non-interactive communication technologies and technologies which are classified under ICTs. We

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 13 have also discussed types of computers, computer-based and web-based technologies. It has been noted that most technologies are integrated with either computer or internet or both. They are, therefore, referred to as computer-based or web-based technologies. These are the internet, electronic-mail (e-mail), Compact Discs (CDs), Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs), television video conferencing and mobile telephones. Exercise 1. Write brief but relevant notes on: (a) (b) (c) E-mail. Internet. Mainframe Computer. 2. Using relevant examples, explain the use of any two non-interactive communication technologies in distance education and open learning. 3. Distinguish between computer and web-based technologies. Support your answer with relevant examples. 4. Discuss any three uses of ICTs in any area familiar to you. References Barker, J. and Turker, R. N. (1990). The Interactive Learning Revolution: Multimedia in Education and Training. New York: Nichols Publishing. Gilbert, S. W. (1995). Technology and Change in Higher Education: Symptoms and Suggestions. Kaye, A. (1995). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, in N. Heap, et al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Legge, K. et. al. (Eds.) (1991). Case Studies in Information Technology: People and Organisations. Oxford: NCCBLACKWELL Ltd. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Educational Value of ISDN ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University.

14 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Miyasato, E. (1998). Setting the stage for dynamic use of distance learning technologies in education. Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. Taylor, J. and Laurillard, D. (1995) Supporting Resource Based Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 15 LECTURE 3 Historical Overview and Justification for the Use of ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning 3.1 Introduction This lecture describes the historical developments that led to the invention of modern computers. It goes on to discuss the basic computer organisation and how data is represented within the computer. You will note that the major factors, which lead to the development of computers, were the demands of users. The demands of users prior to the industrial revolution were very small because the available technology was limited. Following the industrial revolution and the development of societies, user demands for more automated processes increased. In this lecture, we shall describe the historical development of computers and the key people (pioneers) who contributed to this development. They are not the only ones, hundreds of other people contributed ideas and techniques. Although their mechanical machines look primitive by today's standards, many of the basic principles are still in use in modern computers. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Provide a historical overview on the rise, development and use of ICTs in education and training; Describe the historical developments that led to the invention of modern computers; Analyse contributions of different pioneers to the process of inventing modern computers; Identify specific features of different computer generations; Discuss the basic computer organisation and how data is represented within the computer.

16 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 3.2 Counting Systems The history of computers can be traced back to the early man's counting systems. At that time people used crude methods of counting which included the use of fingers, beads, stones, sticks, etc. They could count animals killed on a hunt, number of people in the family, etc. It was easy to count in groups of ten holding up both hands. That is how ten became the basis of our number system today. The early primitive people also needed a way to calculate and store information for future use. To keep track of the animals killed, they collected small rocks and pebbles in a pile. Each stone stood for one animal. As human needs grew due to the increase of population and the emergence of the industrial revolution, these methods were refined. The need for better methods of counting and record keeping resulted in many inventions of machines, which finally gave rise to the emergence of the modern computer. 3.3 Computer Development and Pioneers 3.3.1 The Abacus The abacus was among the earliest tools used in computations. It was invented around 500 BC. Despite its simplicity, the abacus has proved to be so useful that it is still widely used today, particularly in China and Japan. The abacus consists of a wooden frame with beads strung on vertical wires or rods. The Chinese abacus has the beads strung in columns of seven. The dividing rod separates the uppermost two beads from the other five beads in each column as illustrated in Figure 3.1. Figure 3.1: The Abacus This simple, yet effective device used to aid in calculations, revolutionized the trade industry and is still used to this day in many countries. The programming language of the abacus was a set of rules the operator would use while making calculations. The beads would hold the values of the calculations the operator had performed in his or her mind.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 17 Additions and subtractions were carried out by raising or lowering the beads. Multiplication is performed by repeated additions; and division by repeated subtraction. The abacus does not actually do the computing, it helps people keep track of numbers as they do the computing. The Egyptians, Romans and Greeks also had other versions of the abacus. For over a thousand years, after the Chinese invented the abacus, not much progress was made to automate counting. The Greeks came up with numerous mathematical formulae and theorems, but the newly discovered math, had to be worked out by hand. A mathematician was often a person who sat in the back room of an establishment with several others and they worked on the same problem. It could take weeks or months of laborious work by hand to verify the correctness of a proposed theorem. Most of the tables of integrals, logarithms, and trigonometric values were worked out this way, their accuracy unchecked until machines could generate the tables in far less time and with more accuracy. 3.4 Forefathers of Computing 3.4.1 John Napier (1550-1617) In 1614, John Napier (1550-1617) a mathematician who belonged to aristocracy of Scotland, developed logarithms which were called the Napier s Bones (Figure 3.2) for multiplication and division of numbers. The rods were basically multiplication tables inscribed on sticks of wood or bone. Figure 3.2: The Napier s Bones In addition to multiplication, the rods were also used in taking square roots and cube roots. In the same year he published his first log tables for translating

18 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials numbers to their logarithms and anti-log tables to translate logarithms back to numbers. They provided a method by which multiplication and division could be achieved through addition and subtraction. 3.4.2 William Oughtred In 1620, William Oughtred developed the slide rule based on the concept of logarithms. Both these inventions were widely used until the development of small electronic calculators, although a few countries are still using them for educational purposes. Amedee Manheim is credited with the modern form of the slide rule as illustrated in Figure 3.3. 3.4.3 Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Figure 3.3: The Slide-Rule Blaise Pascal a French mathematician, thinker, and a scientist, built the first mechanical adding machine in 1642. The machine was able to perform additions and subtractions. It used gears (Figure 3.4) and wheels in its operations. When the wheels were turned in the proper sequences, a series of numbers was entered and a cumulative sum was obtained. The gear train supplied a mechanical answer equal to the answer that is obtained by using arithmetic. This machine could only add and subtract, but it is known as the first calculator.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 19 Figure 3.4: The Pascaline Calculator 3.4.4 The Jacquard Loom or Weaving Machine (1752-1834) Joseph-Marie Jacquard, born in Lyons, France in 1752, was born into a family of weavers. The weaving profession was a long and tedious process, often taking long periods of time to produce the fine woven fabrics of that era. In 1801 Joseph Jacquard, invented a loom for weaving cloth as it appears in figure 3.5. Punched cards were used to control the operation of the loom. A needle that passed through a punched hole in the card pulled a thread that became part of the pattern. This process was repeated over and over. This allowed the loom to produce complex patterns and pictures in silk and other materials. Figure 3.5: Jacquard Loom The Jacquard loom was a technological break- through. Actually in later years the punched card was widely used by computer inventors for storage of information. 3.4.5 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) Leibniz, a German Lawyer, began to develop an improved version of the Pascaline automatic calculator, designed a calculator called the Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner (Figure 3.6) that could add, subtract as that of Pascal's adding machines.

20 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Figure 3.6: The Leibniz Calculator The Leibniz's calculator could also perform multiplication, divisions and calculate square roots. It was the first calculator that could perform all four mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and was also the first calculator that met with commercial success. By that time, industries were not introduced in which case Pascal's and Leibniz calculators were hand-made. The machines were crude but worked well. 3.4.6 Charles Babbage (1791-1871) Babbage a mathematician of England first conceived the idea of a machine, which could carry out complicated calculations automatically. He destined to build two such machines. The first, he called it the "Difference Engine" (a mechanical; digital machine) and the second; he called it the "Analytic Engine". In 1823 he built a small complete version of the difference engine as it appears in Figure 3.7. With the help of the British government he started work on the full machine of the Difference Engine, but it was not completed because the government funding on the machine was withdrawn. In 1833, Babbage ceased working on the Difference Engine and started working on the Analytic Engine. It was supposed to perform all four arithmetic operations. This is a mechanical device, which would have included the essentials of any modern computer such as a central processing unit, software instructions, memory storage, and printed output. The Analytic Engine was supposed to have the following components: Punched Card Input Punched Card Input is for inputting of numbers and instructions to the computer. In the modern computer, it is referred to as "input devices" for a similar function. The Store The store is referred to as memory in modern computers to store information.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 21 Figure 3.7: The Babbage's Difference Engine Mill In modern computers, we have the Arithmetic Unit. Automatic Printout Automatic Printout is meant for printing results. Control Unit Control Unit is meant for coordination of activities in the machine. It is, therefore, obvious that by the first half of the 19 th century, the built-in operations of the analytic machine had been designed to include everything that a modern general purpose computer would need. Figure 3.8: Analytic Engine Babbage's Analytical Engine (Figure 3.8) was soon to use punched cards, which could be read into the machine. The machine was supposed to operate automatically, by steam power, and required only one operator.

22 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials It can, therefore, be concluded that the analytic machine was a true prototype of the modern digital computer. However, because of limited technology of that time, the analytic machine was never constructed. More than 100 years passed between the time when Babbage attempted to build his Analytic Machine and when a similar machine was actually produced and put into operation based on the Babbage's ideas. 3.4.7 Ada Augusta Byron (1815-1852) Ada Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace, met Babbage in 1833. Her published analysis of the Analytical Engine is the best record of its programming potential. In it she outlines the fundamentals of computer programming, including data analysis, looping and memory addressing. Ada realized that machines someday might be built with capabilities far beyond the technology of her day. Because of her insight and new innovations she is considered to be the world's first programmer. 3.4.8 Hollerith (1860-1929) Herman Hollerith was born in Buffalo, New York, in 1860. In 1890 Herman Hollerith was working for the U.S. Census Bureau. Dr. Herman Hollerith, a 25 years statistician, was hired to help solve the problem of census calculations, which took them more than seven years to process by hand. He developed a device (Figure 3.9), which could automatically read census information, which had been punched on a card. The machine was used in the 1890 census and performed calculations in one-third the time that was required in doing the 1880 census by hand. Hollerith's tabulator was the first computing machine to use electrical processing means. Hollerith's tabulator became so successful that he started his own firm to market the device; this company eventually became International Business Machines (IBM). Figure 3.9: Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Dr. Howard Aitken of Harvard University invented the first completely automatic digital computer. It was called the Mark I. It worked very much like the Babbage's

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 23 Analytic Engine; a machine designed more than 100 years earlier. Mark I marked the beginning of the era of modern computing and "Babbage's dream come true". Aitken began work on Mark I in 1939. With the help of students, he completed it in 1943. The Mark I was a very huge computer, about 55 ft. (17 m) long and 8 ft (3 m) tall and it weighed 5 tons. It performed addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, plus logarithms and trigonometric functions and had an accuracy of 23 decimal place numbers. The Mark I was used for both industrial and military purposes. The internal operations were controlled automatically with electromagnetic relays and switches. Some parts of Mark I were moved by mechanical means. During processing, it generated a lot of heat in which case extensive airconditioning was required. Its processing speed was very slow compared to the computers, which succeeded, about three calculations per second. In addition to that, the processed results were very unreliable. Electronic digital computers in no time replaced the Mark I. Each innovation ushered a new "generation of computers. Each computer generation incorporated a major technological advance that made computers faster, more powerful and more efficient. Figure 3.10: The Mark I (a) shows the Left Side of the Mark I

24 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Figure 3.11: Mark I (b) shows the Right Side of the Mark I 3.4.9 Grace Hopper Biography Grace Hopper (1906-1992) was one of the first programmers to transform large digital computers from oversized calculators into relatively intelligent machines capable of understanding "human" instructions. Grace Hopper also developed a common language with which computers could communicate called Common Business-Oriented Language or COBOL, now the most widely used computer business language in the world. COBOL enabled firms large and small to compile computerized payroll, billing, and other 3.5 Computer Generations Computer technology has undergone many major advances in the last 60 years. Computer historians have attempted to categorize the different technological advances into "generations", that is, eras of computer technology grouped by age and technological advancement. However, the exact number of generations of computer development is unclear. Regardless of the exact number of computer generations, there are distinct leaps in technology that have lead to the development of modern computers. 3.5.1 First Generation (1946-1958) First Generation computers could do in one day what actually a manual operation would require 300 days to perform. Computers of this generation used vacuum tubes, in place of relays, weighed about 30 tons and stood 2 stories high. Covered 15,000 sq. feet of floor space and used over 18,000 vacuum tubes.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 25 The vacuum tubes created a lot of heat during processing and it required extensive air-conditioning to cool it down. The vacuum tube transmits electric currents in one direction. Actually, the vacuum tubes were the major innovation in the first generation. John Von Neumann (1903-1957) Figure: 3.2: Vacuum Tubes John Von Neumann had the idea of storing a computer program in the computer's memory. Before the introduction of stored program (computer program in memory) computers were designed to store numbers in their memories. A stored program is a set of instructions stored in the memory of the computer. Modern Day computers are based on Von Neumann's concept. Several storage devices were developed including magnetic tubes and drums. Punched cards were used for storage of data and programs. Processing speeds were measured in terms of milliseconds (thousandths of a second (1/1000)). First generation computers were huge, slow, and expensive. Because they used vacuum tubes, they were very unreliable, required a lot of power to run, and produced so much heat that adequate air conditioning was critical to protect the computer parts. 3.5.2 Second Generation (1959-1964) In second generation, transistors were used in place of the vacuum tubes. The transistors were the major technological innovation or break through of the second generation of computers. A transistor could conduct electricity faster and efficiently than a vacuum tube. One transistor could do the work of about 40 vacuum tubes. Transistors were small compared to vacuum tubes. Transistors Vacuum Tubes

26 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Figure 3.13: Transistor vs. Vacuum Tubes Transistors had several advantages over vacuum tubes, in the sense that, they were less expensive; they were faster, smaller, more reliable, accurate, required less power and generated less heat. Second generation computers were smaller, required less power, prices of computers dropped, and produced a lot less heat. The use of small, long lasting transistors also increased processing speeds and reliability. The storage capacity was greatly increased with the introduction of magnetic disk storage and the use of magnetic cores for main storage. High-speed card readers, printers, and magnetic tape units were also introduced. Processing speeds were measured in millionths of a second (microseconds). Like the software was also improved. Symbolic languages or assembly languages were used instead of machine languages. Compiler languages were also developed for the second-generation computers. 3.5.3 Third Generation (1964-1970) The main technological innovation introduced in this generation of computers was the introduction of tiny integrated circuits. These replaced the transistors of the second generation in computer industry. The low cost, high reliability, small size, low power consumption, and the fast speed of operation of the transistors greatly advanced the development of the computer and contributed to the later development of the Minicomputers. Processing speeds were in terms of nanoseconds (billionth of a second, i.e. a thousand millionth of a second: 1/1,000,000,000). The introduction of integrated circuits reduced the physical size of computers even more and increased their durability and internal processing speeds. The faster computers made it possible to run jobs that were considered impractical or impossible on first or secondgeneration equipment. They included the use of operating system that would allow machines to run many different programs at the same time. Activity 1 When and how were minicomputers invented?

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 27 3.5.4 Fourth Generation (1971-1984) In the fourth generation, Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) were introduced. This is referred to as silicon chip or a microprocessor chip with hundreds of thousands and eventually millions or more integrated circuits. At this scale entire processors were to fit onto a single chip, and for simple systems the entire computer (processor, main memory, and I/O controllers) can fit on one chip. Since the microprocessor chip is very tiny, the price becomes lower and lower, for that reason even computers keep on decreasing in size and become cheaper from year to year. An entirely new breed of computers called microcomputers was introduced in this generation. They are small and inexpensive, and yet they provide a large amount of computing power. Computers of all sizes and for all purposes have been manufactured because of the silicon chip. The microprocessor has changed our lives in so many ways that it is difficult to recall how different things were before its invention. The microcomputers come in various sizes, some of them the size of a book. It has similar capabilities like other minicomputers or mainframe computers in terms of processing speeds, computing power and memory capacity. In 1982, the laptop computer (a portable computer) was invented. As computers became the tools of more and more individuals, the software industry grew and adapted. Microsoft grew dramatically in the 1980's, predominantly with sales of the MS-DOS operating system for PCs, and applications programs such as word processors and spreadsheets. By the mid 90's, Microsoft Windows had become the dominant operating system for desktop computers. The introduction of other programming languages continued up to 1980s. Languages, like prolog, C++, C, and object oriented of C, C++, Java, etc. were also introduced. Activity 2 When and how were microcomputers invented? 3.5.5 Fifth Generation: Computers of Tomorrow: (1985) While generations 0 through 4 are reasonably well defined, the scope of the fifth generation of computer technology is still an issue of debate. Computing in the late 1980s has been defined by advances in parallel processing and networking. Parallel processing refers to the integration of multiple (sometimes hundreds or thousands) processors in a computer.

28 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials The fifth generation, is thought of more conceptual than real. It is understood to refer to Artificial Intelligence (AI). With Artificial Intelligence the computer is assumed to simulate normal human abilities of sight, hearing, smelling and touching. With AI, computers are supposed to have ability equivalent to human mental activity. But human brain is unbelievably complex and complicated. The computer should also be able to interpret sensory data and generate an appropriate response to that data. The research of such computer capabilities is known as the science of robotics (figure 3.13). A robot is an automatic computer controlled device, which responds to computer commands by performing some actions. Robots have many uses, and AI specialists working in robotics seek to extend these uses. Robotics is one of the most useful and significant applications of artificial intelligence. Until fairly recently, robots have taken over many of assembly-line car production. Robots don't get tired, they don't eat, they don't even require wages, they don't strike and they don't care about fringe benefits etc. Human beings require protection against occupational accidents especially in highly risky jobs such as melting steel, welding furnace, whereas robot welders are built to work even in fierce environment. Figure 3.14: A Robot at work from H. L. Capron 3.6 Mainframe and Minicomputer based Systems

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 29 During the 1960s and early 1980s the main frame and minicomputer based systems were essentially used for payroll and big research data analysis. The people who had direct access were part of an isolated and highly specialised minority known as Management Information Systems Departments. The computer systems worked as disintegrated islands of technology (Tapscott and Custon 1993). During the late 1980s and 1990s the technology has been advancing tremendously that it has been making a smooth transition period to the new technological paradigm shift in developed countries. For example the invention of a microchip for microcomputers and the massive production for the market has made leap forward affordable prices. 3.6.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a recent technological revolution that actually started in the 1980s. It has gained its technological impetus with positive popularity in educational settings in developed countries. Whereas other conventional media technologies had en-routes in classrooms, it appears they did not make substantive impact compared to the indications of ICT. Old technologies such as film projectors, radio receivers, television, slide and film strip projectors, overhead projectors, and so on have come in some schools and universities and gone forever or replaced by other new technologies. Good examples include 16 mm motion film technology which has been replaced by the video technology, a manual typewriter has been replaced by the microcomputer processor, and a duplicating machine has been replaced by a photocopier and so on. Most of African countries including Tanzanian classrooms have had very little use of most of the above-mentioned educational technologies and in most cases have never seen them at all, let alone using them. On the other hand, invention and development of microcomputer technology under the integrative system with telecommunication systems have paved ways of the use of ICT in classrooms in both developed and developing countries. The very nature of the technology in terms of usability, work efficiency and user friendliness; it appears it will forever be among the most powerful tools in the societies. Innovations of the technology will continue in modifying shapes and sizes, increasing hardware capacity and updating the software. Developing countries seem to be grappling well with the technology in work places and in classrooms. The upgrading of the software and the integration with the multimedia, the use of integrated data, text, voice and graphics have transformed the environment into the ICT societies. It is therefore expected that this 21 st century will make more openings of the technology to place the world at a better position in development (Tapscott and Custon 1993).

30 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Tapscott and Custon caution those organisations and educational institutions which do not make transition period to the new paradigm shift technologically will find themselves irrelevant or obsolete. Computing technology has had an explosive growth over the past thirty-five years. The impact of the technology to human development is becoming so spectacular that today the technology reconstructs itself and at the same time assists in the construction of other different species of scientific technologies. To its effect, societal development today is in axiomatic transformation, radically instituted by the advance of computer-catalyzed science and technology. Most of developed countries are now becoming computer-serviced societies and man-made digital systems. Most likely future generations of computers will penetrate even in human and other animal bodies to replace or assist deficient parts of the bodies or even to improve human biological and physical make-up of a body. Already in some computer/software laboratories, experiments are underway on how human brain can be assisted to improve both storage and memory retrieval system of information (artificial intelligence). Based on this trend of technological development on Information and Communication Technology (ICT), One will not be surprised in the near future to see a robotic nurse in hospital working very efficiently without complaints or strikes. One will also not be surprised to see a robotic teacher in classroom teaching and training students without claims of salary and fringe benefit. The impact of the computer technology in the society to an educator, industrial worker, commercial dealer, government worker or politician, medical worker, and many others, will very much depend on policies, strategies, conditions formulated within a working place and society in general. Just as important also it depends on an individual's ability to understand and work with the computer technology. Most of the young generation is flexible in coping up with the technology, where as some of the aging generation is slightly rigid and very slow and sometimes not ready to clutch it personally. And when the technology is around, they create excuses and sometimes overtly opposed to it in the pretence of being too busy with other duties. 3.7 Justification for ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning Historically, most initiatives which have led to advancements in Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) (the Internet, for example) had their origins in the academic community. Higher education sector is significant for Information Technology (IT) development and implementation and observes that universities have played key roles in the development of IT from the beginning.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 31 However, unlike before, the trend nowadays is for developments in ICT to be vendor-driven as organisations like Microsoft, Intel, IBM, Sun Microsystems, and so on, come together to chart the course of technological advancement as well as specify standards. The outcome of such activities is that while commercial and private organisations are making use of ICTs in their daily operations, the academic community is being gradually left behind. Observers have warned this trend has grave implications for university education. They warn that unless universities take advantages of ICTs to revamp the contents, modes of delivery and other aspects of university education, IT vendors may soon be charting the course for a revolution in university education. In a number of countries, universities have heeded this warning and quite a number of courses are now offered over satellite links via the world wide web, and the content of courses are also changing with interaction between tutors and students becoming increasing electronic. Research, administration and other aspects of university are now regularly done electronically. It is also quite common nowadays for researchers to collaborate on studies without ever setting eyes on each other physically. Literature shows that many scholars have attempted to provide justifications for the use of ICTs in distance education and in education in general. Focusing on higher education, Fisser (2001) provides a synthesis of justification that explains why universities and education institutions in general need to integrate ICTs. The first reason is government policy. It is established in a study by Gornitzka and Maassen (2000) cited in Fisser that the role of governments in supporting universities is decreasing. Consequently universities tend to move towards integrating technologies so that they deliver competent service to the market and thus respond effectively to the needs of clients. The second reason for technology integration has to do with the desire by universities to respond to demographic changes of students. It is argued in Collis & Moonen (2001) that demographic changes of students have an influence on both the increasing demand for higher education and on the composition of students population. These make universities to invest in technology so as to make education flexible to a wide range of varied students characteristics. The third reason is the market forces. According to Meek and Wood (1998) higher education should be relevant to the labour market and needs of future students. It is argued by Fisser (2001) that students of the near future will be learners who are more mature and can relate their learning to professional and life experiences. The fourth reason is response to the knowledge economy. This is another factor that influences universities to integrate technologies. This means that since economies depend on the development and application of new knowledge then education and technology are needed to obtain the necessary knowledge.

32 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials According to Gibbons et al (1994) students should acquire appropriate skills for the knowledge economy context which need to be reflected in higher education curriculum, in its content, structure, length and mode of delivery. The fifth reason is internationalization of higher education. This means that education becomes a cross-border activity in which the use of technology plays an increasing important role. For this reason universities find themselves integrating technologies in their operations including delivery of courses. The last but not least reason for integrating technologies in higher education is a response towards lifelong learning (Fisser, 2001). To realize lifelong education, the use of some forms of information and communication technologies is necessary. Based on these justifications and others specific to realities of particular institution, studies reveal that many universities in the developed world have made a move towards ICT integration in education delivery (see for example De Boer, 2004 and Fisser, 2001, 2006). Similar initiatives are also reported from some universities in developing world (as reported in Aguti & Fraser, 2007; Nnafie, 2002; Sife et al, 2007, Siritongthaworm et al, 2006 and Nihuka, 2008). However challenges of knowledge and skills of teachers and students, ICT infrastructures, institutional conditions and factors, supports structures for teachers and students and many others are well reflected in the literature. The authors believe that if other conditions are addressed, the challenge of teachers knowledge and skills can be addressed by providing appropriate environment for teacher learning to help them pioneer integration of technology in courses delivery. In this case then professional development program that integrate aspects of collaboration through workshops or seminars blended with systematic workplace-based supports through communities of practice are necessary (Nieveen et al, 2005 and Wentworth & Earle 2004). Empirically, Lave and Wenger (1991) suggest professional development through communities of practice as an effective strategy for promoting teacher learning about ICTs integration in education. They argue further that communities of practice provide teachers with a valuable platform for teachers to connect and interact among themselves, to share and support each other on their specific problems, experiences and lessons learned and they do that at their own time and place. However, professional development programs have been dominated by traditional strategies which involve fragmented and intellectually superficial workshops or seminars (Borko, 2004). According to Krecic & Grmek, 2007 and Putnam & Borko, 2000) the effective professional development is that which harnesses the advantages of collaboration through communities of practice. This is because of the added value that communities of practice have which include the fact that it allows a blend of workshops and seminars and systematic workplace-based supports for teachers that ensures application of new acquired knowledge and skills in real settings. Such arrangements contribute to teacher learning and make instructors internalize and apply the acquired skills for curriculum (re)designing, plan and use

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 33 pedagogically sound approaches and systematically integrate technology in education for quality teaching and learning. In this case collaboration through communities of practice becomes sustainable and more effective than in other professional development approaches such as one-time workshops and seminars. Summary We have learnt from this lecture how an instrument which started as a counting board known as an abacus by 450 BC then to a portable calculator for mathematical calculations today has become a corner stone machine with some form of artificial intelligence closer to a human being. Sometimes when you use the modern computer it becomes difficult to comprehend that it originated from an abacus mainly used for nursery school children in learning simple mathematics like adding, subtracting and counting. We have also seen that with the development of a microchip into a portable computer, it has been possible for the technology to have greater adaptation to human society in various fields of human development which includes education industry and health services. As microcomputers become integral part of human life in education and health services, the work becomes more efficient and accurate. The technology has made a modern world which, just a few hundred years ago it was unimaginable that at one stage of human civilization we would be interacting with far distant societies like a community in a village. In fact, it takes much longer time to go to talk to a neighbour in the same village or same city than say a person in England to talk with someone in Tanzania or Japan or Addis Ababa. The computer technology has developed to a stage of imperialism of colonizing all devices of Information Communication Technology (ICT). This is a creation of human kind in a struggle to reach other societies that have made it possible for this formally indescribable land mass appear like a village and much easier to describe it. In the next lecture, we shall study about the potential benefits of ICTs in distance education and open learning. Exercise 1. Explain how the early counting systems led to the invention of modern computers. 2. Analyse the contribution of any pioneer to the invention of modern computers.

34 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 3. The basic features of the modern computer are based on the analytic machine designed in 1833. Discuss. 4. Mention and discuss any four reasons for employing ICTs in distance education and open learning. References Davies, W. J. K.(1989). Open and Flexible Learning Centres. London; National Council for Educational Technology. Feldman, S., McELroy, J. E and LaCour, N. (2000). Distance education: Guidelines for good practice. Gilbert, S. W. (1995). Technology and Change in Higher Education: Symptoms and Suggestions. Guile, D. (1998). Perspective on Education Policy: Information and Communication Technology and Education. London: Institute of Education: University of London. Grimes, G. (1993). Going the distance education with technology. Legge, K. et. al. (Eds.) (1991). Case Studies in Information Technology: People and Organisations. Oxford: NCCBLACKWELL Ltd. Miyasato, E. (1998). Setting the stage for dynamic use of distance learning technologies in education. Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. Taylor, J. and Laurillard, D. (1995) Supporting Resource Based Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 35 LECTURE 4 The Potential Benefits of ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning 4.1 Introduction By the end of the 20 th Century people discussed about entering the 21 st Century. The expert explanation about the promises of the 21 st Century was echoed by political euphoria in rhetoric mass mobilisation as a time for science and technology. In that promise the public waited for it with enthusiastic hope as if the new century was like another brand-new fully furnished house. Others discussed about the third millennium of science and technology as if we shall see things already worked out for us to enjoy. However, the 21 st century or the 3 rd millennium is like an empty house for countries to strive hard to fill it either with new inventions or to improve what we have created during the 20 th century. Essentially the 21 st century is merely a continuation of other previous centuries starting with Stone Age technology, later to abacus and simple calculator age, right through to the industrial revolution to the present information and communication technology age. Each stage human beings had toiled hard with obstacles to event and use new technologies to solve various human problems including obstacles related to geographical distance, scattered population, expansion of population, diseases and climatically hash evils and problems connected with teaching and learning. The continued human effort has made a breakthrough to inventing Information and Communication Technology that started by the end of the 20 th century to solve the problems of information processing and communicating. Such effort requires parallel pursuit in utilising the technology. Hence it is expected that African countries will also endeavour in availing more new inventions and full utilisation of the technologies for more efficient and effective teaching and learning during the 21 st century. As pointed out earlier that Tapscott and Custon (1993) caution that each organisation has to strive hard using whatever means to achieve in acquiring and fully utilising the ICT to enhance its development, otherwise it may find itself irrelevant to the society it belongs. In this lecture, we shall assess the

36 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials potential benefits of adopting ICTs in distance education and open learning. We shall also identify constraints to the use of ICTs in the education sector in developing countries. Finally, we shall outline measures which may be adopted in order to mitigate the constraints to the use of ICTs in the education sector in low technology countries. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Specify potential benefits of ICTs in distance education and open learning in access course delivery, collaboration and interaction; Identify constraints to the use of ICTs in the education sector in developing countries; Devise measures for mitigating the constraints to the use of ICTs in the education sector in your country. 4.2 Potential Benefits of ICTs There are many potential benefits of using ICTs in distance education and open learning in developing countries including Tanzania. Thus introducing ICTs in education has an importance because of its potential for reshaping of teaching and learning to increase flexibility (Green et al 2002). This may occur through the use of internet-based tools such as Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) or Course Management Systems (CMS) such as Moodle, atutor, TeleTOP, WebCT, BlackBoard etc, discussion boards or chat rooms; and may be designed as a "blended" approach, with content available electronically and remotely, as well as "face-to-face" classroom tutorials and lectures. Specifically, ICTs have the potential to enhance flexibilities in the following areas: access, course delivery, collaboration, pedagogical and design skills and improved quality of teaching and learning. 4.2.1 Access ICTs can expand access to higher education especially for those who have access to technologies. According to Saint (1998) ICTs enables distance education institutions to put knowledge and learning within reach of all those who have access, at any time and place. ICTs offers the potential of to thousands of classes on hundreds of subjects/courses available anytime, night or day, at any place, at the convenience of students.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 37 Furthermore, ICTs have the potential to facilitate effective learning and allow any time any place learning which is convenient to working adults in distance education. In addition, ICTs can enhance flexibility for the students to easily access library online regardless of time or geographical location. Students can also access web based resources about the course anytime from anywhere thus taking the advantage of information posted by the teacher in the electronic learning environment. Interactions through emails have been shown to be motivating factors for students to improve their learning in distance education. Students can use emails to communicate with group members located elsewhere and plan when to meet for discussion about their assignments or projects. They can arrange for an appointment with the teacher to discuss about the assignment, course, project or related matters. 4.2.2 Course Delivery ICTs have the potential to enhance course delivery in (distance) education. Different forms of technologies are used in distance education to enhance course delivery. Such technologies can be computer-based or internet-based. The commonly technologies include: computer, Internet, mobile telephones, television, video conferencing and many others. However, appropriate training for teachers on how to use specific technologies is essential. Teachers need proper training on how to (re)design courses so that they can consider using ICTs in delivering courses. In terms of advantages, ICTs increase the flexibility in course delivery and more importantly students learning. For example, ICTs can offer teachers with flexibility in the ways to deliver the courses. Teachers can use specific technology to promote particular pedagogical approach for effective student learning. In this regard teachers can include hyperlinks in the course for learners to explore more information for their projects. Schedules/rosters, resources and some video clips can also be uploaded to provide learners with more information. 4.2.3 Collaboration and Interaction ICTs encourage collaboration and interaction between teachers and students and among students in distance education. Collaboration and interaction among students regardless of time and space transform learners experiences their learning in distance education. In this case collaboration tools such as mobile telephones, online forums, chat, e-mail and many others can facilitate communication and discussion for meaningful learning among student (Kukolja, 2004). 4.2.4 Pedagogical and Design Skills Pedagogy is defined in Wikipedia (2008) as the art and science of teaching. For effective use of technologies in delivering courses, appropriate knowledge of

38 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials specific pedagogical approaches is necessary. Pedagogical knowledge becomes essential when using ICTs in course delivery in (distance) education because it allows organisation of courses in a convenient way that facilitates development of particular knowledge, skills and competences among students. According to Nabeel (2008) adequate exposure to technologies and training is the key towards acquiring appropriate pedagogical skills among teachers in (distance) education. Broadly speaking, ICTs can facilitate in improving pedagogical skills of teachers for effective learning by students. Consequently ICTs can be instrumental in improving teaching and learning in distance education, education can also be made more learner-centric, individualized, and at the same time interactive and relevant for students. 4.3 Constraints to the use of ICTs in the Education Sector in Developing Countries However, most developing countries face numerous challenges which hamper effective integration of ICTs in distance education and open learning programs. The following are some of the constraints in the education sector in most developing countries: 1. Financial constraint and the need to increase students enrolments, 2. Dispersed student population especially in rural areas, 3. The desire for interaction with students in teaching and learning, 4. The need for equal distribution of educational facilities and materials in different disciplines, 5. Desire to network ICT facilities in rural and small towns where there are no electricity and telephone system and where they are available they are not reliable, and 6. Flexibility of time to all students due to the fact that nearly all distance education students at university level are full time employed workers. Despite the above constraints that compel the education sector in developing countries to face a big challenge in establishing and managing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) efficiently to facilitate distance teaching and learning, efforts towards ICTs integration need to begin at some point. 4.4 Measures to Mitigate the Constraints The constraints can be mitigated through the setting up of ICT Resource Centres, use of solar powered portable computers, adapting computer language to local languages and inducting teachers in ICT training.

4.4.1 ICT Resource Centres Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 39 Ideally, the African countries engaged with distance adult education for the communities and education for the students in colleges and universities should deliver it electronically to the institutions and possibly home districts or villages. This can be possible through developing ICT resource centres in institutions or tele-centres at district and village levels for community and students accessibility. Time will come in favour of developing countries to have highly developed technological environment for African countries to reach community individuals and students at their doorstep. However, for the countries that have not been able to reach people at district and village levels, efforts should focus on doing so as economic resources avail. The objective of having resource-based centres at institutional or district level or even at village level is to make learning more open to the public communities and students in particular which might not otherwise have been available due to various reasons. Essentially resource based learning allows open access, self-directed learning from a large and up-to-date information resource (Taylor, 1995, Davies, 1989). Quality education for the communities and students can be obtained through ICTs. It is true that education has a direct bearing to national development. A society with quality education can develop itself much faster than an illiterate society because it will be capable of applying new knowledge and skills at work. It is assumed that in each district headquarters, there are electricity and telephone systems, which form a necessary environment for installation of ICT facilities in each District Resource Centre. 4.4.2 Use of Solar Powered Portable Computers At village level where there is no electricity, ICT engineers have developed portable computers that use solar energy and very powerful enough to receive internet and e-mail services from satellite signals even in the remote areas. For example, the Digital Education Enhancement Project (DEEP) funded by the UK- Department for International Development (UK-DFID), is focusing on the use of new Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in primary schools in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa and in Cairo, Egypt. The aim is to serve disadvantaged communities in using ICTs using solar energy where there is no conventional electricity. The main purpose is to investigate the ways in which educators can use ICT to improve teaching and learning in numeric calculations, science and literacy based on the belief that all learners should have an equal opportunity to participate in high quality learning communities. The use of new Information and Communications Technology (ICT) can make the teaching/learning process more efficient, and especially where it extends and/or transforms learning. 4.4.3 Adapting Computer Language to Local Languages

40 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials For the rural and urban communities to be able to benefit fully from the ICTs, there will be a need of translating computer language into Kiswahili because most of Tanzanians do not know English language. Some Eastern African universities such as the University of Dar-es-Salaam are translating English computer language into Kiswahili. Distance education students for example, have always lacked access to a wide range of materials for study. Unlike students on campus, they mostly depend on textbooks, journals and course-outlines. Not all students have enough money to buy various recommended supplementary books and journals. Rural areas do not have libraries for the communities and students. With ICT, electronic database resources can be available both on-line network and through CD-ROMs. Using electronic database, the Resource Centres can provide up-to-date reading materials and bibliographical information for communities, students and course instructors or teachers by linking with various Web Sites. It will be easier for any member of the community or student to access ICT resource materials at local or institutional level than going to the cities or towns at provincial level. 4.4.4 Inducting Teachers in ICT Training There is a growing need for teacher education programs to include courses that promote teachers competences on ICT integration in teaching and learning. Such courses should focus at developing technology-pedagogy-content knowledge of teachers in a holistic approach. In addition, curriculum, teaching and ICT application should be integrated and offered together so as to facilitate skills and competencies on effective ICT integration by teachers. There is also need for sound ICT Policy frameworks and implementation strategies that are comprehensive enough to guide the change towards ICT integration in teaching. For example in early 1999, England and Wales passed a policy and curriculum that all teachers at all levels of school system must learn skills on how to use ICT facilities as a condition to qualify in the career of teaching. To implement this policy effectively, the government issued a statute that every qualified teacher at all levels of school and university systems will be given a microcomputer for ICT use. Since developed countries have made such efforts successfully within a short time in improving the quality of delivering distance education at various levels of educational system including universities, it should also be possible for African countries to emulate such efforts. Activity Discuss how ICTs can bring a change in distance education in Tanzania.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 41 Summary In this lecture, we have assessed the potential benefits of adopting ICTs in distance education and open learning. We have also identified constraints to the use of ICTs in the education sector in developing countries. Finally, we have outlined measures which may be adopted in order to mitigate the constraints to the use of ICTs in the education sector in low technology countries. In the next lecture, we shall discuss about the specific uses of ICTs in distance education and open learning. Exercise 1. Analyze the potential of any SADC Member State in employing ICTs in education and training. 2. Explain how the web can be employed in developing ICTs instructional materials. 3. Using relevant examples, discuss any two major functions of ICTs in any field other than education. 4. Identify essential conditions for ICTs to fulfil their major functions in education and training. 5. Identify and discuss any two measures for enhancing the potential of ICTs in any SADC Member State. References Barker, J. and Turker, R. N. (1990). The Interactive Learning Revolution: Multimedia in Education and Training. New York: Nichols Publishing. Feldman, S., McELroy, J. E and LaCour, N. (2000). Distance education: Guidelines for good practice. Gilbert, S. W. (1995). Technology and Change in Higher Education: Symptoms and Suggestions. Guile, D. (1998). Perspective on Education Policy: Information and Communication Technology and Education. London: Institute of Education: University of London. Grimes, G. (1993). Going the distance education with technology.

42 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Kaye, A. (1995). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, in N. Heap, et al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Educational Value of ISDN ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraww Hill, Inc. Taylor, J. and Laurillard, D. (1995) Supporting Resource Based Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. University of Dar-es-Salaam. Publications Section 1998. UDSM Prospectus 1998/99; Research and Wymer. I. K. The Open University and Adult Studies: A Movement towards Social Education. U.K: Ivor K. Wymer.

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44 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials LECTURE 5 The Uses of ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning 5.1 Introduction Computers control most of the electro-machines today and as such work becomes more efficient, safe, accurate and cost-effective. Likewise, most of industrial or factory machines are automated and controlled by the computer technology. As a result they have transformed human working conditions at the same time have reduced human labour. This includes robotics technology, which is also driven by computer technology to enable it function according to the programs built in. In this lecture, we shall study about the uses of ICTs in distance education and open learning. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Identify and discuss general uses of ICTs; Explain how ICTs are employed in education in general and in the specific areas of educational and instructional programmes, preparation of teaching and learning materials, library service and educational research in particular; Discuss technologies which are widely employed in providing ICTs instructional materials in distance education and open learning. 5.2 General Uses of ICTs 5.2.1 Computers in Industry A wide range of science and engineering work today is facilitated by the use of computer technology. Nearly all aspects of industrial management, production, marketing and laboratory-research today are done by machines, which are controlled by computer technology. With the use of computer technology, it has

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 45 been possible to automate manufacturing process in industry. For example, designing, prototyping, production, and material transfer. Today, computerized design facilities are integrated with the production process in the industry control system. 5.2.2 Computers in Business Before the advent of computer technology, accounting and finance transactions, required many accountants. With the introduction of computer technology, various programs have been developed to perform and control duties such as inventory management, accounting, payroll, invoicing, communication network, purchasing, material requirements planning, and forecasts and so on. With the advancement of the computer, accounting applications were designed for automatic computational purposes. The new computer technology acts as a fulcrum to lever the business in various areas such as accounting, electronic fund transfer and market link with the industrial sector, management, banking, finance; travel and transport; distribution, retailing of merchandise and so on. 5.2.3 Computers in Government and Politics A government is a huge organisation with different ministries in with each of them has several departments. Each department has a role to play on specified duties for the societal development. How then does computer technology get into inter-play towards the common goal of the government and politics towards peace and development? The term management in the government activities is in most cases viewed in terms of administration involving various duties which include, policy making and decision making; planning and organising; coordinating and evaluating; crime control and order; tax collection, economic control and many others. Given the complexity of the government administrative structure, information records and communication must be most efficient for successful administration in all ministries in the country. Hence computerization of the ministries and departments play a vital role in its duties. 5.2.4 Computers in Hospitals and Health Services Most sophisticated programs have been developed for medical use. Some of the tasks, which modern computers can perform in hospitals, include numerous administrative and clinical tasks. Doctors do not need to scratch their heads in searching for medical records, diagnosing diseases, locating defected parts of the human body, and so on, as these can be easily handled by using computer technology.

46 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Computers used in hospitals are used for investigation of disease and the prescribed medication for treatment. Such records become very retrievably useful reference in monitoring patient s health conditions. With the modern medical computer programs, one can see great wonders happening in the doctor's office. Even in most complicated surgery the computer screen becomes a major tool to see what they are looking for inside the body of the patient. 5.2.5 Computers in the Office Much of the work that is carried out in offices can be characterized as: the management of records, the analysis of data, and the preparation of documents (reports, letters, etc.). Offices tend to accumulate information, on students, employees, customers, suppliers, etc. Management of this information includes adding more information, updating existing information, deleting obsolete information and retrieving information on a given topic. 5.2.6 Computers in Education The integration of educational approaches with world-wide network transform learning environment through contact of different types of human and non human resources. Basically the resources from all over the world can facilitate transformative learning process for students. It is out of this new learning environment that the role of students and lecturers will change. Information and Communication Technology is very much articulated in such way that it is adaptable to various fields, different tasks in each field and is userfriendly. For example, within education industry, ICT is flexible to perform various tasks such as teaching and training students; educational administration; in library service and research statistical analysis and graphing. These are some of the major functions ICT can do in education. Within each of these functions there are more specific tasks that ICT is adaptable to perform according to instructions given by a teacher or student.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 47 Figure 5.1: The Role of ICTs in Education However, a computer as hardware alone cannot perform any of the above mentioned tasks unless it is given specified instructions by a human. Hence, it is necessary that three main components have to be present and articulated to be able to do a given task. In an educational context, the three main components include Hardware Educational Software and a User. For example, the following section describes specific uses of various software in education. 5.3 Educational Application Programmes When a computer is given some specific instructions, it cannot function randomly as a wild beast or an untrained misbehaving dog. Application programmes are designed for the user to manipulate as tools to perform educational tasks just like a carpentry kit for the carpenter to be able to perform various woodwork and joinery, or a medical doctor s kit with various tools for medical work. The educational application programmes can be applied in designing and preparing teaching materials, statistical analysis in educational research, entries of students records, inventory tasks, educational budgeting, communication, and various tasks related with word-processing, graphics and the like. 5.3.1 Instructional Programmes

48 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials On the other hand, instructional programmes are mainly for teaching various inbuilt packages of various subjects such as Mathematics, Geography, Language and the like. The learner has to follow the subject matter which is already programmed in including questions and answers of the programme. Basically, instructional programmes in classroom sense are like a teacher teaching students a topic of a selected subject using various techniques. For example, a Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) is a program designed as a method of instruction. It allows students to interact with the computer with the help of a teacher who is teaching the subject. The teacher develops a lesson in such a way that he/she will be assisted by the computer in interacting with the learning material of a given topic. As opposed to Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), Computer Managed Instruction (CMI) are computer programs designed in such a way that they are self sufficient to teach students without the presence of teachers. 5.3.2 Preparation of Teaching and Learning Materials With the use of word processing and graphics programmes and others, teachers can prepare their own instructional visual materials instead of relying more on commercially prepared materials some of which may not be purely based on the objectives of the lesson. Teachers made instructional materials are usually made to the objective. Graphics programmes such as PowerPoint, Super-Paint, Claris-Draw, PC Paint, and Print Shop allow teachers to prepare various instructional materials such as handouts, overhead transparency masters in different sizes of letters including desktop publishing. 5.3.3 Library Service Library services are integral part of academic and professional process of any educational institution. Most of educational institutions in developed countries and some developing countries have provided ICT facilities in library services for teachers and students accessibility. Hence, bibliographical searches for instructions, learning and research work, have been made much easier, quicker, and most efficient than the conventional index card. With such link, the users are informed about the type of collections in various libraries within the local and international network. 5.3.4 Educational Administration and Management There are several areas pertaining to educational administration and management at various levels of educational industry. For example at school and college level, including universities, there are different programmes that are designed for registration and record keeping of the workers and students. The common examples of program which can be appreciated at the Open University of Tanzania

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 49 include: Academic Register Management Information System (ARMIS), Library Management Information System (LIBMIS), Financial Management Information System (FIMIS), Human Resource Management Information System (HRMIS) and Examination data Bank Management Information System (EDBMIS). 5.3.5 Educational Research ICT does not plan educational researches and go to the field to collect data. They are merely special tools for the researcher to use in preparing research and analyzing the data. Data analysis and reporting may possibly require tabulating and graphing programmes. For this purpose then computer programs such as excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) research may be quite useful. Similarly literature review and literature study can be easily conducted using computer-based online search engines. The commonly used search engines are such as; www.eric.com, www.picarta.com, www.scopus.com, www.psychoinfo.com, www.google. com, www.googlescholar.com, www.webofscience.com, www.sciencedirect.com and many others. For effective literature search then keywords specific to particular topic of research needs to be identified and used for searching literature from computer and internet. Reference lists in the found articles can further be used to identify more relevant literatures which could be retrieved from search engines to add to the literatures. At the end of such an iterative process it will be realized that the topic is either widely or partially researched. Based on the outcomes of the literature search one can formulate a problem that is unique to his/her study under exploration. Generally using ICT for (educational) research links the researcher to the local and global electronic library and sources of information. 5.4 Use of ICTs in Distance Education and Open Learning Traditionally distance education is used to refer to education that takes place when the teacher and students are separated by space and/or time (www.google.com). Unlike on-campus education where students and teachers interact interpersonally on daily basis, distance learning can be described as education offered to students who are distant from the institution that offers such education. Existing literature show that distance education is conceived differently in the era of ICT. The following definitions justify this claim: Distance education is broadly defined as any formal instructional approach in which the majority of the instruction occurs at a distance with technology (Grimes, 1993).

50 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Distance education is simply learning that takes place over a distance through the use of telecommunications technologies such as satellites, telephones, computers and cables-television systems (Miyasato,1998). Distance education is commonly used to describe courses in which nearly all the interactions between teacher and students takes place electronically (Feldman et al, 2000). Distance education is the process of extending learning, or delivering instructional resource-sharing opportunities, to locations away from a classroom, building or site, to another classroom, building or site by using video, audio, computer, multimedia communications, or some combination of these with other traditional delivery methods (Wikipedia, 2008). It is to be noticed from the surveyed definitions of distance education that the notation of technology as a media is quite central. In a distance education that integrates ICT the communication between learners and teachers in distance learning is typically provided by technologies. There are a wide variety of technologies that can be integrated in distance education. They include radio broadcasts, television, audio and videotapes, interactive audio and video teleconferencing, various computer and Internet technologies, and print technologies. Nearly all distance education students come from working groups aiming to improve prospects of their career but for various reasons have not been able to apply for residential university studies. Under their respective prevailing circumstances such a group of students have a similar or even more needs of guidance and counselling than may be to the residential students. That being the case, some of the functions of the ICTs in distance education is to provide continuous teaching and guidance based on course structures and content selection, time management and building confidence, attending students personal questions that affect or may affect their learning. 5.4.1 Blended Learning According to Singh (2003) a mixture of technologies (also called blended learning) is most appropriate in facilitating learning in distance education than any single technology. He defines blended learning as a learning that focuses on optimizing achievement of learning objectives by applying the right learning technologies to match the right personal learning style to transfer the right skills to the right person at the right time. In this perspective, technology is integrated in the teaching and learning processes from a pedagogical need drive rather than from advancement in technologies drive. Blended learning is also used to refer to a learning program where more than one delivery mode is used with the objective of optimizing the learning outcome and cost of program delivery. Blended learning can, furthermore, be used to mean learning that:

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 51 (i) integrates a combination of traditional learning with web-based online approaches, (ii) combines media and tools employed in an e-learning environment and (iii) combines a number of pedagogic approaches, irrespective of learning technology use (Whitelock & Jelfs, 2003). Another definition of blended learning is suggested by Driscoll (2002) who identifies four different definitions to describe blended learning, these include: (i) combining web-based technologies to accomplish an educational goal, (ii) combining pedagogical approaches (for example, constructivism, behaviourism and cognitivism ) to produce an optimal learning outcome with or without instructional technology, (iii) combining any form of instructional technology with face-to-face instructor-led training and (iv) combining instructional technology with actual job tasks. 5.4.2 Digital Divide The integration of ICTs in distance education in most sub-sahara African countries is still a big challenge. In a country like Tanzania for example where 83% of the population is living in very scattered rural areas, one would assume that there might be more potential role of ICT in such areas for distance education. The reality on the ground reveals that not significant ICTs are used for course delivery and facilitation of students learning in distance education (Nihuka, 2008). The very nature of lack of means of efficient communication renders minimal or even lack of students registration for distance education. A few who manage to register in studies have problems of communication either at regional or headquarters. Basically the problems amount to failure in meeting a full range of students learning needs. The above limitations require a systemic approach to be able to solve most of the problems. Educational institutions alone cannot solve their problems without sustainable support from the governments, international organisations, national cooperations and private companies that provide nation-wide utilities. The role of ICTs should be used according to the educational needs of learners and not by the technological whims and business oriented fancies. According to 2000 Schools Online article, it is pointed out that although the world has already entered in an information age, but majority of us are not entering in it together. The disparity between people with access to the technology and those without access is outrageous. Even though the Internet is referred to as world wide, less than 2% of the world population have access to it (www.schoolonline.org). The rest 98% do not have access, largely from developing countries. It is further pointed out that, while communication and information technology is transforming industrialized world, developing countries are largely cut off from this transformation. At global level the world is realizing the digital divide between

52 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials the north and the south. The north world is conceived as one group of developed nations compared to the developing nations as one group in the south. Developed countries together have full capacity of ICT network that they work together as a common village while leave far behind the developing countries. The utilization of the ICTs in developed countries features well in various sectors including education in both conventional and open distance institutions. On the other hand similar digital divide styles well in developing countries between urban and rural areas. For example in Tanzania a few ICT facilities can be seen in cities and regional towns. Very few of them can be seen in district towns. Currently there are no ICT with Internet services in rural areas. A few educational institutions have ICT in place mostly Universities. Very few colleges and secondary schools have ICT infrastructure connected to Internet and e-mail services. Any large-scale innovation in an educational system is very costly in terms of funding the infrastructure, equipment, materials, manpower, and running the programmes. Furthermore it is costly in paying bills for services rendered by other public departments and private companies such as telephones, televisions, media programmes, electricity, water, etc. Given the limited resources available, it is understandably sensible not to attempt starting with the impossible projects. Distance education of an African university is just as important in a country as an on-campus university. In that order full support is needed from the respective governments, private companies public in general and other international organisations. Majority of countries and their respective educational systems are undergoing major transformation in the use of ICT. Successful transformation will highly depend on thoughtfulness in policy making about the role of the technology in education. On the other hand, the technology appears some-how expensive to introduce in the education system. It also requires new initial investment and transition period for adjusting to a new working environment. As people discover the potential benefits of using the technology relative to cost benefits, they will always want the technology to be part and parcel of their working environment. What is basically needed is the careful planning and commitment in policy formulation and economic support in working towards establishing ICT network for the entire education system. In other words, African educational institutions should start reflecting the 21 st century demands rather than 20 th century forces in educating and training students who will be relevant in the 21 st New World of work. Most developing countries, Tanzania included, suffer tremendously in lack of reliable power source and telephone services particularly for the rural areas. In Tanzania, about 83% of the total population reside in rural areas. Tanzania s energy master plan includes provision of electricity service to all rural villages. Possibly, the telephone network will also be provided to all villages. The two

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 53 utilities are almost the heart for the effective functioning of ICTs. Visionary governments and their respective electricity and telephone companies need to consider provision of concessions to Universities to be able to provide ICT services in all parts of respective countries. On the other hand the respective governments of developing countries can stipulate clear and sustainable policies that will provide free or concessional services to various educational institutions. For example it should be a policy in providing free bandwidth of national telephone systems for Universities ICT. The same policies should apply to other very important utilities and media services such as television and radio that some channels or part of the programmes in some days should be free for Universities. In that way use of ICT facilities and programmes can be less costly especially when considering the long-term costs. 5.5 ICTs used in Distance Education and Open Learning Besides blended learning, the following technologies are widely employed in providing ICTs instructional materials in distance education and open learning. 5.5.1 Internet The Internet is made up of millions of computers linked together around the world in such a way that information can be sent from any computer to any other 24 hours a day. The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks that connects university, government, commercial, and other computers in over 150 countries. The Internet offers so many applications that are relevant and useful in (distance) education. Through internet one can participate in an educational event elsewhere. Internet includes a range of services such as communication and sharing of information between people, both young and old and from diverse cultures around the world use the Internet. 5.5.2 Electronic Mail (e-mail) Electronic mail is one of the most popular features of the Internet. Prior to the introduction of the electronic mail (e-mail), the messages were sent by airmail or by land. Such letters took more than a week or some weeks to reach the receiver. Some of them were lost on the way. The introduction of the electronic mail has alleviated that problem to extend that one can send an email message and get a reply within a few minutes. Leave alone sending an email message, computer users can chat with each other as direct communication.

54 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Electronic mail or E-mail allows one computer user to send a message to one or more other computer users over a computer network in a digital form. E-mail can be sent internally to members of an organisation through their internal computer network or they can be sent externally to anyone in the world by using the network of computer networks that make up the Internet. To send and receive electronic-mail messages, or e-mail and to organise your messages, you need an e-mail account. You can ask for assistance from any person in the ICT help desk in your institution on how you can open email account from www.yahoo.com, www.hotmail.com, www.gmail.com, www.openuniversity.ac.tz, etc. The ICT helpdesk will also provide you with a login name and a password in order to use the services with a security precaution. Electronic mail permits you to send and receive mail. Such mails may be assignments, test and even examination scripts, study materials 5.5.3 World Wide Web (WWW) The WWW is a component of the Internet that presents information in a graphical interface. This program allows pages, within its computer, to be linked together using keywords. The browser made it easier to access the different Web sites that had started to appear. Soon Web sites contained more than just text, they also had sound and video files. 5.5.4 Web Browsers A Web Browser is a software program that enables one to find files saved on remote computers called Web servers. Browsers open the files, which are commonly called "pages," and display their information in its window. Surfing the web, except for email, perhaps the most common activity on the web is surfing. There is actually an art to cruising around the web. On the web there is almost everything from the most amateur home pages to incredibly well-thought out university and business sites. 5.6 ICT-Supported Pedagogies In a traditional distance education, print-media are often used to deliver courses to students who are geographically separated from teachers. Usually such print materials are organised in a way that encourages interaction between student and the material. ICTs can be used to further foster the interactions. Using ICTs, learning can be organised in such a way that promotes the development of specific skills and competences among students. However, knowledge of different ICT-supported pedagogical approaches is important in order to ensure that ICTs are organised in such a way that they will promote the development of specific skills and competencies among students.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 55 5.6.1 Pedagogy Pedagogy means the art and science of teaching (www.google.com). ICTs have the potential to facilitate and improve the pedagogical approaches that teachers can employ in delivering courses for effective student learning. It is generally argued that the choice of ICTs for educational purposes must be driven by pedagogical needs than by the availability of such technologies. With a particular technology, learning can be organised using a specific pedagogical approach or several such approaches so as to foster effective learning. This section discusses some of the ICT-supported pedagogical approaches which include: project-based, task-based, problem-based, collaborative-based, competence-based and community of practice pedagogical approach. 5.6.2 Project-based Pedagogical Approach Numerous scholars have written about project and project-based pedagogical approach and its impact in students learning. The most cited literatures include for example Grant 2004, Katz 2001, Worthy 2000, Tassinari 1996, Wolk 1994, Vigotsky 1979 and Piaget 1969. Project-based pedagogical approach is a model that organises learning around projects. Projects are tasks based on challenging questions or problem, which involve students in designing, problem solving, decision-making and investigative activities. Project-based pedagogical approach is a systematic method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks. Projects give students the opportunity to work relatively autonomously over extended period of time to produce a realistic work or presentations (Jones et al 1997, Thomas et al 1999). This approach to learning is based on principles of constructivism and constructionism and the focus is on student centred approach which strives for considerable individualisation of curriculum instruction and assessment (Moursund 1998). In project-based pedagogical approach there is an emphasis on learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centred and integrated with real world issues and practices. Students design the process for reaching a solution for a problem. They are responsible for accessing and managing the information they gather. Students regularly reflect on what they are doing and evaluation takes place continuously. A final product is produced and is evaluated for quality. Along with encouraging academic proficiency and meeting the learning goals of education, project based learning have important benefits for today s students which include the following; (1) it overcomes the dichotomy between knowledge and thinking, helping students to both know and do

56 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials (2) it supports students in learning and practicing skills in problem solving, communication, and self-management, (3) encourages the development of habits of mind associated with lifelong learning, civic responsibility, and personal or career success, (4) integrates curriculum areas, thematic instruction, and community issues, (5) assesses performance on content and skills using criteria similar to those in the work world, thus encouraging accountability, goal setting, and improved performance, (6) creates positive communication and collaborative relationships among diverse groups of students, (7) meets the needs of learners with varying skill levels and learning styles and last but not least (8) engages and motivates bored or indifferent students. 5.6.3 Task-based Pedagogical Approach In task-based pedagogical approach learning is viewed as a set of tasks administered by the teacher in practice (Prabhu, 1987; Nunan, 1989). Learning is built round tasks and learning results as the students try to understand not only the tasks themselves but also the concepts and mechanism underlying the task. Task-based pedagogical approach provides rich learning opportunities for learners during the whole learning process. In fact, students take responsibility for integrating their learning as they move through a range of processes during the tasks in the course. Students learn not only about the task, but also acquire the necessary understanding of the domain knowledge and, in addition, generic competencies such as communication skills and problem solving. 5.6.4 Problem-based Pedagogical Approach In this approach, learning focuses on finding solutions of real world problems. The approach contributes both to the development of knowledge and skills as well to the development of problem solving strategies by engaging the student to work on problems which they will face as future managers in the complex world. Some of the general characteristics of problem-based learning are: The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in problem-based pedagogical approach is thought to work through the following cognitive effects (Schmidt, 1993): 1. Initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion. 2. Elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 57 3. Restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network. 4. Social knowledge construction. 5. Learning in context. 6. Stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem The approach can be less effective early in the learning process, since there are not sufficient schemas available that can be used to learn efficiently new information (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). This can be solved by integrating intermediate instructional techniques (from worked examples, goal free problems to completion problems). Solving the problem takes students through the following processes (Savoie & Hughes, 1994): 1. Engagement: Problem-based learning requires students to self-direct their search for a solution, often by assuming the role of a key actor in the problem situation. 2. Inquiry: Students brainstorm with others and gather information from multiple resources. 3. Solution building: Students work in teams discussing alternatives and examining possible solutions. 4. Debriefing and reflecting: Students share information, opinions and ideas with others based on what they have learned through the experience. 5. Presentation of findings: Students write plans, reports or present their findings to the class or others or both. 5.6.5 Collaborative Pedagogical Approach Collaborative pedagogy is an approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. Collaborative approach is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in which the participants interact (Peer tutoring, Problem solving, Cooperative projects, Role-plays, Open-ended free conversations, sharing opinions, debating, narrating, and explaining) among themselves. Thus, in the collaborative learning setting, learners have the opportunity to converse with peers, present and defend ideas, exchange diverse beliefs, question other conceptual frameworks, and actively engaged. Collaborative learning is instruction that encourages students to work in teams to accomplish a common goal, under conditions positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, appropriate use of collaborative skills as well as group processing. In doing so, learners can create a framework and meaning to the discourse and their own unique conceptual frameworks. Collaborative learning has many advantages for the learner, among these; increases student retention, builds self esteem in students, develops communication skills,

58 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials encourages diversity understanding, encourages student responsibility for learning, stimulates critical thinking and helps students clarify ideas through discussion and debate, modelling problem solving techniques by students' peers, promotes higher achievement and class attendance, addresses learning style differences among students, promotes innovation in teaching and classroom techniques, classroom anxiety and test anxiety is significantly reduced and the like. Generally, collaborative learning allows students and faculty to share responsibility for learning. It helps prepare students for workplaces that increasingly value selfmotivated, self-confident, team-oriented employees. 5.6.6 Competence-based Pedagogical Approach Competency-based pedagogical approach is the model where practice, knowledge, skills and insights are connected; it is a teaching and learning approach in a meaningful and realistic context. Skills, abilities and knowledge are developed through learning experiences. Competencies are the result of learning experiences in which skills, abilities and knowledge interact to form a bundle that can be used for the task for which they are assembled (Voorhees, 2001). Since a single competency can be demonstrated in many different ways and situations, it is difficult to prescribe one way of assessing a competency. Hoekstra and Van Sluijs (2001) searched for common characteristics in all kinds of definitions of competency. They concluded that these definitions have six core elements: 1. A latent ability of a person 2. To present effectively (achieve/deliver) 3. In a specific task or problem situation 4. In a way that can objectively be observed and to judge 5. Competencies are a combination of expertise and behavioural repertoire, and are ultimately based on temperament, personality and intelligence. 6. Competencies can, to a certain extent, be learned and developed. In the fast changing knowledge society, competencies have a longer shelf-life than knowledge and skills. The descriptions of competencies make clear that they are much more widely applicable than knowledge and skills. This requires a different approach in educational institutions. In traditional education, the emphasis lied more on acquiring knowledge and skills. Knowledge and skills are still necessary in competency based education, but the emphasis shifted towards applying in new situations. Another difference is that in competency-based learning, differences between learners can be taken into account. 5.6.7 Community of Practice Pedagogical Approach

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 59 A community of practice is an environment where people can share their interests concerning a certain subject or theme. In a community of practice students can exchange and develop their knowledge, whereby new questions and problems arise (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002, in Hezemans & Ritzen, 2004). Students who participate in a community of practice have an active role. In spite of formulating questions and problems, they also give feedback and answers, and supply literature (Hezemans & Ritzen, 2004). A community of practice has three dimensions (Wenger, 1998): (a) what it is about, (b) how it functions, and (c) what capability it has produced. Communities of practice promote collaboration, improve social interaction, increase productivity, and improve performance (Millen, Fontaine & Muller, 2002). They furthermore, name a number of benefits in three categories: individual, community, and organisational. Individual benefits go into improves reputation, a better understanding of what others are doing, and increased level of trust. Besides that, a community of practice encourage member interaction and ongoing professional development. Community benefits raise the creation, quality of knowledge and advice, problem solving and create a general context. Organisational concerns the outcomes of successfully executed projects and assignments. In a community of practice the group members will work together to complete a task (Van der Veen, 2001a in De Boer, 2004). 5.7 Technical and Pedagogical Support on ICT Use in Education Integration of ICTs in education may face some reluctance from not only teachers but also students. This reminds us of a phrase by Fullan (2001) that it is sometimes easier to take someone to the moon than to implement (a change) innovation in the education institutions. In this regard, conducive conditions become necessary to help teachers and students considering using ICTs in education. Literatures have demonstrated that different conditions play a role towards effective use of ICTs by both teachers and students in (distance) education. This section focuses on the technical and pedagogical support conditions. Other conditions which can be consulted in Fisser (2001), Siritongthaworm et al (2006), Moyo (2003), McNaught et al (2000) and Nihuka (2008) include: institutional conditions, teacher conditions and students conditions. Nihuka (2008) found that teachers and students at the Open University of Tanzania required pedagogical and technical support in order to integrate ICTs in education. In terms of technical support, Nihuka found that both teachers and students are offered technical support for daily use of computer and internet.

60 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Precisely more than half of teachers and students at the Open University of Tanzania get technical support related to trouble shooting and more than half of instructors and students indicate that they get support related to installation of software and hardware. Furthermore results demonstrate that unlike instructors, about half (49.5%) of students are offered technical support related to connecting computer accessories and parts. Table 5.1: Technical Support for Teachers and Students at OUT Support % of Teachers (N=32) % of Students (N=208) Trouble shooting 62.5 52.9 Installation of software and hardware 71.9 60.6 Connecting computer accessories and parts 0.0 49.5 None 15.6 14.9 Source: Nihuka (2008) However there exists no technical support facilities at the level of regional centres but students usually get support on technology use only during some face-to-face sessions which are organised three times a year by staff from the Institute of Educational Technology (IET). In such occasions students are oriented about basic skills such as use of Students Academic Records Information System (SARIS) and email. Students are often encouraged to use computer and internet for education for example for submitting assignments, communication and interaction with teachers. Regarding pedagogical support Nihuka found teachers at the Open University required close pedagogical support towards ICTs integration in education. More than three-quarters of teachers desired to be offered pedagogical support related to designing of courses/programs, making courses/programs available online, course delivery using specific ICT and facilitation of students learning in an ICT-based distance education. Table 5.2: Pedagogical Support for Teachers at OUT Pedagogical supports Frequency N % of Teachers Designing of e-learning courses/programs 30 93.8 Make courses available online 30 87.5 Course delivery by e-learning technologies 30 87.5 Facilitation of students 31 87.5 Source: Nihuka (2008) Activity

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 61 Make a list of different uses of ICTs in distance education Summary In this lecture, we have studied about the uses of ICTs in distance education and open learning. We have explored general uses of ICTs and discussed in detail, how ICTs are employed in education in general and in the specific areas of educational and instructional programmes, preparation of teaching and learning materials, library service and educational research in particular. Finally, besides blended learning, the lecture has discussed technologies which are widely employed in providing ICTs instructional materials in distance education and open learning. Exercise 1. Explain how you can enhance the potential of Tanzania in employing ICTs in education. 2. List down and discuss clearly, the major functions of ICTs in education and training. 3. Mention and discuss technological factors which justify the use of ICTs in education and training. 4. ICT is a multi-media communication system. Do you agree? Support your answer with relevant examples. 5. Select any software and explain how it can be employed for instructional purposes in distance education and open learning. 6. Explain how any distance education institution familiar to you, uses its web-site to provide instructional services to its students. 7. Mention any three factors which can be tapped in any SADC Member State in order to enhance its potential in employing ICTs in education. 8. Using relevant examples, explain how a distance education institution familiar to you, employs the e-mail for instructional purposes. References

62 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Davies, W. J. K.(1989). Open and Flexible Learning Centres. London; National Council for Educational Technology. Feldman, S., McELroy, J. E and LaCour, N. (2000). Distance education: Guidelines for good practice. Guile, D. (1998). Perspective on Education Policy: Information and Communication Technology and Education. London: Institute of Education: University of London. Grimes, G. (1993). Going the distance education with technology. Happy 100th Anniversary to distance education. Kaye, A. (1995). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, in N. Heap, et al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Educational Value of ISDN ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Miyasato, E. (1998). Setting the stage for dynamic use of distance learning technologies in education. Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. Taylor, J. and Laurillard, D. (1995) Supporting Resource Based Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 63

64 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials LECTURE 6 ICTs for Visually Challenged Students 6.1 Introduction In this lecture, we shall focus on how ICTs can be employed to assist visually challenged students access education and training opportunities. Besides providing justification for addressing education and training needs of people with disabilities, the lecture will recommend specific ICTs which can be employed to cater for such needs. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Discuss the need to address education and training needs of people with disabilities; Select and use appropriate ICTs to address education and training needs of people with disabilities 6.2 The Need to Address Education and Training Needs of People with Disabilities The concept of disability encompasses a wide range of human conditions. It is sometimes argued that poverty and disability are deeply interrelated in a complex vicious circle. Recent estimates indicate that there are around 600 million people with disabilities around the world, three out of every four of them live in the developing world, half are of working age and half are women. The highest incidence and prevalence of disabilities occur in the poorest areas, where less than 3% of girls with disabilities attend school. A growing number of countries offer programs to assist people with disabilities and their families, but only a few have adopted and enforced accessible design standards, which enable them to a whole new world of opportunities. Now that more and more countries are integrating to the global economy and their economies have made a shift from physical labour to a knowledge-based economy,

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 65 a broad window of opportunities for knowledge workers regardless of their physical capabilities or limitations has emerged. Whereas new technologies emerge and gain vigour in most developed world, in the developing world there is a modest general public awareness of the promising potential benefits of ICTs to face development challenges and contribute to the alleviation of deep-rooted problems. In order to guarantee appropriate and sustainable action on the global level, multi-sector inclusive approach and a high level of overall societal comprehension are needed, as well as acknowledge of major cross-cutting issues and challenges in particular. 6.3 ICTs for Students with Disabilities More than one century ago, the need to develop information tools for people with disabilities inspired the invention of some of today's most commonly used ICTs. Pioneer technologies such as the typewriter and the telephone, were specifically conceived and designed to address information needs of people with disabilities. In the developed world several initiatives such as the program led by the Trust for the Americas in Central America have demonstrated that people with disabilities who receive adequate training, adaptive ICT and technical support can compete successfully for jobs and even start micro-businesses on their own. Although the challenges being faced by people with disabilities in developing countries remain huge, the opportunities brought up by adequate workspace, adaptive ICT and skills are enormous. Today, ICTs have been developed that they enable the physically disabled persons to work from their homes. With the advent of tele-working the Persons with Disabilities (PWD) can easily earn their livelihood while being at home. In fact there are people who are working even at their work place by taking advantage of ICT. The more literate can be part of jobs like software development, content development, and solution provider whereas less literate can do with jobs like data entry, answering calls etc. Appropriately selected ICTs for people with disabilities can thus offer individuals the ability to compensate for physical or functional limitations. They can thus access knowledge by adapting digital media to the nature of their disabilities, and to enhance their social and economic integration in communities by enlarging the scope of activities available to them. There are adaptive technologies for the blind. With the aid of appropriate technological devices, visually impaired persons can independently access, process, store and transmit the same information handled by sighted people. Speech Synthesizers and appropriate software convert computer outputs and text by entering cues into major spoken languages. The person with visual impairment can access computers with the help of speech output and can thereby use a word

66 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials processor application. For example, a Speech Synthesizer enables a blind person to read text wherein whatever the person types on screen is spoken. A Braille printer can produce Braille characters, so that the blind can even check by himself the content for correctness. Similarly Braille Translators have software to convert English into Braille. There is also a Reading Edge machine that reads aloud whatever text is being scanned. Along the same line of ICTs for the low visually challenged people there is a Visibility Software that magnifies text on screen making it possible for low vision persons to read. Hence today ICTs make it possible for the visually challenged people to earn their livelihood. Activity How can ICT be used in training of students with disabilities in distance education Summary In this lecture, we have discussed how ICTs can be employed to assist visually challenged students to access education and training opportunities. Besides providing justification for addressing education and training needs of people with disabilities, the lecture has recommended specific ICTs which can be employed to cater for such needs. They include adaptive technologies for the blind like Speech Synthesizers and a Braille printer. While the former assist visually impaired persons to access, process, store and transmit the same information handled by sighted people, the latter produces characters which the blind can access and even check the content for correctness. Similarly Braille Translators have software to convert English into Braille. Furthermore, there is also a Reading Edge machine that reads aloud whatever text is being scanned. For the low visually challenged people, there is a Visibility Software that magnifies text on screen making it possible for low vision persons to read. It is, therefore, obvious that ICTs make it possible for the visually challenged people to earn their livelihood. Exercise 1. Why is it essential to address education and training needs of people with disabilities in your society?

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 67 2. Typewriter and the telephone were specifically conceived and designed to address information needs of people wit disabilities. Discuss. 3. Identify specific adaptive technologies which can be employed to address education and training needs of visually challenged people. 4. Explain how you will assist low visually challenged people to meet fully their education and training needs. References Davies, W. J. K.(1989). Open and Flexible Learning Centres. London; National Council for Educational Technology. Feldman, S., McELroy, J. E and LaCour, N. (2000). Distance education: Guidelines for good practice. Gilbert, S. W. (1995). Technology and Change in Higher Education: Symptoms and Suggestions. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Educational Value of ISDN ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Miyasato, E. (1998). Setting the stage for dynamic use of distance learning technologies in education. Open University of Tanzania, OUT Prospectus 2000. Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. University of Dar-es-Salaam. Publications Section 1998. UDSM Prospectus 1998/99; Research and Wymer. I. K. The Open University and Adult Studies: A Movement towards Social Education. U.K: Ivor K. Wymer.

68 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials LECTURE 7 ICTs for Developing Instructional Materials 7.1 Introduction In previous lectures, we have studied about the uses of ICTs in distance education and open learning. We have explored general uses of ICTs and discussed in detail, how ICTs are employed in education in general and in the specific areas of educational and instructional programmes, preparation of teaching and learning materials, library service and educational research in particular. We have also outlined technologies which are widely employed in providing ICTs instructional materials in distance education and open learning. Furthermore, we have discussed how ICTs can be employed to assist visually challenged students to access education and training opportunities. Specific ICTs which can be employed to cater to such needs include adaptive technologies for the blind like Speech Synthesizers and a Braille printer. While the former assist visually impaired persons to access, process, store and transmit the same information handled by sighted people, the latter produces characters which the blind can access and even check the content for correctness. Similarly Braille Translators have software to convert English into Braille. Moreover, there is also a Reading Edge machine that reads aloud whatever text is being scanned. For the low visually challenged people, there is a Visibility Software that magnifies text on screen making it possible for low vision persons to read. Most evaluation studies of ICTs show that it is the learning contexts, which determine the success of an innovation of a particular technology, not the technology itself. For example, the integration of the new medium in the rest of the course, the support provided by the institution in terms of the study resources and the opportunities available for interaction, reflection and feedback from the lecturers can functionally be part of transformative instructions for students learning (Mason, 1995). In traditional distance education, students may find it very difficult in detailed and well-focussed discussion of their study activities. Recent information and communication technology can provide a valuable enhancement of interactive accessibility of human to human through Internet and teleconferencing. Essentially one of the most important functions of the ICT is in providing the most efficiently interactive distance teaching and learning environment that succeed in improving

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 69 students understanding where other physical human interpersonal teaching methods have failed. Together with the interactive multimedia facilities, ICT is capable of providing tutorials in various subjects. In this lecture, we shall discuss techniques for developing instructional materials, softwares which can make ICTs more efficient, computer applications for developing instructional materials, and devices for developing instructional materials. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Discuss different techniques for developing ICTs instructional materials; Recommend use of appropriate software in order to improve efficiency in the application of ICTs; Use appropriate computer applications and devices in developing instructional materials. 7.2 Techniques for Developing Instructional Materials According to Holmberg s theory of a guided didactic conversation on developing distance learning materials, suggests that the following things should appear: Easily accessible presentation of the study matter. For example to be clear, somewhat colloquial language in writing that is easily readable and moderate density of information. Explicit advice and suggestions to the student as to what to do and what to avoid, what to pay particular attention and consider with reasons provided. Invitations to an exchange of views, to questions, to judgment of what is to be accepted and what are to be rejected. Attempts to involve the student emotionally so that he/she takes a personal interest in the subject and its problems. Personal style including the use of personal and possessive pronouns. Demarcation of changes of themes through a change of speakers, e.g. a male followed by a female or through pauses where it is applicable.

70 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials The above techniques make distance learning materials excessively accessible and thus different from traditional textbooks. The main task of institutions dealing with distance education is to integrate the structure of teaching by providing a complete learning package from pre-enrolment counseling to examination and accreditation. However, new ICT development has allowed learning materials much easier, faster, and more varied contact between tutors and students, between students and the faculty, and to organise work of peer groups of distant students on-line. In the context of general move to a global information and communication environment, educational services through the internet are becoming a very useful approach in DE. To day the technologies allow the video, audio and computer interaction with much less difficulties and less expenses. The progress of information technologies changes profoundly the face and the character of modern education. Hence Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) and Computer Mediated Instruction (CMI) are becoming commonly interactive and textual exchange in bearing networks in distance education. One can either develop instructional material content from various sources including those from libraries in the world by downloading material content according to the subject at hand. According to many ODL researchers the near future will bring dramatic technological and organisational changes such as: Computer technologies will keep developing. New learning databases will be created capable of simulating different micro-worlds (fields of knowledge); computer programmes will appear which will provide easy and flexible connection between a tutor and a student, students and database. A vast multimedia academic network will appear which will embrace all institutions of higher education in a country or region. Every student will have access to that network from home or from his/her working place with the help of special commercial service centers. Every institution of education will be equipped with a powerful computer network. Every teacher, lecturer and tutor will have PC and access to the servers, which distribute learning and other necessary educational materials. A higher level of standardisation and compatibility will characterize different computer systems and networks. All parties to the educational process students, tutors, administrative workers, etc. will become literate users of modern information and communication technologies. The above changes will promote transformation of passive education into more active teaching and learning more through the technology than through the physical human being. Static presentation of learning materials will become dynamic (with the use of animations); virtual ones will replace real objects.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 71 Similarly impersonal presentation of learning materials by individual tutoring will be replaced by interactive communication between learners and the technology. Students will get better control of the educational process. Essentially, ICTs connected to Internet and e-mail services have numerous accessories and also inbuilt facilities and application software which can be used in developing instructional materials. Some of the facilities that can be used for developing educational materials of various subjects include, CD-ROM, CD-RW, optical scanners, hardcopy devices, printers of various types, videos, TVs and so on. On the other hand, important application software that a teacher can use in developing instructional materials include word processors, graphics, spreadsheets, database, PowerPoint presentations, Internet, Electronic Mail (E-mail), Webbrowser just to mention a few. 7.3 Softwares which can make ICTs more Efficient ISDN Software The development of ISDN software has enabled the ICT technology to be more efficient. ISDN is a set of international standards for computer and communication technologies that support video, audio and computer data on a telephone line. With the ISDN educational multimedia material can be easily accessible, processed, and stored through ordinary telephone network or satellites. ISDN can combine a live voice linked with a shared screen. That is to say, it can be possible to link two or more very distant sites into one shared screen. For example, a distant lecturer can be linked with distant students or classrooms to interact face to face as if they were all in the same classroom. Similarly, during conferencing, students from different sites can see and listen from a lecturer from any part of the world using several monitors. Students can ask questions and discuss their views lively to a very distant lecturer. Virtual universities have been more efficient through the use of ISDN that students from various parts of the country and beyond who are linked with the network can study various courses. Such approach is also capable of conducting seminars, peer interaction, demonstrations, and training sessions at distance (Saba 1990; Ambron 1990). Kaye (1995) points out that, much significant learning and deep level understanding arises from conversation, arguments, debates, amongst and between learners and peers, colleagues, experts and teachers. Brunner (1984) argues that learning is essentially a communal activity involving the social construction of knowledge. Time is ripe for African educational institutions to reform the teaching approaches for students to learn the programmes in different subjects more efficiently and effectively. Training students on the use of ICT and providing the ICT facilities to various local centres for students use is a prerequisite to successful reformation of the teaching approaches. Faster students and lecturers accessibility to textual

72 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials database, graphics and file transfer facilitated by the ISDN, means access to a whole range of human and material resources and activities. There are virtually no geographical limits in accessing database worldwide. Traditional methods of distance teaching and learning are becoming obsolete in most of developed countries. Similarly, very soon the traditional distance teaching and learning will become out of date in developing countries during the 21 st century. The need for every academic and administrator of the African educational institutions to learn how to use ICT most efficiently and effectively is cardinal. There is no choice for an academician and an administrator in any university today to see the technology as belonging to a typist and secretary or even highly specialised groups of people. 7.3.1 World Wide Web (WWW) In higher education, the rate of growth in the use of World Wide Web (WWW) is becoming profound. Many universities and lecturers/professors are developing their own home pages for their teaching programs. Using this facility lecturers and professors can now develop course materials in various disciplines as part of home pages available to their students and is most useful for distance education as well. The course materials become available and accessible all over the world (Gilbert 1995). The explosion and integration of telecommunications and computer technology is making activities that were thought impossible to be possible. For example, today there is an increased human contact and interaction all over the world in a matter of seconds. The technology is making profound changes to the world around us in various ways at home and working places. Essentially the technology is assisting the world to a very fundamental re-organisation of work places into information dependent societies. The technology has also opened doors of education to facilitate efficient and effective teaching and learning particularly in distance education. This is a big shift from the traditional teaching through printed paper book to electronic teaching using electronic learning materials. Mason (1995) points out well that, now, the real question on the use of ICT in education and training is not why but how to use it wisely so that it promotes learning. This fundamental question of how to use the technology wisely poses an essential challenge to the African educational institutions that are still using the traditional approach of chalk and talk using printed books and handouts to deliver the subjects. The challenge starts at decision making, policy formulations, planning and usefully initiating and developing it efficiently in stages approach. For example, how can a University of a developing country best organise effective and sustainable implementation of ICT among equally important priorities amidst scarce resources? How will the same university balance the distribution of ICT network in a remote and highly scattered rural population where telephone and electricity are either absent or not reliable? These are some of the basic questions in most developing countries including Tanzania. Research and evaluation approach

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 73 is also important in identifying priorities in order to be well focused in initiating and developing ICT facilities for distance education. 7.4 Computer Applications for Developing Instructional Materials 7.4.1 Word Processor Word processors enable anyone to produce, with a little practice, beautifully laid out documents, be they letters, dissertations, CVs, or whatever. Word 97 is a word processing package, which runs under the Windows 95/98 operating system. Word is used to create, edit, format and print documents using a computer. This document was produced using Word. Windows is an operating system and there are many application packages, which run under Windows. One of the main advantages is that all the applications, which run under Windows, look and behave in a similar way. So once you have learnt to use one Windows application (for example, Word) it is much easier to learn another (such as the Windows spreadsheet package Excel or the Windows database package Access). The aim of these notes is to introduce you to the basics of word processing using Word 97. It will tell you how to create a new document, type in your text, alter the layout of your document, and finally print it out. There will also be a few pointers to the more advanced aspects of Word. The advantages of word processing programs can best be illustrated by thinking of some of the disadvantages of typewriters. When we use a typewriter to create a document, there is a direct connection between the keys and the paper. As soon as you press a key on the keyboard, there is an impact on the paper, and the document has been modified. If you catch a mistake quickly, you can fix it with correction tape or correction fluid (wipe-out). If your mistake is more than one character long, mistakes are much harder to fix. If you want to add a word, move a paragraph, or change the margins, you have to completely retype the page. Sometimes this necessitates changes on other pages as well. A one-word change could lead to retyping an entire document. Word processing programs have evolved a great deal from the early days of computing. A modern word processing program can do many things besides simply handling text. Since the early '90s, most word processors feature a WYSIWYG interface. WYSIWYG (pronounced 'whizeewig') stands for 'What You See Is What You Get. This means that the screen will look reasonably like the finished document. This feature is important because the real strength of word processors is in the formatting they provide.

74 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Most of the word processor features we will discuss below are various ways of formatting the text, or changing the way it looks on the page. Formatting was possible before WYSIWYG, but it required more imagination from the writer, because you couldn't see the effects of the formatting until you printed out the document. Modern word processors also are designed to have numerous features for advanced users. Since a large portion of most people's computer time is spent with a word processing program, it is important that these programs have features to make editing documents easier. Some of the additional features that one can expect to find on a modern word processor are spelling and grammar checkers, ability to handle graphics, tables, and mathematical formulas, and outline editors. The word processing market is a very competitive one, and the major software companies are always competing to have the word processor with the most advanced features available. Software companies are also interested in making their programs as easy to learn as possible. With this goal in mind, most word processors come with tutorial programs, extensive on-line help, and clear menus. These full featured word processors sound wonderful, and they are. You might wonder if they have any drawbacks. Of course they do. Word processing programs as I have described often cost hundreds of dollars. Word processing programs have many features one can use such as saving documents for feature use, use different type faces (fonts) and also change the size of the text (font sizes). Other features include; enhancements, graphics, line spacing and so on.) It also means that if you write a document in WordPerfect, you may not be able to read it in Microsoft Word. Even different versions of the same program might not be able to read each other's documents directly. There are ways you can work around this problem, but you should know it exists. Word processing programs of any type usually share the most basic features. They universally reserve most of the screen for the text that you are editing. Most word processing programs also contain a menu structure with most of the programs. Many word processors have graphic tool bars with icons representing the most critical commands. Almost all such programs have scroll bars or some other mechanism for allowing the user to move around in large documents. Any level of a word processor will have commands to save, load, and print your documents. These commands are so frequent that you will usually see many ways to invoke them. 7.4.2 Graphics Many documents now benefit from pictures and illustrations. These may be Excel charts, or scientific images. Word makes it very easy to include graphics in your

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 75 documents, and has greatly improved the ways that graphics can be positioned. To place a graphic in your document, create a new paragraph for your insertion point, then Click the Insert menu and select Picture. From the pop-up menu select From File to add one of your own images, ClipArt (figure 7.1) to select an image from Word s own image library, or select any other option to create an image within Word. In the clipart dialog box select the picture that you want. You may have to view submenus in order to obtain the picture that you want. Then click the picture and select insert. Figure 7.1: Inserting Clipart When you have selected your image click the OK button to add it to your document. The image will appear in its own paragraph and you can press Enter to carry on typing below the picture. A picture from ClipArt

76 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials On the other hand you can create your own illustrations or diagram or even pictures using the DrawBar tools. For example, Clicking AutoShapes Menu from the DrawBar. You get various shapes or a pencil to draw various diagrams as assigned to the icon such as: Line drawings, Basic Shapes, Stars, and Banners Oval. 7.4.3 Spreadsheets With the Windows application it can also be easy to learn Spreadsheet package (Excel) or the Windows database package. In today's world of information, there is a need to keep things organised and up-to-date. People need to organise and analyze department budgets, school records, financial reports, project sales for the upcoming year, even balance their own checkbooks. With all of the numbers that are thrown out on a daily basis, a spreadsheet becomes a powerful tool for not only organising information, but to alleviate most of the work people did on paper in the past. Each worksheet can be easily customized and enhanced with graphics and artistic additions. It is helpful to the novice spreadsheet user to think of a spreadsheet as a huge piece of paper. This paper is organised into boxes so that data can be easily organised. These boxes on a spreadsheet are called cells. A cell can contain any data that you wish to put in it. A cell can also be used to manipulate data that is in other cells. A spreadsheet is a numerical tool that is easy to use but deceptively powerful. It revolves around collections of worksheets, each of which consists of rows labelled numerically, and columns labelled alphabetically. At each intersection of a row and a column is a cell, referred to by its position, A3, B1 C265, etc. Excel allows you to create spreadsheets much like paper ledgers that can perform automatic calculations. Each Excel file is a workbook that can hold many worksheets. The worksheet is a grid of columns (designated by letters) and rows (designated by numbers). The letters and numbers of the columns and rows (called labels) are displayed in gray buttons across the top and left side of the worksheet. The intersection of a column and a row is called a cell. Each cell on the spreadsheet has a cell address that is the column letter and the row number.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 77 7.4.4 Database A database can be defined as a collection of information (data) organised in such a way that it can be retrieved and used. A database is a collection of related data. It is a collection of records and files that are organised for a particular purpose. A Database Management System (DBMS) is a program that allows users to define, manipulate, and process the data in a database in order to produce meaningful information. Using Microsoft Access you can take the information from these various sources and organise it into a single database. Prior to computers, manual databases were in use. It was accepted office practice to file away documents rather than pile them up on a desk. Today the package has been developed to a more sophisticated Database Management Systems. Database management systems are applications that are developed to create, manage, and use data and to deal with the problems of file processing systems. The data is stored as records in various database files that can be combined to produce meaningful information for users. The DBMS controls all functions of capturing, processing, storing, and retrieving data from databases and generates various forms of data output. The package relates to the Database Management System in various ways. Nearly all-modern database management systems store and handle information using the relational database management system. The term relational stems from the fact that each record in the database contains information related to a single subject and only that subject. Database has various capabilities which include: Data Definition: You can define what data will be stored in your database and the type of data (i.e. numbers, characters, etc.) and how the data is related. Data Manipulation: You can work with the data in many ways. You can select which data fields you want, and sort it. You can join data with related information. You can update selected data, delete it, copy it to another table, etc. Data Control: You can define who is allowed to read, update, or insert data. 7.4.5 PowerPoint Presentations Graphics is very much related to Power Point. Like a toolkit for the carpenter, PowerPoint is an application programme with numerous sub-programmes put together like tools of a carpenter in a toolkit for a common purpose. Like graphics it provides environment for creating drawing or pasting ready made pictures and writing texts using word processor for instructional presentations to a class, seminar, workshop or conferences. You can either use drawings/pictures alone or

78 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials text alone or both depending on the nature of presentations. Various designs are inbuilt in the PowerPoint for you to select which one you need according to the nature of presentations. The development of a presentation follows several steps such as planning, creating, editing, enhancing and rehearsing. You can use PowerPoint to create on screen presentations black and white or colour overhead transparencies. The steps mentioned above can be done as follows: Planning: The fist step in planning a presentation is to understand its purpose. You also need to find out the length of time you have to speak, who the audience is, what type of room you will be in, and what kind of audiovisual equipment is available. These factors have an impact on the type of presentation you will create. Creating: To begin creating your presentation, develop the content by typing your thoughts or notes into an outline. Each main idea in your presentation should have a supporting slide with a title and bulleted points. Edit: While typing you are bound to make typing and spelling errors that need to be corrected. This is one type of editing. Another is to revise the content of what you have entered to make it clearer, or to add or delete information. To do this you might insert a slide, add or delete bulleted items, or move text to another location. Enhance: You want to develop a presentation that grabs and holds the audience s attention. Choose a design that gives you presentation some dazzle. This is the stage to add special effects that attractively enhances learning. Completely avoid special effects that distract flow of learning. Wherever possible add graphics to replace or enhance text. Add slide transitions, which control how a slide appears and disappear, and build slides, which reveal text in a bulleted list one bullet at a time. Rehearsal: Finally, you should rehearse the delivery of your presentation. For a professional presentation, your delivery should be as polished as your materials. Use the same equipment that you will use when you give the presentation. Practice advancing from slide to slide and then back in case someone asks a question. Use a mouse to practice pointing on the slide to draw attention to key points. After rehearsing your presentation, you may find that you want to go back to the editing phase. You may change text, move bullets, or insert a new slide. Each time you make a change, rehearse the entire presentation again. By the day of the presentation, you will be confident about your message and at ease with the materials. The purpose of your presentation is to summarize the instructional materials that you want to cover. In addition, if you want to impress the learners or audience by creating a professional presentation you need to plan well your instructional

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 79 materials. A slide is an individual page of presentation. The first slide of a presentation is the title slide. Additional slides to support each main point in your presentation. PowerPoint provides five different views that are used to look at and modify your presentation. It automatically checks the spelling of each word containing lower or little cases as you type by checking the word against the main and custom dictionaries in a given type of font. A font is a set of characters with a specific design. Using standard size of fonts as a design element can add interest to your presentation. 7.5 Devices for Developing Instructional Materials 7.5.1 CD-ROM Compact disks have reduced the problem of storing large quantities of information outside the computer. Floppy disks are capable of storing only 1.44 megabytes whereas a compact disk can store more than 700 megabytes. Compact Disk-Record able drive (CD-R) is a type of disk drive that can create CD-ROMs and audio CDs. A feature of many CD-R drives (figure 7.2 (b)), called multi-session recording, enables you to keep adding data to a CD-ROM over time. This is extremely important if you want to use the CD-R drive to create backup CD-ROMs. Figure 7.2: (a) CD-R or CD-RW Disk (b) External CD-R or CD-RW Disk Drive To create CD-ROMs and audio CDs, you'll need not only a CD-R drive, but also a CD-R software package. CD-R drives can also read CD-ROMs and play audio CDs. Unlike tape, CD-R is a random-access device, which makes it fast to get at archive material and discs are also more durable and can't be wiped by coming into contact with, say a magnetic field. 7.5.2 CD-RW Short for Rewritable compact disk is CD-RW. This is a type of CD disk that enables you to write onto it in multiple sessions. One of the problems with CD-R disks is that you can only write to them once. With CD-RW drives and disks, you can treat the optical disk just like a floppy or hard disk, writing data onto its multiple times.

80 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials CD-RW drives allow a user to delete individual files from a CD-RW disk. CD- RW's specifications ensure compatibility within the family of CD products, as well as forward compatibility with DVD-ROM. CD-RW drives are dual-function, offering both CD-R and CD-RW recording. The capacity of the most widely available CD format is expressed either as 74 minutes or 650MB or more. Consequently, a 74-minute disc has a capacity of 783,216,000 bytes (746MB) for audio but only 681,984,000 bytes (650MB) for data. 7.5.3 Optical Scanners These resemble small photocopier. The scanner (figure 7.3) acts as an input device. They operate by reading light reflected from the surface of an object such as a photograph, figures, or printed materials such as text. The scanner is accompanied by software that allows it to have control over the scanned image. 7.5.4 Printer Figure 7.3: Optical Scanners Graphics and text material can be produced with a wide selection of printers and plotters. A printer produces output usually in the form of text on a paper. Some printers can print text as well as graphics. Although most printers print one character at a time, some print a line or a full page at a time. Data can be sent to a printer through either in a serial of parallel port. 7.5.5 Impact Printers Figure 7.4: A Printer An Impact Printer produces characters by using a mechanical print-head that strikes on inked ribbon against the surface of paper leaving an impression of the character on the paper. The dot-matrix printer is one type of the impact printers.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 81 7.5.6 Dot Matrix Printers Figure 7.5: Impact Printer They form characters by using dots. When images are formed by dots, the spacing of the dots affects the resolution and density of the characters. The closer to letter quality the characters will appear closer to fully formed character. In which case, the printer is also slowed down. The dots created in forming characters are arranged in matrix form from which the name "dot matrix printer" (figure 7.6) has been derived. Figure 7.6: Epson Printer, LQ 580 Dot Matrix Printer Line printers produce output one line at a time. They can print in a range of 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute. The most common line printer is the impact type, which prints onto sprocket continuous fan-folded multi-part paper. 7.5.7 Non-impact printers Figure 7.7: A Line Printer Non-impact Printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on paper, and because these printers do not hammer against the paper, they are much quieter. Printers in this category include ink-jet printers, thermal printers, and laser printers.

82 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 7.5.8 Inkjet Printers Ink-jet printers form characters on paper by spraying ink from tiny nozzles. They shoot tiny drops of ink at the paper. Charged droplets of ink are shot at the paper. As they leave the nozzle, they are deflected by a magnetic field to form letters (characters). The ink is then absorbed into the paper and dries instantly. Various colours of ink can also be used depending on the capability of the printer for using different colours. Ink-jet printers produce quality letters. Figure 7.8 shows the ink-jet printer. 7.5.9 Laser Printers Figure 7.8: Ink-jet Printer Laser printers employ a laser beam to create an image on a photosensitive drum surface. The image is transferred by means of a carbon toner to produce letterquality printing (approaching typeset quality) of text and graphics into plain bond or letterhead paper at a very high resolution of 300 to 600 dots per inch (dpi). This technology is similar to the one employed by sophisticated photocopiers. Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at a time, Figure 7.9 shows a laser printer.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 83 Figure 7.9: A Laser Printer The previous section has discussed about various types of input/output devices. In general there are many input/output devices, which can be used for the microcomputers, up to super computers. Some of them are Magnetic tapes, streamer tape, magnetic drums, etc. Activity With the help of internet, find different software to improve uses of ICTs in distance learning. Summary In this lecture, we have discussed techniques for developing instructional materials, softwares which can make ICTs more efficient, computer applications for developing instructional materials, and devices for developing instructional materials. Exercise 1. List down facilities/devices which can be employed to develop ICTs educational materials. 2. Mention important application softwares which teachers can use to develop ICTs instructional materials. 3. Explain how ISDN and WWW make ICTs more efficient.

84 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 4. Select any two computer applications and explain how they are used in developing instructional materials. 5. Explain how you will use any three devices in ICT in developing instructional materials. References Feldman, S., McELroy, J. E and LaCour, N. (2000). Distance education: Guidelines for good practice. Gilbert, S. W. (1995). Technology and Change in Higher Education: Symptoms and Suggestions. Guile, D. (1998). Perspective on Education Policy: Information and Communication Technology and Education. London: Institute of Education: University of London. Kaye, A. (1995). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, in N. Heap, et al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Educational Value of ISDN ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Miyasato, E. (1998). Setting the stage for dynamic use of distance learning technologies in education. Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. Taylor, J. and Laurillard, D. (1995) Supporting Resource Based Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. University of Dar-es-Salaam.

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86 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials LECTURE 8 Resources from Websites 8.1 Introduction The information revolution has created a new 'post-industrial paradigm,' transforming the way people work and live and also making possible new products, services and industries (Elliott 1994). Technology has bestowed participants with greater control over their environments and the terms of information exchange. Rosen and Weil (1995) noted that the 'home and office of the 1990s has become a show place for advances in computerized technology.' Williams (1987) adds that communication technologies 'are now becoming so common e.g., cable television, video-cassette machines, new telephones, office technologies, personal computers, are having increasing impact upon the social, economic and cultural aspects of our existence.' The merger of the computer and the telephone is also prompting the emergence of a communications revolution. Traditionally, telephones have served as the medium that links individuals in remote locations. Today, information technologies are changing the way we work, play, and think. Cellular phones and pagers allow us to stay in touch without going to a fixed location of office or home. Electronic mail is replacing the pen and paper and studies have found that heavy e-mail users are better informed than their colleagues are (Baig 1994). Computers and faxes make it possible for telecommuters to avoid the daily rigors of travelling to the office. New communications and computing technologies allow consumers throughout the world to manipulate and distribute information as never before through the ownership and usage of the newer communication technologies. Furthermore, the explosion in communication capacity and networking technologies such as fiber optics, wireless transmission, satellites, and Infobahn, will put amazing amounts of low-cost, high-speed communications at our disposal. In this lecture, we shall discuss how the Internet contains vast amounts of resources for educators and students in various subject areas. Because of the wealth of Internet-based educational materials available, educators must take special care to identify the very best resources according to the level of learners and must design learning opportunities that use those resources in instructionally appropriate ways. The Internet therefore is an important tool both for educational restructuring and promoting active learning. The Internet offers educators many opportunities to integrate technology and engaged learning. By using the Internet, teachers can

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 87 motivate students to learn while preparing them for work outside of school. Various multimedia can be downloaded such as video, CD-ROM, printed materials, and so on. However, the size, complexity, and technical language of the Internet often discourage people from using Internet resources in depth. Others have difficulty finding a way to connect. Once connected, educators can access software and other search tools that will help them locate and use Internet resources such as locating and accessing high quality educational materials from the Internet. The lecture attempts to address these and related issues as well. Learning Objectives At the end of this lecture, you will be able to: Access and use reading resources available on the Internet; Download reading resources from websites by using appropriate search engines and computer softwares; Evaluate the relevance of reading resources in different websites. 8.2 Reading Resources The Internet is often described as a global network of networks or the "information superhighway." In the past two years, however, developments in software and hardware have enabled fast and reliable access to the Internet. Today, most educators and students are one of the fastest growing groups of users on the Internet. To ensure the ongoing success of their Internet use, educators should take the following actions. To use the Internet effectively, educational institutions need good ICT network connections, fast modems computers with fast capacity. Some of the best technology-based materials are so popular that they are difficult to access during classroom hours due to various reasons including poor ICT connectivity, low capacity modems, low capacity memory hardware, outdated software. To find resources on the Internet, users must know the various commonly used search engines such as www.eric.com, www.google.com, www.googlescholar.com, www. directscience.com, www.psychoinfo.com, www.webofscience.com, www.scirus.com, LYCOS, WebNomad, WebCrawler and many more.

88 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 8.3 Downloading Reading Resources from Websites There are many search engines that one can use to search for reading resources. In order to find resources for preparing study materials or for research project, appropriate search engine needed to be identified. Search engines contain databases of web pages, which allow users to search the Internet for specific resources by using keywords. A website is the entry door to various search engines and numerous other materials and information. For example Yahoo website is an entry point for an amazing huge volume of resources. 8.4 Search Engines Use special search engines to find articles, books, reports, videos or any other materials. Search engines such as www.eric.com, www.google.com, www.googlescholar.com, www.psychoinfo.com, www.webofscience.com, www.google.com, www.search.com, www.alltheweb.com and others may be quite useful in this respect. When searching for reading resources, you simply have to enter a keyword of the information that you are looking for and your search engine will query all of the top search engines and retrieve the results within a second depending on the speed of the Internet. In order to search for resources for a project work, a slightly different approach is used. One has to be certain of the topic that is under exploration. Appropriate keywords must be formulated sharp enough to capture the focus of the topic and objectives of the topic in question. In a study by Nihuka (2008) which explored a project question: what factors are necessary for effective integration of e-learning in higher education in Sub-Sahara Africa?, the following keywords were used to search for articles from different search engines: e-learning, perceptions, knowledge, skills, integration, implementation, facilities, access, support, design, learning content management system, higher education, developing countries. Then one or a combination of keywords was/were thus be used to search for appropriate recourses from the internet. Most times connectors such as AND, OR and NOT are used to connect two or more keywords as: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (e-learning) AND (perceptions OR attitudes) AND (higher education), (e-learning) AND (implementation OR integration) AND (higher education OR distance education), (e-learning) AND (design) AND (higher education OR distance education), (e-learning) OR (content management systems) AND (higher education OR distance education),

(v) (vi) (vii) Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 89 (e-learning) AND (skills OR knowledge) AND (higher education OR distance education), (e-learning) AND (perceptions) AND (higher education OR distance education), (e-learning) AND (design) AND (implementation) AND (higher education OR distance education), etc. Any search attempt will produce results which will comprise of a list of resources each with a title and a website address (URL). Among the results, some will have the download button option. Simply click the download button and a pop-up window will prompt to give option of where are you going to save either your text or video file. 8.5 Evaluation of Resources from Website Both reading resources and that for project require to be evaluated well before is used. An important step in searching resources is therefore to evaluate the information you retrieve from the website or search engines. It is therefore necessary that while you are looking for information from websites you need to evaluate whether it is really relevant to the objectives of course/topic or project under investigation. If it does seem relevant you need to think critically about the information to ensure that you are using the most appropriate material for your work. Having the skills to be able to critically evaluate articles is important when deciding on the validity and reliability of the resources you are reading and if it should be included in your list of resources. Different suggestions are provided on how to assess different types of resources (Greenhalgh, 2006, www.cebm.net/index.asp, and www.phru.nhs.uk/casp/casp.htm). A resource retrieved on December 04 th, 2008 from http://www.denison.edu/ collaborations/ohio5/inforlit/c3evaluate/ identifies the following as important key elements to be considered when evaluating resources and information: authority, accuracy, objectivity, quality, coherent organisation, reasonableness and intended audience as stipulated in Box 1. 1. Authority Box 8.1. Key Elements for Evaluating Resources from Websites Who wrote the resource? Where is the author of the resources from? Is the author of the resource previously known? 2. Accuracy and completeness research methods in sufficient detail to reproduce/modify

90 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials supportive evidence for conclusions no obvious errors or omissions bibliography 3. Objectivity assumptions clear, no prejudice, no selling information should be fact not opinion 4. Quality control no obvious errors such as poor spelling or poor grammar institution? library? publisher? 5. Coherent organization logical organization main points clearly presented linear argumentation, not repetitive or circular 6. Reasonableness notify contradictions 7. Intended audience Activity Make a list of various reading resources available on the net. Summary In this lecture, we have discussed how the Internet contains vast amounts of resources for educators and students in various subject areas. It has been emphasized that because of the wealth of Internet-based educational materials available, educators must take special care to identify the very best resources according to the level of learners and must design learning opportunities that use those resources in instructionally appropriate ways. It has also been shown that the Internet is an important tool both for educational restructuring and for promoting active learning. The Internet offers educators many opportunities to integrate technology and engaged learning. By using the Internet, teachers can motivate students to learn while preparing them for work outside of school. However, the size, complexity, and technical language of the Internet often discourage people from using Internet resources in depth. Others have difficulty

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials 91 finding a way to connect. Once connected, educators can access software and other search tools that will help them locate and use Internet resources such as locating and accessing high quality educational materials from the Internet. The lecture has, therefore, addressed these and related issues as well. Exercise 1. Why is it difficult to access the best technology-based material on the Internet? 2. Mention search engines which you can employ in searching for resources on the Internet. 3. Explain the procedures you will follow in searching for resources on the Internet. 4. Mention and discuss any three criteria you will employ in assessing resources from the internet for validity and reliability. References Barker, J. and Turker, R. N. (1990). The Interactive Learning Revolution: Multimedia in Education and Training. New York: Nichols Publishing. Davies, W. J. K.(1989). Open and Flexible Learning Centres. London; National Council for Educational Technology. Feldman, S., McELroy, J. E and LaCour, N. (2000). Distance education: Guidelines for good practice. Guile, D. (1998). Perspective on Education Policy: Information and Communication Technology and Education. London: Institute of Education: University of London. Kaye, A. (1995). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, in N. Heap, et al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Mason, R. (1995). Educational Value of ISDN ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Miyasato, E. (1998). Setting the stage for dynamic use of distance learning technologies in education. Retrieved on 1st December, 2008 from http://www.prel.hawaii.edu

92 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Instructional Materials Tapscott, D. and Custon, A. (1993) Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. University of Dar-es-Salaam. Publications Section 1998. UDSM Prospectus 1998/99; Research and Wymer. I. K. The Open University and Adult Studies: A Movement towards Social Education. U.K: Ivor K. Wymer.