Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Volume 4, Issue 3 December 2014 MIJE is indexed in Turkish Educational Index, ASOS index, Index Copernicus, EBSCO Pub, Educational Research Abstracts (ERA), Aniji, DOAJ, Directory of Research Journals Indexing (DRJI) and ERIC (Published articles in MIJE are indexed by ERIC which is accepted by ERIC reviewers. Articles which are indexed by ERIC indicated in the table of contents in relevant issue)
OWNER YALÇINÖZ,Tankut (Rector of Mevlana University) EDITOR IN CHIEF ÇELİK, Vehbi (Dean of Education Faculty) EDITOR GÜMÜŞ, Emine ASSOCIATE EDITORS NEL, Norma LETSEKA, Moeketsi SAMUEL, Mihael Anthony ASSISTANT EDITORS Durmuş, Alpaslan KAYA, Sinan SECRETARIAT OF THE JOURNAL TOZKOPARAN, Süleyman, Burak ABADIANO, Helen R. (Central Connecticut State University, USA) AGAYEV, Ejder (Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan) AKBAŞ, Oktay (Kırıkkale University, Turkey) AKKOYUNLU, Buket (Hacettepe University, Turkey) AKMAN, Berrin Hacettepe University, Turkey AKPINAR, Burhan (Fırat University, Turkey) AKPINAR, Yavuz (Boğaziçi University, Turkey) AKTÜMEN, Muharrem (Ahi Evran University, Turkey) AKYOL, Hayati (Gazi University, Turkey) ALACACI, Cengiz (Florida International University, USA) AL-MABUK, Rathi (University of NorthernIowa, USA) Anastasiadou, Sofia D. (University of West Macedonia, Greece) ARICIOĞLU, Ahu (Pamukkale University, Turkey) BAEZZAT, Fereshteh (University of Mazandaran, Iran) BALOĞLU, Nuri (Ahi Evran University) BAYRAM, Servet (Marmara University, Turkey) BECK, Mitchell (Central Connecticut State University, USA) BİLGİN, İbrahim (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) BİRGİN, Osman (Uşak University, Turkey) BOOYSE, Johan (University of South Africa, South Africa) BOZDOĞAN, Aykut Emre (Giresun University, Turkey) BOZOĞLAN, Bahadır (Mevlana University, Turkey) BÜYÜKÖZTÜRK, Şener (Gazi University, Turkey) ÇAKIR, Abdulkadir (Mevlana University, Turkey) ÇAKIR, Recep (Amasya University, Turkey) ÇANKAYA, İbrahim (Uşak University, Turkey) ÇELİK, Vehbi (Mevlana University, Turkey) CHUANG, Hsueh-hua (National Sun Yat-sen University, Tayvan) ÇOŞKUN, Eyyup (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) DANIŞMAN, Yusuf (Mevlana University, Turkey) DEMİREAY, Uğur (Anadolu University, Turkey) DEMİREL, Şener (Fırat University, Turkey) DEMİRLİ, Ci hat (İstanbul Ticaret University, Turkey) EDITORIAL BOARD DEREVENSKY, Jeffrey L. (McGill University, Canada) DIBOLL, Mike (University of Sussex, UK) DOĞRU, S. Sunay Yıldırım(Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey) ECIRLI, Ahmet (Universiteti Bedër, Albania ERBAY, Filiz (Mevlana University, Turkey) ERGÜN, Mustafa (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) FALLAHI, Vida (Shiraz University, Iran ) GAO, Ping (University of Northern Iowa, USA) GÖMLEKSİZ, Mehmet Nuri (Fırat University, Turkey) GÜNDÜZ, Mustafa (Yıldız Teknik University, Turkey) GÜNEL, Murat (TED, Turkey) GÜROL, Mehmet (Yıldız Technical University, Turkey) GURSEL, Musa (Mevlana University, Turkey) GÜZELLER, Cem Oktay (Akdeniz University, Turkey) HALAT, Erdoğan (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) HALAI, Nelofer(Aga Khan University, Pakistan) HAMMOND, John (University of Canberra, Australia) HARPUTLU, Leyla (Ahi Evran University, Turkey ) HERRING, Mary C. (University of Northern Iowa, USA) HOSSEINCHARI, Ma ssound (Shiraz University, Iran ) HUANG, Chi-Jen (National Chiayi University, Taiwan) HUTSON, Bryant (The University of North Carolina a, USA) İŞÇİOĞLU, Ersin (Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC) IŞIK, Erkan (Mevlana University, Turkey) İŞMAN, Aytekin (Sakarya University, Turkey) KARA, Ahmet (Adıyaman University, Turkey) KARADAĞ, Ruhan (Adıyaman University, Turkey) KARADENİZ, Şirin (Bahçeşehir University, Turkey) KARAMI, Morteza(University of Mazandaran, Iran) KARAKUŞ, Mehmet (Zirve University, Turkey) KARAMI, Morteza (University of Ma zandaran, Iran) KARATAŞ, Serçin (Gazi University, Turkey) KARIM, Rezaul (Leading University, Bangladesh)
KAUR, Ki randeep (Punjabi university, India) KAYA, Osman Nafiz (Fırat University, Turkey) KESER, Hafize (Ankara University, Turkey) KOCABAŞ, İbra him (Fırat University, Turkey) KOÇAK, Recep (Gazi Osman Paşa University, Turkey) KUMARAN, Duraikkannu (University of Madras, India) LAVICZA, Zsolt (Cambridge University, UK) LEBLANC, Raymond (University of Ottawa, Ca nada) LEMMER, Eleanor (University of South Africa, South Africa) LOUW, Gabriel (North-West University, South Africa) MCKEOWN, John A. G. (Mevlana University, Turkey) MEMMEDOV, Behmen (Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan) MICHAIL, Kalogiannakis (University of Crete, Greece) MITTAL, Shree Ram (University of Delhi, India) MOONSAMY, Sharon (University of the Witwatersrand, S.Africa) MSILA, Vuyi sile (University of South Africa, South Africa) NAM, Jeonghee (Pusan National University, Korea) NEL, Norma (University of South Africa, South Africa) ODABAŞI, H. Ferhan (Anadolu University, Turkey) OKUYUCU, Cihan (Yıldız Technical University University, Turkey) ÖMEROĞLU, Esra (Gazi University, Turkey) OMRAN, Ebra him Salehi (University of Mazandaran, Iran) ORAL, Behçet (Dicle University, Turkey) ÖZDEMİR, M. Soner (Kırıkkale University, Turkey) ÖZDEMİR, Selçuk (Gazi University, Turkey) ÖZER, Bayram (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) PANDAY, Shefali (University of Mumbai, India) PAPE, Stephen J.(University of Florida, USA) PEKER, Murat (Afyon Kocatepe, Turkey) GIJON PUERTA, José (Universidad de Granada, Spain) PHASHA, Tlakale Nareadi (University of South Africa, South Africa) PING-KWAN, Fok (The Chinese University of Hong Kong) POTGIETER, Calvyn (University of South Africa, South Africa) QUADIR, Tarik (Mevlana University, Turkey) RANA, Rizwan Akram (University of the Punjab, Pakistan) SADEGHI, Abbas (University of Guilan Iran) SAMUEL, Michael (University of Kwazulu-Nata, South Africa) ŞAHİN, İsmail (Selçuk University, Turkey) ŞAHİN, Sami (Gazi University, Turkey) SAMANI, Siamak (Islamic Azad University, Iran) SARI, Mustafa (Mevlana University, Turkey) SEMERCİ, Çetin (Fırat University, Turkey) ŞENAY, Hasan (Mevlana University, Turkey) SHAHIM, Sima (Shiraz University, Iran ) SHARRA, Steve(Michigan State University, USA) SHELLEY, Mack (Iowa State University, USA) SÜNBÜL, Ali Murat(Selçuk University, Turkey) TABAKU, Elida (Universiteti Bedër, Albania) TAŞPINAR, Mehmet (Gazi University, Turkey) THOMPSON, Ann D. (Iowa State University, USA) TÖREMEN, Fatih (Zirve University, Turkey) Trotman, Wayne (Izmir Katip Çelebi University) TÜYSÜZ, Cengiz (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) UZUNBOYLU, Hüseyin (Near East University, TRNC) UZOGLU, Mustafa (Giresun University, Turkey) URE, Omer (Mevlana University, Turkey) YALÇIN, Paşa (Erzincan University, Turkey) YALIN, H. İbra him (Gazi University, Turkey) YAMAN, Süleyman (Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Turkey) YILMAZ, Ercan (Selçuk University, Turkey) YÖRÜK, Sinan (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) REVIEWER OF THE ISSUE Adnan ERKUŞ Mersin Üni. Martin Combrinck North-West University Defne YILMAZ Akdeniz Üni. Serkan İZMİRLİ Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üni. Serçin KARATAŞ Gazi Üni. Özgen Korkmaz Amasya Üni. Ahmet Bedel Mevlana Üni Musa Dikmenli Necm.Erbakan Üni. Banu YAMAN Trakya Üni. Ömer Faruk TUTKUN Sakarya Üni. Salih Zeki Genç Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üni. Halil İbrahim Çankaya Uşak Üni Tuncay Yavuz Özdemir Fırat Üni. Serpil KILIÇ, Fatih Uni. Alpaslan Durmuş Mevlana Üni. Sinan Kaya Mevlana Üni. Ergün Recepoğlu Kastamonu Üni. Sedat Gümüş Necm.Erbakan Üni. Ayşe Negiş Işık Mevlana Üni. Erkan Işık Mevlana Üni. Mehmet Emir Köksal Mevlana Üni. Vehbi Aytekin Sanalan Erzincan Üni Hasan Eşici Hasan Kalyoncu Üni.
TABLE OF CONTENTS A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.13.80.4.3 Zulfu Demirtas...... 1-12 The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code Including High Schools Among Others http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.31.4.3 Ahmet Akbaba...... 13-25 Lecturers Views On Experiences Of A Post Graduate Honours Research Module Implemented Curriculum http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.06.4.3 Simon Bheki. Khoza...... 26-39 An investigation of the Predictive Role of Authenticity on Proactivity http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.21.4.3 Umran Akın, Ahmet Akın...... 40-47 The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on the Organizational Commitment: An Application in Primary Education Institutions http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.49.4.3 Cemal Aküzüm... 48-68 An analysis of the relationship between high school teachers organizational commitment levels and perceptions of school culture http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.72.4.3 Ahmet Ayık, Öznur Ataş.... 69-82 Students Beliefs on Effectiveness of Storyline Method in History Teaching http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.48.4.3 Metin Kuş, Bülent Alcı... 83-91 An Investigation of the New Elementary Curriculum in Terms of Teachers Opinions http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.62.4.3 Mehmet Arif Özerbaş... 92-101 Mevlana Stories and Gestalt Therapy http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.22.4.3 Mehmet KAYA, Neslihan ARICI... 102-112 The examination of high school students learning strategies and motivation levels in physics course http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.22.4.3 Erol Suzuk, Cem Gurel, Hakan Olgun... 113-123 A Phenomenographic Approach for Exploring Conceptions of Learning and Teaching Biology in Turkey http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.23.4.3 Özlem Sadi... 124-138 An Investigation of Science and Technology Teachers Views on the 5th Grade Science Course http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.63.4.3 İkramettin Daşdemir... 139-148 Leadership by consensus at MU: A look at two leaders http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.47.4.3 Adem Bayar, James H Kerns... 149-162
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 1-12, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.13.80.4.3 Article history Received: 22.11.2013 Received in revised form: 29.08.2014 Accepted: 29.10.2014 Key words: Learning, organizational learning, organization, school, teacher Introduction A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools Zulfu Demirtas 1 Faculty of Education, Fırat University, Elazığ, Turkey This is a scale development study, conducted with the participation of 342 teachers who were working at Elazığ city center. Data were collected by using a questionnaire developed by Türkoğlu and Güçlü (2003) which does not consist explanatory and confirmatory factor analysis. Explanatory and Confirmatory factor analysis were done in the context of this study. The EFA conducted on Güçlü and Türkoğlu s (2003) 42-item questionnaire showed no meaningful relationship between the factors obtained and the dimensions of the original questionnaire. Owing to this, a two-stage method was utilized to obtain a five-dimensional scale. In the first stage, items forming each dimension were taken as a scale in themselves (subscale) and subjected to exploratory factor analysis. As a result of this analysis, a five-factor structure emerged. In the second stage, the subscales were considered to be the sub dimensions of a single scale; the remaining items were subjected to exploratory factor analysis once again; and significant findings were obtained. Thereafter, first and second stage CFA was conducted with the help of an SEM package program in order to test the five factor structure of the scale after exploratory analysis. In sum, the "Scale of Learning Schools" aiming to identify the learning capacity of schools and obtained by conducting EFA and CFA is a valid and reliable measurement tool. Employees in modern organizations of our day are expected to learn, interact with their fellow employees, teach them what they know, and learn from them. It can be said that the most distinct quality of such organizations is their ability to learn. Learning, which entails a permanent change in the knowledge or behaviours of individuals through experience (Hoy and Miskel, 2010: 41), does not have to be conscious and deliberate. In addition, it cannot always be expected to create a behavioural change. Learning may be defined as gaining a new perspective and awareness (Huber, 1991). Learning remains in our life from the beginning through the end (Töremen, 2001: 4), and by changing our beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviours (Eren, 2004: 485), it enables us to recognize and correct our mistakes (Argyris and Schön, 1978: 9). Learning, a process of knowledge creation, happens when the conflict between adaptation to the environment and our logical thoughts is resolved (Kolb and Kolb, 2005). The strongest learning comes through experience (Uysal, 2008); however, such learning is only possible when feedback is quick and specific (Senge, 2000: 337). At the same time, when employees make an effort to imprint past experiences and achievements in organizational memory, learning new information becomes more difficult (Alas and Vadi, 2006). 1 Correspondence: zdemirtas@firat.edu.tr
A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools Z. Demirtas Being a lifelong process, learning can take place on a personal, team or organizational level (Oltra and Vivas-Lo pez, 2013). The first level of the activity of learning, personal learning, happens as a result of individuals improving their questioning and thinking skills (Akgün, Keskin and Günsel: 2009: 72). In personal learning, individuals alter their knowledge, attitudes, values, skills, understanding and behaviours owing to personal work, gathering information, observing events, or having experiences (Gökmen Kavak, 2007). Without personal learning, there cannot be team or organizational learning. Likewise, personal learning does not guarantee team or organizational learning. However, personal learning is a prerequisite and condition to higher level learning. Team learning refers to individuals who have achieved personal learning to reach a new shared level of understanding by sharing and interpreting their knowledge within a group. The first stage of the discipline of team learning is dialog which shows the capacity of team members to think collectively (Nayır, 2010). Different from personal learning, team learning is affected by the social relations within the team, cooperation among team members and an effective communication network. If teams can learn, the entire organization becomes prepared to do so (Töremen, 2001: 6). Organizational learning is the highest and most collective level of learning. Learning at this level spreads knowledge within the organization and enables its common use (Karahan and Yılmaz, 2010). For organizations, learning is making inferences from routine work that guides behaviours (Levitt and March, 1998). Learning that occasionally emerges in an organization can also cause tension between new knowledge and the existing knowledge already in use (Crossan, Lane and White, 1999). The analysis of organizational learning has become an increasingly popular study field in recent years (Tohidi and Jabbari, 2012). Organizational learning can be defined as identifying and correcting mistakes and improving the process of correction (Argyris, 1977); the ability of the organization to adapt to its environment (DiBella, Nevis and Gould, 1996a); or the capacity (or processes) within an organization to maintain or improve performance based on experience (DiBella, Nevis and Gould, 1996b). Being an informal process (Oltra and Vivas- Lo pez, 2013) organizational learning mostly emphasizes the collective learning of members in its various definitions (Yukl, 2009). Organizational learning occurs as a result of individuals disseminating their knowledge and experiences gathered in or outside the work environment on an organizational level through teamwork (Özgen, Kılıç and Karademir, 2004), shared understanding, and information and mental models (Stata, 1989). As organizations are not simple collections of individuals, organizational learning is not the mere personal learning of employees; however, organizations only learn from the knowledge and experiences of individuals (Argyris and Schön, 1978: 9). In order to adapt to the changing environment, organizations must learn continuously. Argyris (1996: 5-7) emphasizes that the dynamic environment of organizations bring them face to face with constant ambiguity and change, which enforces them to learn continuously so as to cope with this situation. Senge (2000: 23) states that organizational learning can happen in the organization on adaptive and generative learning levels. Adaptive learning means adapting to the changes outside the organization and is based on solving new problems with existing skills. The main premises of emerging problems are not questioned and not blamed for the problems. Contrary to adaptive learning, generative learning involves looking at the world through a new lens and seeing the system that controls events. This kind of learning questions the main reasons for problems to emerge, and defines and solves them. Generative learning brings a competitive edge to the organization by guiding the surrounding change and combining it with the -2-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 1-12, 1 December, 2014 organization's internal factors. Senge (2000: 26-34) states that organizations include certain disabilities that hinder learning and that effective learning is only possible once they develop methods to overcome them. These disabilities are: (1) I am my position, (2) The enemy is out there, (3) The illusion of taking charge (4) The fixation on events, (5) The parable of the boiled frog, (6) The delusion of learning through experience and (7) The myth of the management team. According to Yukl (2009), learning disabilities may be a sign of weakness in the main processes of discovering, disseminating and implementing new information. Organizational learning can be strengthened by overcoming this weakness. Today's organizations are expected to be learning organizations in order to adapt to the everchanging environment. Learning organizations are those that can improve their attitudes, values and behaviours in light of the new information and understandings that they create, obtain or transfer (Garvin 1993). Learning organizations, where individuals constantly improve themselves together and individually in order to create a common desired future (Çalkavur, 2009: 59), offer their employees opportunities to discover and use their talents in order to reach the ultimate values of humanity such as unity, loyalty, collective effort and intelligence (Töremen, 2001: 18). These organizations constantly encourage their employees to learn and share their knowledge within the organization. People work together in small and large teams to achieve common targets and give each other feedback in order to see how well they have accomplished their task (Aydın, 2012: 201). There are certain preconditions to achieve organizational learning and become a learning organization. The primary name associated with learning organizations, Senge (2000: 9-14), lists the qualities that an organization must have to cope with the hardships of learning as follows: Personal mastery, mental models, shared vision and team learning. However, he also adds that these per se are not enough to become a learning organization; they need to be considered within systems thinking. Personal mastery is the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, of focusing our energies, of developing patience, and of seeing reality objectively. As such, it is an essential cornerstone of the learning organization -the learning organization's spiritual foundation. An organization's commitment to and capacity for learning can be no greater than that of its members (Senge, 2000: 10). Personal mastery enables individuals to constantly develop themselves by increasing their learning capacity. Mental models are deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations, or even pictures or images that influence how we understand the world and how we take action (Senge, 2000: 11). We analyse and interpret the events that we encounter primarily through our mental model. We make sense of the world through these models. A shared vision is a force in people's hearts, a force off impressive power. It may be inspired by an idea, but once it goes further than it is no longer an abstraction. It is palpable. People begin to see it as if it exists. Few, if any, forces in human affairs are as powerful as shared vision (Senge, 2004: 191). Shared vision is the driving force behind people working towards a single and shared aim. People with a shared vision have a sense of responsibility and yearning for the task at hand. Teams, not individuals, are the fundamental learning unit in modern organizations. Unless teams can learn, the organization cannot learn (Senge, 1990: 12). Team learning is a -3-
A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools Z. Demirtas collective discipline that requires dialog and debate practices. Skilful teams and the creative learning process require the questioning of the presuppositions of the thinking process. Teams that have talented individuals with personal differences are stronger and more creative. The creative learning process depends on the alignment of people with a shared vision and personal mastery, and constantly improving their creative learning capacity. Systems thinking requires seeing the big picture, and is based on the presupposition that links all other disciplines to systems thinking. Instead of ineffective traditional problem solution methods, this kind of thinking encourages collective thinking, seeing the whole system that we belong to instead of isolated events, and unveiling the underlying reasons for problems. It is not possible for continuously evolving structures to renew themselves without learning. Organizations that can increase the quality of their products and services and thus can cope with change through learning are more likely to meet their aims than others. Therefore, all organizations must construct networks conducive to learning and adopt a culture that encourages it. Schools are expected to have high learning capacity. It is due to the services they provide and the qualities they have that schools must be learning organizations. In Turkey, many questionnaires have been used in the studies to determine the characteristics of the learning organizations (e.g. Yücel, 2007; Çelik, 2009; Aybar, 2011; Tolgay, 2010; Koç, 2006; Çandır, 2010). In these studies the dimensions and the item numbers used in questionnaires are not compatible with each other. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were not applied to these questionnaires. It is difficult to say that they are well applied scales for the questionnaires in which factor analysis were not applied. Development of a eligible and reliable scale of learning organization is needed to cover up this deficiency in the literature. In this study, it is aimed to develop a scale in accordance with Senge s (2000) organizational learning theory. For this purpose, by creating an item repository from the questionnaire items used by Güçlü and Türkoğlu, a scale development study was conducted. In point of fact, there is need for a scale that can measure the level at which elementary schools possess Senge s (2004) organizational learning disciplines. Method This is a scale development study conducted with 342 teachers working in nine secondary schools in the center of Elazığ, Turkey. Of these participants, 33,3% were female and 66,7% were male; 39,2% had 1-5 years of work experience, 23,4% had 6-10 years of experience, 20,2% had 11-15 years of experience, 8,2% had 16-20 years of experience, and 5% had 21 or more years of experience. Data were collected by using a questionnaie developed by Türkoğlu (2002) for his Master's degree and used in an article co-authored with Güçlü (2003). The original questionnaire had 42 items. Of these, items 1-5 focused on Personal mastery, 6-12 on Mental models, 13-23 on Shared vision, 24-32 on Systems thinking, and 33-42 on Team Learning. The responses were graded from 5 to 1 in the following order: Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Generally and Always. Results -4-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 1-12, 1 December, 2014 Exploratory Factor Analysis The Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) conducted on Güçlü and Türkoğlu s (2003) 42-item questionnaire showed no meaningful relationship between the factors obtained and the dimensions of the original questionnaire. Owing to this, a two-stage method was utilized to obtain a five-dimensional scale, because of Senge s (2000) classification. In the first stage, items forming each dimension were taken as a scale in themselves (subscale) and subjected to EFA. In the analysis: (1) in order to ensure that each scale covered one single factor, the factor that explained the highest variance was kept and others were not included in the evaluation, and (2) The criteria for keeping a factor included an eigenvalue over 1,00 and having a minimum of three items. The analyses yielded the following data about the subscales. The Personal Mastery subscale includes five items and one factor. KMO =,709 ; Bartlett = 635,167 ; p<,05; item loadings,601,835. Items in the factor = 2,3,4,5 ; the amount of explained variance is 53,655%. The Mental Models subscale includes seven items and one factor. KMO =,889 ; Bartlett = 1123,226 ; p<,05; item loadings,393,696 ; the amount of explained variance is 58,817%. Having 11 items, the Shared Vision subscale yielded the following values: KMO =,924 ; Bartlett = 2777,115 ; p<,05; item loadings,481,862. These subscale consist of two factors; items in the first factor = 16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23 ; the amount of explained variance by the first factor is 41,331%. The amount of explained variance by the second factor = 28,817%. Items 13,14 and 15 in the second factor were removed from scale. The Systems Thinking subscale had nine items and one factor. KMO =,914 ; Bartlett = 1411,889 ; p<,05; item loadings,261,669 ; item 26 was removed from this dimension as it had a value below,35 (,216). The amount of explained variance by the factor is 59,405%. The 10-item Team Learning subscale has two factors. Item 41 was removed from the scale as it had very similar values in both factors (in factor 1=,582; in factor 2=,586), and factor analysis was rerun. The following values were obtained: KMO =,891 ; Bartlett = 1773,199 ; p<,05; item loads,484,827; number of factors 2 ; items in the first factor = 33,34,35,37,42; the amount of variance explained by the first factor is 35,847%. Items in the second factor = 36,38,39,40 ; the amount of variance explained by the second factor is 33,242%. As the items in factor 1 explained more variance, the items in factor 2 were removed from scale. In the second stage, the scales above (subscales) were considered to be the sub dimensions/factors of a single scale; the remaining items were subjected to exploratory factor analysis once again; and the following findings were obtained: KMO,964; Bartlett 7791,470; p<,05. Item loadings ranged between,502 and,791. This scale included five factors. The amount of explained variance by each factor was as follows: Factor one = 15,514, Factor two = 14,168, Factor three = 13,853, Factor four = 11,866, Factor five = 10,083. The amount of variance explained by all factors was 65,483%. The first factor includes seven items. All of these came from the Shared Vision dimension of Güçlü and Türkoğlu (2003) (items 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22). This factor was thus named Shared Vision. The second factor has eight items. Of these, items 24, 25, 27, 28, 29 and 30 came from the -5-
A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools Z. Demirtas Systems Thinking dimension of Güçlü and Türkoğlu (2003). While item 23 (Plans are actualized in my organization not after the emergence of problems, but before they come into being.) was originally in the Shared Vision dimension, item 42 (During teamwork, each member can hold their thoughts when necessary to understand other colleagues.) was in the Team Learning dimension. Considering their contents, these items were removed from the factor as they were covered by the dimensions in the original questionnaire, and the number of items in the factor was set at six. This factor was named Systems Thinking. There are seven items in the third factor. Of these, items 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 were in Güçlü and Türkoğlu's (2003) Mental Models dimension. While item 2 in the factor (Individuals who want to develop themselves are valued in the organization.) was in the "Personal Mastery dimension of the original scale, item 31 (The lines of communication in the organization are open.) was in the Team Learning dimension. As these two items were thought to be more in line with the dimensions in the original questionnaire, they were removed from the factor and the number of items was set at five. The factor was named after Mental Models in the original scale. The fourth factor consists of five items. While four of these items (items 33, 34, 35 and 37) we in Güçlü and Türkoğlu's (2003) Team Learning dimension, item 32 (Individuals in the organization can see the whole rather than the pieces) is in the Systems Thinking dimension of the original questionnaire. As this item was congruent with Systems Thinking, the item was removed from the factor and the number of items was set at four. The factor was named after Team Learning in the original scale. There are four items in the fifth factor. Of these, items 3, 4 and 5 are in Güçlü and Türkoğlu's (2003) Personal Mastery dimension, while item 12 (Innovations for development are possible in the organization.) is in the Mental Models dimension of the original questionnaire. As this item was thought to be related to Personal Mastery, it was kept and the number of items in the factor was set at four. This factor was named Personal Mastery, similar to the original questionnaire. The resulting factor structure is given in Table 1. Table 1. Factor Analysis Results Item No Load Factor Values Shared Vision System Thinking Mental Models Team Learning Personal Mastery i19,813,102,166,220,217 i20,774,237,207,202,231 i18,718,228,269,150,335 i17,670,202,417,160,055 i21,625,350,159,152,141 i22,565,435,198,184,191 i16,536,282,443,282 -,015 i29,314,654,153,205,011 i27,233,592,312,225,302 i28,227,571,365,124,247 i25,325,523,240,319,308 i24,384,512,062,247,244 i30,255,463,419,363,242 i7,290,211,744,153,066 i8,228,160,667,191,287 i6,093,094,655,215,013 i9,273,398,469,233,117 i10,395,420,468,140,255 i33,216,112,160,776,163 i34,213,274,243,728,266 i35,232,363,246,622,308-6-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 1-12, 1 December, 2014 i37,209,382,395,564,139 i4,165,256,220,150,770 i5,152,101 -,057,204,749 i3,291,265,406,151,623 i12,345,258,373,253,475 Table 1 shows that the scale is composed of five factors. The shared vision factor consists of seven items, the systems thinking factor consists of six items, the mental models factor consists of five items, the team learning factor consists of four factors, and the personal mastery factor consists also of four items. Confirmatory Factor Analysis The data obtained from the 342 valid surveys were analysed, and the reliability and eligibility of the scale were investigated. Jackson (2003) and Kline (2005) state that the ratio of cases to free parameters should be 10:1 in order to conduct a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). In addition, Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) recommend that sample size should be a minimum 200 in order to use multivariate statistical techniques. The sample size of the study is, therefore, sufficient according to both the recommendation of Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) (n>200) and the criteria set by Jackson (2003) and Kline (2005) (26 x 10 = 260 < 342). First stage CFA was conducted with the help of an Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) package program in order to test the five factor structure of the scale after exploratory analysis. When confirmatory factor analysis was made, fitness values for each factor in the scale were first separately evaluated. Following this, fitness values for the entire scale were tested. First stage CFA results are presented in Figure 2. e6,39,79 e5 i29,63,53,73 e4 i28,78,61 e3 i27,78,62,65 e2 e1 e11 e10 e9 e8 e7 e16 e15 e14 e13 e12 e17,63,42,49,77,72,75,55,62,51,55,54,27 i30 i25 i24 i21 i20 i19 i18 i17 i10 i9 i8 i7 i6 i33,86,74,73,52,70,88,85,79,71,74,62 e20 i37,79,76,87 e19 i35,86,74 e18 i34,69,47 e24 e23 e22 e21,57,29,63,71 i12 i5 i4 i3,79,84,75,54 System Thinking Sharing Vision Mental Models Team Learning Personal Mastery,80,79,78,75,79,68,87,75,86,83 Figure 1. First Stage CFA Results The values obtained after removing items 16 and 22 from the Shared Vision factor in order -7-
A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools Z. Demirtas to obtain better fitness values from first stage confirmatory factor analysis were statistically meaningful. The fitness values of this model are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Fitness Values as a Result of First Stage Confirmatory Factor Analysis Factors x 2 /df GFI AGFI CFI NFI TLI RMSEA SRMR System Thinking 3,26,973,938,977,968,962,081,031 Shared Vision 3,02,983,949,991,986,981,077,017 Mental Models 2,50,985,956,987,979,975,066,026 Team Learning 4,91,987,933,989,987,968,107,018 Personal Mastery 8,73,977,887,971,968,913,151,031 General Model 2,24,881,852,942,901,934,060,046 References Arbuckle (2007), Şimşek (2007), Sümer (2000), MacCallum and Hong (1997), MacCallum, Browne and Sugawara (1996), Bentler (1990), MacCallum and Hong (1997), Hu and Bentler (1999). The fitness values of the Scale of Organizational Learning were as follows: x 2 /df=2,24; GFI=,881; AGFI=,852; CFI=,942; NFI=,901; TLI=,934; RMSEA=,060 and SRMR=,046. This is an acceptable level of fitness. After first stage CFA made for the Scale of Organizational Learning, second stage CFA was conducted to identify the effects of the factors in the scale of organizational learning. Its results are displayed in Figure 2. e6,62 i30,39,79 e5 i29,63,53,73 e4 i28,78,61 e3 i27,79,62,68 e2 i25 e1,46 i24,49 e11 i21,78,70 e10 i20,88,72,85 e9 i19,86,74 e8 i18,74,55 e7 i17,62 e16 i10,51,79 e15 i9,71,55,74 e14 i8,73,54 e13 i7,53,28 e12 i6,63 e20 i37,80,77,87 e19 i35,86,75 e18 i34,74,54 e17 i33,53 e24 i12,73,28,53 e23 i5,79,63 e22 i4,78,61 e21 i3 e25 System thinking e26 Shared Vision e27 Mental Models e28 Team Learning e29 Personal Mastery,95,69,83,77,65,91,88,80,97,83 Organizational Learning Figure 2. Second Stage CFA Results According to the second stage confirmatory factor analysis results, all factors in the scale have a positive and meaningful effect on organizational learning. The highest effect on organizational learning is made by the Systems Thinking factor (r=,97). This is followed by Mental Models (r=,91), Team Learning (r=,88), Shared Vision (r=,83) and Personal Mastery (r=,80), respectively. Table 3 shows the fitness values obtained with second stage confirmatory factor analysis. Table 3. Fitness Values as a Result of Second Stage Confirmatory Factor Analysis x 2 /df GFI AGFI CFI NFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Organizational Learning 2,24,880,854,941,899,934,060,047-8-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 1-12, 1 December, 2014 Table 3 shows that the fitness values obtained after second stage confirmatory factor analysis are acceptable (x 2 /df=2,24; GFI=,880; AGFI=,854; CFI=,941; NFI=,899; TLI=,934; RMSEA=,060 ve SRMR=,047). Table 4 shows the mean values, standard deviation, Cronbach Alpha values and the relationships between factors in the Organizational Learning Scale. Table 4. Cronbach Alpha Values and Correlations between Factors of the Organizational Learning Scale Factors 1 2 3 4 5 1. System Thinking (,87) 2. Shared Vision 730** (,90) 3. Mental Models 731** 685** (,83) 4. Team Learning 757** 619** 672** (,88) 5. Personal Mastery,699**,640**,625**,635** (,82) **p<,01 Table 4 shows a positive and meaningful relationship between the factors of the Scale of Organizational Learning. In addition, the reliability coefficients were as follows for the factors: Systems Thinking,87; Shared Vision,90; Mental models,83; Team Learning,88 and Personal Mastery,82. Results and Discussion Organizational learning involves the discovery of information; its dissemination within the organization; internal processes and those that are used in improving external adaptation (Yukl, 2009). During this process, a constant increase is ensured in the amount of knowledge systematically constructed by individuals within the organization, thus making this knowledge an inherent part of its knowledge system (García-Morales, Jiménez- Barrionuevo and Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, 2012). It is obvious that schools value knowledge even more than other organizations. The learning of schools is crucial both from an organizational perspective and for their knowledge production and dissemination functions. Inspired by the need for an instrument to measure the learning skills of Turkish schools, this study implemented Güçlü and Türkoğlu s (2003) 42-item questionnaire on 342 teachers. The data obtained were primarily subjected to EFA, which failed to yield statistically meaningful results. Upon this, each dimension in the Güçlü and Türkoğlu s (2003) questionnaire was considered to be an independent scale (subscale) and EFA was conducted, which yielded meaningful results. Then, all independent subscales were considered to be the dimensions/factors of a single scale once again, and all remaining items were subjected to EFA. As a result, six items in the scale were placed under different factors than was the case in the original questionnaire. The analysis of the statements in the items showed that five of these items were in line with the dimensions in the original questionnaire, and the remaining one with the dimension here. Accordingly, the scale consisted of five factors and 26 items. The data obtained from the EFA was subjected to the CFA and goodness of fit values were low. In order to reach better fitness values two of the items in the ''Shared Vision Dimension'' were removed from the scale. As a result, first and second stage CFA findings pointed to good fitness values. The CFA led to a five-factor and 24-item scale with high fitness values. In sum, the "Scale of Learning School" aiming to identify the learning capacities of schools -9-
A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools Z. Demirtas and obtained by conducting EFA and CFA is an eligible and reliable measurement tool. References Akgün, A. E., Keskin, H. ve Günsel, A. (2009). Bilgi yönetimi ve öğrenen örgütler [Knowledge management and learning organizations]. Ankara: Eflatun. Alas, R., and Vadi, M. (2006). The Impact of Organisational Culture on Organisational Learning and Attitudes Concerning Change from An Institutional Perspective. Int. J. Strategic Change Management. 1(1/2), 155-169. Arbuckle, J.L. (2007). Amos 16.0 user s guide. SPSS Inc., Chicago, p.585-611. Argyris, C. (1977). Double loop learning in organizations. Harvard Business Review, September- October, 115-124. Argryis, C. (1996). Prologue: toward a comprehensive theory of management. Bertrand Moingeon and Amy Edmondson (Ed.). A Organizational Learning and Competitive Advantage. California: SAGE Publications Ltd., s. 1-7. Argyris, C. and Schön D. A. (1978). Organizational learning: a theory of action perspective. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Aybar, S. (2011). Analysis of the relationship between enterprises learning organizations and business efficiency: An application that hotel enterprises. Unpublished Master Thesis, İstanbul Ticaret University, Institute of Social Sciences. Aydın, İ. (2012). Öğretimde denetim örgütler [Supervision in teaching]. Ankara: PEGEM A. Bayram, N. (2010). Yapısal eşitlik modellemesine giriş AMOS uygulamaları [Introduction to structural equation modeling: AMOS applications]. İstanbul: Ezgi. Crossan, M. M., Lane, H.W. and White, R. E. (1999). An organizational learning framework: from intuition to institution. The Academy of Management Review, 24(3), 522-537. Çalkavur, E. (2009). Öğrenen organizasyon yolculuğu uygulamaları [Ride the learning organization]. İstanbul: Remzi. Çandır, R. (201). High school teachers' perceptions towards organizational learning level. Unpublished Master Thesis, Pamukkale University, Institute of Social Sciences.. Çelik, V. (2009). The effects of organizational learning capacity and innovativeness on firm performance. Unpublished Master Thesis, Gebze Institute of High Technology. DiBella, A.J., Nevis E.C. and Gould, J. M. (1996a). Organizational learning style as a core capability. In B. Moingeon and A. Edmondson (Eds). A Organizational learning and competitive advantage. (pp: 38-56). London: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi: 10.4135/9781446250228.n3 DiBella A, Nevis E, Gould J. (1996b). Understanding organizational learning capability. Journal of Management Studies, 33, 361 79. Eren, E. (1998). Örgütsel davranış ve yönetim psikolojisi. İstanbul: İstanbul İşletme Fakültesi Yayınları. García-Morales, V.J, Jiménez-Barrionuevo, M.M. and Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, L. (2012). Transformational leadership influence on organizational performance through organizational learning and innovation. Journal of Business Research, 65, 1040 1050. Garvin, D. A. (1993). Building a learning organization. Harvard Business Review on Knowledge Management. 80-96. Retrieved from http://hbr.org/1993/07/building-a-learning-organization/ar/ (11 May 2013). Gökmen Kavak, D. (2007). Determining job satisfaction and quality of life status of the midwives and nurses working at Dr. Zekai Tahir Burak Woman Health and Research Hospital. Unpublished Master Thesis, Ankara University, Institute of Health Sciences. Güçlü, N. and Türkoğlu, H. (2003). İlköğretim okullarında görev yapan yönetici ve öğretmenlerin öğrenen organizasyona ilişkin algıları [The perceptions of teachers and administrators elementary school on the learning organization]. Turkish Educational Sciences 1(2), 137-160. Hoy, W.K. and Miskel, C.G. (2010). Educational Administration Theory, Research and Practice (Trans. Ed. Turan, S.). Ankara: Nobel. -10-
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A Scale Development Study for Learning Schools Z. Demirtas Appendix: The Learning Organization Scale New Previous No No Personal Mastery 1. 3. There is an encouraging atmosphere in the organization for self development. 2 4. Print documents are available in the organization for self development. 3. 5. Events such as seminars and panels are organized in the organization for self development. 4. 12. Innovations for development are possible in the organization. Mental Models 5 6. I can expose my ideas comfortably to the people around me. 6. 7. I feel valued in the organization. 7. 8. Any issue can be questioned in the organization. 8. 9. My colleagues' words and deeds are consistent. 9. 10. I believe that the organization will be successful in the future. Shared Vision 10. 17. The aims of the organization are right. 11. 18. The aims of the organization increase my work motivation. 12. 19. The aims of the organization are in line with my personal aims. 13. 20. The plans of the organization are in line with my personal plans. 14. 21. I would be willing to work here for long years to achieve the aims of the organization. System Thinking 15. 24. My personal efforts contribute to the solutions of problems in the organization. 16. 25. Problems in the organization are solved permanently. 17. 27. The organization aims to invent the future instead of reacting to the present. 18. 28. Tasks at the organization are completed without serious delays. 19. 29. My colleagues are active participants who shape their own reality, not reactive individuals 20. 30. Detailed work is undertaken in the organization to get to the bottom of problems. Team Learning 21. 33. Meetings are held with colleagues to achieve the aims of the organization. 22. 34. There is an atmosphere conducive to teamwork in the organization. 23. 35. Activities in the organization are actualized through teamwork. 24. 37. The environment in the organization supports dialog during teamwork. -12-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 26-39, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.06.4.3 Lecturers Views On Experiences Of A Post Graduate Honours Research Module Implemented Curriculum Article history Received: 17.01.2014 Received in revised form: 29.10..2014 Accepted: 09.11.2014 Simon Bheki. Khoza 1 Discipline of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology, School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa This article reflects on lecturers views on their experiences in teaching a post graduate module as part of the Honours curriculum. The notion of the intended and the implemented curriculum is explored in light of the lecturers views on their experiences during the implementation of this module. All except one of the six lecturers taught this module the previous year with relative success but most expressed concern about the implemented curriculum that took a surprising Technology in Education format for lecturers and students. Six lecturers' reflective reports, observation, module outline analysis and interview provided the data to gain an understanding of their experiences. An analysis of the reports identified common patterns and themes through the use of The Tree Three Rings Theory within the process of guided analysis. A major finding was that the module was driven by Technology in Education which was not a major part of the intended curriculum. It is also recommended that when Technology in Education is intended as part of the implemented curriculum, provision be made for training and support for lecturers and students to increase the digital footprint amongst all lecturers. Key words: educational technology, implemented curriculum, intended curriculum, technology in education, technology of education, The Tree Three Rings Theory. Introduction This article is concern with the use of hard-ware (HW) and soft-ware (SW) resources also known as technology in education (TIE) in driving a post graduate honours module (curriculum) at a South African university (Bachelor of Education Honours B.Ed Hnrs). TIE is any resource that one can see and touch (examples are computers, laptops, data projectors, computer software, transparencies, articles, search engines, websites, Learning Management Systems and others). A resource is any person or thing that communicates learning (Khoza, 2012, p. 75). If a curriculum is driven by TIE the curriculum concentrates on aims/objectives that are formulated according to lecturers intentions. As a result, TIE promotes the teacher-centred approach (behaviourism) in education. According to Harden (2002a), aims/objectives were useful when education was driven 1 Address: Private Bag X03, Ashwood, 3605 Email: khozas@ukzn.ac.za Phone: +27(0)312607595 Mobile: +27(0)795174399 Fax: +27(0)865177938
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 26-39, 1 December, 2014 by the teacher-centred approach but now that it is driven by the learner-centred approach (constructivism) objectives are no longer relevant but learning outcomes are. On the other hand curriculum may be driven by ideological-ware (IW) also known as technology of education (TOE) (Percival & Ellington, 1988). TOE is any teaching/learning resource that one cannot see and touch (examples are learning theories, teaching philosophy, experiences, curriculum knowledge/skills/values/attitudes, research findings, paradigms and others). The word ware after hard, soft and ideological concepts represents one s awareness in using any teaching/learning resource (consciously aware of what a resource may produce) (Khoza, 2014). The learner-centred approach (constructivism) is being promoted because it brings in three important elements of learning outcomes. The three important elements of learning outcomes, as identified by Harden (2002b, p. 153), are technical competences expected of lecturers ( doing the right thing TIE), teaching strategies with appropriate attitude, that accommodates students together with assessment strategies ( doing the thing right TOE), and the ongoing development of lecturers as individual and professional ( the right person doing it ). However, cognitivism and behaviourism are equally important in the enhancement of whatever is presented by the constructivism learning theory. Literature review on Curriculum and technology framework According Van den Akker, de Boer, Folmer, Kuiper, Letschert, Nieveen and Thijs, (2009, p. 9), curriculum as a plan for learning is divided into SUPRA (International level of curriculum), MACRO (National level of curriculum), MESO (Institutional/School level of curriculum), MICRO (Teacher/classroom level of curriculum) and NANO (Student/individual level of curriculum). Each of these levels can be defined in terms of intended curriculum (for curriculum developers), implemented curriculum (for teachers) and attained curriculum (for learners). The intended curriculum consists of ideal (vision/rationale) and formal/written (intentions as specified in documents) components. The implemented curriculum consists of perceived (curriculum as interpreted by teachers) and operational (the actual process of teaching and learning or curriculum in action) components. The attained curriculum consists of experiential (learning experiences as perceived by students) and learned (resulting learning outcomes of students) components. However, this study only interrogates the intended and implemented curricular at the MICRO (lecturers level) level of the B.Ed Hnrs curriculum. According to Hoadley and Jansen (2013), the implemented curriculum also known as enacted curriculum is the one that faces most challenges in South Africa because most teachers do not have relevant knowledge and skills to put any intended curriculum into action in order to have successful implemented curriculum. In integrating technology in curriculum specific theories or frameworks become important. Therefore, it is for this reason that the following section presents The Tree Three Rings Theory (TTTRT) as a framework which uses TOE (IW) resources to invite TIE only where it is necessary in the implemented curriculum (Khoza, 2013). -27-
Lecturers views on experiences of a post graduate honours S. B. Khoza The Tree Three Rings Theory (TTTRT) This article applies TTTRT in evaluating lecturers views on experiences of implemented curriculum which was mostly influenced by the integration of TIE rather than TOE which influences lecturers and students to construct knowledge through which they become active students and lecturers become creative (construct knowledge to transform themselves and their communities). TTTRT is important for this study because it is a powerful framework for the integration of relevant technology or blended learning curriculum. According to Benson, Lawler and Whitworth (2008), it is very important to use relevant frameworks (TOE/IW) to influence resources (TIE/HW & SW) in any teaching practise (Blin & Munro 2008), promote Mobile learning (Uden, 2007) and put authentic learning into action through TOE/IW and authentic tasks (Herrington, Reeves & Oliver, 2004). Figure 1. The Tree Three Rings Theory (TTTRT) (Khoza, 2013, p. 66) According to Khoza (2013), TTTRT as a framework for e-learning has seven important frames (Figure 1). The first frame indicates the importance of defining learners /students characteristics before they are being taught. It becomes the lecturers responsible to understand their students before they start their teaching in order to teach their students according to their students strengths for successful teaching and learning. In doing so, lecturers are able to group students and their learning resources accordingly in order to have a situation that will encourage the students to construct knowledge (Graham, Cagiltay, Craner, Lim & Duffy, 2000). Knowledge construction becomes possible if lecturers understand their students strengths and weaknesses. However, lecturers have to analyse their students in order to present the module outcomes if it is becoming impossible to learn without them. For other students it becomes difficult to learn -28-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 26-39, 1 December, 2014 without any given intended course outcome to drive the learning process but the module outcomes must be observable and measurable in order to drive the learning process (Adam, 2006). Adam (2006), further states that if module outcomes are written within a narrow framework, without focusing on higher order thinking and application, they may limit learning and result in a lack of intellectual challenge to students. According to Anderson and Elloumi (2004, p. 8), students should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning so that they can set expectations and can judge for themselves whether or not they have achieved the outcome of the lesson. This suggests behaviourism as the learning theory, which, according to TTTRT, is the next frame. In Figure 1, students are represented by fruits that have to be produced by the tree for people to live on. The Web Based Teaching Learning (WBTL) environment is also designed or used to produce active students in order to produce knowledge for other people to live on. The second frame is behaviourism. Objectives and module notes indicate behaviourism that needs to be well positioned according to its strength if it is used. The strength of behaviourism is on presenting facts (Herrington & Herrington, 1998). According to Anderson and Elloumi (2004, p. 8), learning [resources] must be sequenced appropriately to promote learning. The sequencing could take the form of simple to complex, known to unknown, and knowledge to application. Therefore, lecturers may use this frame to prepare the presentation of their designs for the WBTL environments. This does not mean that their approach may be dominated by behaviourism, but behaviourism may only be used in preparing for the structure of their modules. The module structure is treated as the fact that needs the sequencing that could take the form of simple to complex, known to unknown, and knowledge to application (Anderson & Elloumi, 2004, p. 8). In Figure 1, this frame is represented by the sub-roots because it is not dominating the WBTL environment but can be used for certain tasks according to its strength. Behaviourism may then be followed by cognitivism, which may help them to measure the content that need to be given to students as presented below. The third frame is cognitivism, which is the best frame to be used by lecturers to measure what they want to give their students for processing purposes, as recommended by Anderson and Elloumi (2004). This frame should be applied by lecturers, in order to measure the sizes of projects before they are given to their students. It calls for time management, so that when the lecturers give their students any task, they should make sure that the time given is enough for the students to construct knowledge. In Figure 1 this frame is also represented by the sub-roots because it is not dominating the WBTL environment as it can be used for certain tasks. Constructivism is the fourth frame which becomes handy when lecturers want to prepare projects to be performed by students. It has a list of characteristics or authentic activities (Herrington, Reeves & Oliver, 2004, pp. 55-56) that should be considered by the lecturers in preparing projects for the students. The characteristics are real-world relevance; ill-defined, requiring students to define the tasks and sub-tasks needed to complete the activity; comprise complex tasks to be investigated [ ] over a sustained period of time; allow competing solutions and diversity of outcome. Therefore, constructivism should be treated as the main root for -29-
Lecturers views on experiences of a post graduate honours S. B. Khoza TTTRT. It is the one that gives the lecturers reasons why they have to include or exclude different activities as a part of any given project. That is why Anderson and Elloumi (2004), indicate that it is the best theory that can help WBTL environment lecturers to answer all questions that have to do with the why part of their WBTL environments. This frame also helps to guide lecturers in assessing their students and evaluating their modules as it encourages students reflection and peer-to-peer assessment. The fifth frame is the use of search engines. This frame is very important as it helps both lecturers and students to search for any information around the world. Therefore, lecturers may plan for their students to use search engines (such as www.google.com, www.yahoo.com, www.soople.com, etc.) to explore information and other resources to be used for their modules. They can also link a few of these search engines as part of their WBTL environments. This is the easiest ring/frame of TTTRT that can be learnt by facilitators within a short period of time. The search engines work well if they are linked as part of a Learning Management System, as presented as the next frame for this framework. In Figure 1, this frame is represented by the leaves (search engines) of the tree (WBTL), because the leaves are the softest (easiest) part of the tree (WBTL). Anyone can learn to use the search engines faster than the other two frames/rings. The sixth frame is the use of a Learning Management System (LMS), which is becoming popular because almost all the universities (worldwide) have developed their LMSs or they are renting one of the known LMSs (WebCT, MOODLE, etc.). They are also useful because they come with almost all the Web resources that can bring reality into the Web for the students to learn. Even if lecturers cannot design websites they can learn to use these Web resources that come with LMSs. Training for the lecturers can be facilitated by a series of workshops. Since they don t have a formal course for the lecturers to learn, the LMS in-house workshops are useful where lecturers use their lunchtime to learn with other colleagues who are familiar with the LMS. This may also include social networks such as Facebook, Twitter and others, when they are used in the WBTL environment. In figure 1, this frame is represented by the tree branches. Branches can represent the stem because they have similar parts, except that they are not connected directly to the roots. Therefore, LMSs can also represent the websites that are represented by the stem of the tree. They have all the necessary resources that can be found on any website for learning because almost all the resources are built-in as parts of the LMSs. The seventh frame is the design website. This frame is becoming the duty of technicians, because lecturers are not interested (don t have time or knowledge/skills) in learning how to develop their own software that can be used to develop websites for learning. This ring is also useful if lecturers want to master all the resources for Web learning, because with the knowledge and skills acquired from this frame one can also apply them in the other two rings. Therefore, if lecturers have the knowledge and skills for using this frame in teaching/learning they can easily master all other frames and use the advanced resources in order to operate at an advanced level. The challenge is that when lecturers have this knowledge and the relevant skills, they tend to use HW and SW in driving their lessons instead of using IW to drive their lessons. -30-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 26-39, 1 December, 2014 In Figure 1 this frame is represented by the stem (design web-site) as it is connected directly to the roots (learning theories) as the hardest (most challenging part) part of the tree (Web learning). Designing a website (from scratch) for learning is the most challenging part of Web learning as it needs a good understanding of programming languages as well as learning theories. The website for learning (stem) is also the one that produces and carries LMSs (branches) in Web Based Teaching/Learning (tree). It is difficult to get a person with both of these skills because such a person may come from a combination of computer science and education specialisations. Therefore, the seven frames are very important to be addressed whenever one is planning to use e-learning resources to teach a module. The framework suggests a powerful integration of the seven frames to form one strong unit of resources that promotes construction of knowledge. The relevant concept for this unit is Educational Technology (ET). ET is divided into Technology in Education (TIE) and Technology of Education (TOE) (Percival & Ellington, 1988). Research Objective and Research Question Therefore, this article intended to evaluate lecturers views on experiences of implemented curriculum with the aim of understanding how a post-graduate honours (B.Ed Hnrs) module was offered, framed by TTTRT. This article may help higher education institutions to answer the question of what are the experiences of lecturers on an implemented curriculum in a post graduate honours module (through lecturers view)? The data production was organised to respond to one research question for this article: A. What are the lecturers views on experiences of a postgraduate honours research module implemented curriculum? Research Design and Methodology This is an interpretive qualitative case study of six university lecturers from a university in South Africa. Qualitative approach is important for this study because it has helped the study to generate thick descriptions of data (Khoza, 2014) on the lecturers views on experiences of a postgraduate honours research module implemented curriculum. Case studies are capable of generating the thick descriptions of data that are useful in generating themes and categories for findings (Creswell, 1994). Sampling Participants of this study consist of six most accessible post graduate honours module lecturers chosen through purposive and convenience samplings. Purposive sampling is often done by convenience sampling which means choosing a sample which is easy for the researcher to reach (Christiansen, Bertram, & Land, 2013, p. 43). Since the study was on this specific research module which integrated technology for the first time in 2013, the six lecturers were chosen because they were the only lecturers for the module and were easily accessible for this study. The research module has been taught by six different lecturers since 2010. However, four of the six participants (lecturers) taught the module for the first time in 2013 when the data were generated. One of them has been teaching this research module since 2010 while one of them -31-
Lecturers views on experiences of a post graduate honours S. B. Khoza taught it for the second time. The module had to integrate technology in education (TIE) resources in order to accommodate students who were coming from other provinces of that were far from the university. The lecturers (participants) had different views about this integration of technology which resulted to this study being conducted with an aim of understanding their experiences through their views. The participants consist of three female (Lecturer D, E & F) and three male (Lecturer A, B & C) lecturers. They were between forty five and fifty five years old in 2013. Informed consent and ethical considerations were acquired in terms of confidentiality, voluntary participation and anonymity as specified by Rand Afrikaans University (RAU) (2002). It was important to observe these ethical principles in order to protect both the participants and the researcher so that the study does no harm to them. Participants were also aware that there were no financial benefits but should there be any they would not limited from any benefit as a result of their participation. Data generation and analysis Methods of data generation used in this study were participant observations, focus group semi-structured interviews, module outline analysis and lecturers reflective reports. These methods were used for the purpose of triangulation of data to achieve measures of trustworthiness (Christiansen, Bertram & Land, 2013). Observation was conducted once with each of the six lecturers. The focus group semi-structured interview was conducted after the observations for about one hour. An audio-tape was used to record the interviews for ease of transcription (permission was granted with ethical clearance certificate). These methods together with the audio-tape were used to enhance trustworthiness/authenticity. Trustworthiness/authenticity is the extent to which the generated data answered the research question and have followed the scientific research process. Although the data were generated successfully, the lecturers only had one hour for the interview/discussion and about twenty minutes each for the written reflections. As a result this became one of the limitations of this study because the researcher was expecting more time for data generation. Findings and discussions Lecturers view on experiences of the rationale for teaching on the module I taught [ ] as a module for the love of it. It was also for my personal growth in research (Lecturer D). I was teaching the module in order to present a platform for students to understand research and most importantly to develop student s conceptual and theoretical understanding of research (Lecturer E). I have taught it because I was asked by the coordinator to teach it for my own development (Lecturer F) The rationale (reasons) for teaching the module from the three lecturers suggests a strong element of behaviourism where the lecturers wanted to develop themselves by teaching the module. The lecturers assumptions were that students did not understand research issues. As a result they -32-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 26-39, 1 December, 2014 were expecting the students to listen to them as sources of information. Other learning outcomes were not observable/measurable because they were objectives. The use of objectives to drive the module indicates that teaching was mostly about lecturers satisfaction and not that of students because the objectives are about lecturers intentions (Donnelly & Fitzmaurice, 2005). According to Anderson and Elloumi (2004, p. 8) the lecturers satisfaction or behaviourism has four learning implications that need to be considered in any teaching or learning situation. Firstly, students should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning so that they can set expectations and can judge for themselves whether or not they have achieved the outcome of the lesson. In this module the lecturers development intensions were given more privilege than students needs which were even unknown or marginalised by the lecturers. Secondly, students must be tested to determine whether or not they have achieved the learning outcome. Testing or other forms of testing and assessment should be integrated into the learning sequence to check the student s achievement level and to provide appropriate feedback. In this module students were mostly tested or assessed against the objectives. According to Kennedy, Hyland and Ryan (2006), testing or assessing against aims or objectives neither measure the lecturer s performance nor the student s performance because aims and objectives are not observable / measurable. For example, knowing and understanding, as the two common broad key words used in generating objectives, have many levels that need to be unpacked by generating learning outcomes that measure the student s performance. Thirdly, learning [resources] must be sequenced appropriately to promote learning. The sequencing could take the form of simple to complex, known to unknown, and knowledge to application. In this module the challenge was that the lecturers took advantage of the objectives and started to push their own development agendas more than that of defining their students characteristics in order to understand the students needs first before they taught their students. It became a common practice amongst these lecturers that when they saw that the module s intended curriculum was dominated by objectives; they saw the opportunity for their own development as they assumed that their students were passive students. As a result when passive students do not question anything from their lecturers, they sometimes open enough space for their lecturers to do their own activities and avoid their students activities. When the lecturers practise this, they do not understand the importance of teaching active students who may help the lecturers to grow/develop because of the questions from their students (most of these question may need researched answers). Fourthly, students must be provided with feedback so that they can monitor how they are doing and take corrective action if required. In this module feedback was provided according to what lecturers wanted students to know rather than to understand because most of the lecturers were prioritising their own development agendas at the expanse of their students needs. Knowing is about students ability in reproducing what was given to them by their lecturers, whereas understanding is about students ability of reflecting on their experiences in order to interpret and address the tasks that are given to them by their lecturers. Therefore, it is clear from the lecturers reasons (rationale) for teaching the module that the module was dominated by behaviourism. It was interesting to notice that although only the three female lecturers gave reasons for teaching the module, the three male lecturers agreed with them. -33-
Lecturers views on experiences of a post graduate honours S. B. Khoza Lecturers views on experiences of assessment resources used in the module Thereafter it was enforced that students do there quizzes online which some could do and others could not. I could not assess the quizzes and had to ask a colleague to show me how. The coordinator also offered to mark the quizzes. As for the submission of the essays online, I basically informed my students that they may submit online but also to submit a hardcopy as some of their online submissions were not showing. I sense from the initial confusion that the online requirement which seems to be forced upon us from the coordinator was going to create problems I was unperturbed about the insistence to do the assessments online... (Lecturer A). As a result, we ended up using technology to drive the module and we did not have proper assessment process to drive the module (Lecturer B). The first challenge that we faced in 2013 was the use of technology to drive the module... Lack of sufficient training in the technology also proved to be challenging with the submission (Lecturer C). This was a nightmare. I am still trying to recover from this drama. Assessment was completely in contrary with what the course outline entailed... (Lecturer D). At the beginning of the module the students were assessed through quizzes which they wrote in class but which later changed to online tests as per coordinator s non negotiated instructions. The submission and marking of this assignment marked a turn of events in the assessment of students because students were forced to submit online and lecturers were also forced to mark for students that they were not teaching through online (Lecturer E). The above accounts suggest that the module s intended curriculum was designed according to an instrumental approach (Visscher-Voerman & Gustafson, 2004). Instrumental approach in curriculum design is an approach which is driven by pre-determined objectives. While it may be suitable at international (SUPRA) and national (MACRO) curriculum levels because it can save on consultation time it may not be suitable at module curriculum (MICRO) and student curriculum (NANO) levels. It may not be suitable because it marginalizes the students and nonco-ordinating lecturers (curriculum users) who should be achieving the module s intended outcomes/objectives. The strong emphasis on the attainment of predetermined objectives leaves little flexibility to adjust to the often changing needs of users and growing insights of designers. Also, the technical approach focuses on factual, empirically found data, while education is also concerned with personal views and opinions; also, socialpolitical aspects play a prominent part in many curricular issues (Van den Akker, de Boer, Folmer, Kuiper, Letschert, Nieveen & Thijs 2009, p.17). This critique indicates the importance of (the involvement) all lecturers in designing the module so that each lecturer would have designed his/her Micro from the agreed Micro and be able to understand the whole teaching process. This approach opens an opportunity for certain lecturers to design and implement their MICRO which may not correspond with the agreed intended curriculum (MICRO) which may then produce a negative attained curriculum (misconception of -34-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 26-39, 1 December, 2014 the module from the certain lecturers). This may result in a very confusing situation because the implemented curriculum becomes a problem for both lecturers and students like in the case of this module where online teaching resources were not positioned well for effective assessment in the intended curriculum. These accounts further suggest that the module co-ordinator decided to use constructivism while most of the lecturers were still expecting the use of behaviourism learning theory. Constructivism is important if the intention is to force students and lecturers to transform (take them away from their comfort zones) (Mezirow, 1990). According to TTTRT the co-ordinator did the right thing because constructivism should dominate assessment like the tree main root (Figure 1) for proper integration of any Technology in Education (TIE) resource in one s teaching as invited or demanded by Technology of Education (TOE). However, poor consultation led to problems that could have been avoided during the design process of the intended curriculum. According to Herrington et al (2004), constructivism influences through authentic tasks is very important in the assessment processes because it promotes active students who may be creative enough to help their lecturers in their teaching development. In the case of this module, although the intended curriculum was compromised, the lecturers and students acquired new knowledge and skills in terms of using a Learning Management System (LMS) and its resources (chat, discussion forum, grading and TURNITIN). As painful as it was and because most of them were confused, they did use the online resources as their introduction which may have forced them to continue to use these resources if they found them useful. However, these resources would be more useful if they were part of the module intended curriculum before they came to be part of the implemented curriculum. Lecturer s views on experiences of the introduction of Technology in Education My experiences in the 2013 course were substantially different although the course material and the course outline were the same. The difference in experience has mainly to do with the new requirements that expected students to do their quizzes online and to submit their two major essays also online via Turnitin... (Lecturer A). The module was poorly planned because we did not have any planning meeting for the module to design a curriculum of teaching (MICRO curriculum or facilitator s curriculum) that would be clear and understood by all of us before we taught our students (Lecturer B). These accounts suggest that the university had a good policy with good online resources used to check if students were not plagiarising other people s work. However, the module co-ordinator did not do proper consultation in order to have all lecturers contributions in designing the intended curriculum to enhance the implemented curriculum to produce a positive attained curriculum. It is clear that lecturers did not have a problem with the introduction of the Learning Management System (LMS), but the way it was introduced was a problem because it negatively surprised both the lecturers and students. -35-
Lecturers views on experiences of a post graduate honours S. B. Khoza Alignment between the module intended curriculum and the implemented curriculum I had no access to the calculation of the year mark, was not granted any report as to the overall performance of the course. The demand to have the course assessed online was a contravention of the university s assessment policy which requires transparency and fairness... (Lecturer A). The students found this a difficult task since were not made to see the purpose of such an exercise, and many did not have access to internet (Lecturer C) However, students were not told upfront about online teaching and assessment in this module. As a result one of my students is still awaiting her results because she did not submit online as she was not officially registered by then, though she attended classes and submitted her assessment tasks (Lecturer D). I had four students who dropped out of the module as soon as the online mode of assessment was introduced by the coordinator. Some students were accused of plagiarism when in fact Turnitin made unreliable percentages (Lecturer E). These accounts suggest that the implemented curriculum produced a negative attained curriculum because it was not strictly according to the intended curriculum. As a result students suffered as some of them ended up with no marks and some dropped out which was unfair to students if it was really against the university assessment policy. The university s assessment policy which requires transparency and fairness was compromised by the surprising introduction of HW and SW resources (TIE) to drive the module without any prior arrangement in terms of training for the lecturers and students. Lecturers observations and recommendations for the module 'My experiences in 2013 differ so much from that of 2012 although I have been exposed to new possibilities and moments of learning. Having said that, there are so many dimensions to this case hence my preference to remain focused on the digital aspect and innovation that was introduced rather than the negative. To take a positive stand from this experience we may potentially review our experiences within the context of higher education and the use of educational technology (Lecturer A). Lastly, most lecturers and students did not have enough knowledge/skills and access to most online resources (Lecturer B). Much of the challenges we faced in the module could in my opinion have been avoided/minimized had we: reached consensus prior to the start of the module on the use and extent of technology in the module; received sufficient training on the different aspects of the technology used in the module; continued as [ ] staff to meet once a week (as we had done in 2010, 2011 and 2012) to discuss our lectures and related matters (Lecturer C). -36-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 26-39, 1 December, 2014 Denying access to education for the disadvantaged through the use of technology, I had four students who dropped out of the module because they could not access the internet and were part time student who only came to campus for lectures (Lecturer E). These accounts suggest that Technology in Education (TIE) resources (Hard-ware HW & Software SW) were given more privilege than the Technology of Education (TOE) resources (Ideological-ware IW). The module intended curriculum was driven by IW resources which suggest that teaching/learning was about IW resources which may identify all relevant HW and SW required in the teaching/learning process. The implemented curriculum was driven by HW and SW resources which suggest that teaching/learning was about HW and SW resources. They further suggest the important of the higher education context which has a prescribed policy around the use of Educational Technology in university teaching of any module. This policy should be incorporated in the design of the intended curriculum to avoid any conflict between the module objectives and university objectives that help the university to realise its vision. Conclusion The findings suggest that the lecturers were aware of Educational Technology (ET) which is divided into TIE (HW & SW) and TOE (IW) in their implementation process. As a result their concerns were around the use of technology (TIE) to drive the module especially assessment. This process caused stress and conflict amongst the lecturers while at the same time realised the opportunities for teaching/learning that would be of benefit to the lecturers/students if they were provided in the module intended curriculum. This suggests that teaching/learning was about TIE because they were teaching/learning from TIE. According to Amory (2010) teaching/learning is not about technology (TIE/HW&SW) but it is about ideology (TOE/IW). TOE/IW resources should be the ones that identify the most relevant TIE/HW or SW resources for the lecturers to teach with in order to achieve their module objectives and support their students to achieve the module outcomes (Khoza, 2012). In other word lecturers/students do not teach/learn from HW or SW resources but they teach/learn with HW or SW resource because they should be identified or demanded by their modules IW resources. Recommendations This study firstly recommends the application of The Tree Three Rings Theory (TTTRT) as a framework for planning/designing the module s intended curriculum in order to enhance the module s implemented curriculum to produce a positive attained curriculum. The lecturers should be aware of the seven frames (characteristics of students, behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, search engines, Learning Management Systems, websites for teaching/learning) that are provided by the TTTRT and use them according to their strengths in order to produce positive results. Once the intended curriculum has been designed the lecturers and students should be consciously aware of the alignment between the intended curriculum and implemented curriculum which is very important in the production of any positive attained curriculum (Van den Akker et al, 2009). This then suggests that provision should be made for training and support of lecturers and students to increase the online resources footprint amongst all lecturers according to the strengths of each of the seven frames of TTTRT. It secondly recommends that a pragmatic approach (Visscher-Voerman & Gustafson, 2004) in -37-
Lecturers views on experiences of a post graduate honours S. B. Khoza designing the intended MICRO curriculum should involve all the lecturers who will be teaching this module (later it should involve students as well). A few days before the module begins there should be interaction for evaluating the module between the lecturers and students in order to include students contributions in the process of module evaluation which is a core activity of the pragmatic approach as it focuses on the practical usability of what is being taught (Van den Akker et al, 2009). It thirdly recommends that online resources (TIE) should be a part of the module intended curriculum so that both lecturers and students would be able to plan for them. Planning for online teaching resources in very important especially in South Africa where according to Khoza (2011) most lecturers are digital immigrants and most students are digital natives. It takes a long time for the digital immigrants (digital coincidental users) to properly use online resources because they do not speak the digital native (digital awareness user) language (Prensky, 2001) (Khoza, 2013). The study finally recommends that alignment of the intended curriculum to the implemented curriculum should always be prioritised in order to produce the positive attained curriculum. This alignment may help the students to achieve their module outcomes and the lecturers to achieve their module objectives. References Adam, S. (2006). An introduction to learning outcomes, in EUA Bologna Handbook, Froment E., Kohler J, Purser L, Wilson L (Eds), article B.2.3-1. Berlin, Raabe. Amory, A. (2010). Education technology and hidden ideological contradictions. Educational Technology & Society, 13(1), 69-79. Anderson, T. & Elloumi, F. (2004). Theory and Practice of Online. Canada: Athabasca University. Benson, A.; Lawler, C. & Whitworth, A. (2008). Rules, roles and tools: Activity theory and the comparative study of e-learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(3), 456-467. Blin, F. & Munro, M. (2008). Why hasn't technology disrupted academics' teaching practices Understanding resistance to change through the lens of activity theory. Computers & Education, 50(2), 475-490. Christiansen, I., Bertram, C. & Land, S. (2013). Understanding Research: An introduction to reading research, Pietermaritzburg: UKZN Faculty of Education. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches, London: SAGE. Donnelly, R & Fitzmaurice, M. (2005). Designing Modules for Learning. In: Emerging Issues in the Practice of University Learning and Teaching, O Neill, G et al. Dublin: AISHE. Graham, C., Cagiltay, K., Craner, J., Lim, B. & Duffy, T.M. (2000). Teaching in a Web Based Distance Learning Environment: An Evaluation Summary Based on Four Courses. Bloomington: W.W.Wright Education (CRLT Technical Report No. 13-00). Herrington, J. & Herrington, A. (1998). Authentic assessment and multimedia: How university Harden, R.M. (2002a). Developments in outcome-based education. Medical Teacher, 24(2) 117 120. -38-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 26-39, 1 December, 2014 Harden, R.M. (2002b). Learning outcomes and instructional objectives: is there a difference? Medical Teacher, 24(2) 151 155. Herrington, J. & Herrington, A. (1998). Authentic assessment and multimedia: How university students respond to a model of authentic assessment. Higher Education Research and Development, 17(3), 305-322. Herrington, J.; Reeves, T.C. & Oliver, R. (2004). A development research agenda for online collaborative learning. Educational Technology Research and Development 52(4), 53-65. Hoadley, U. & Jansen, J. (2013). Curriculum: Organizing knowledge for the classroom (3 ed). Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Kennedy, D., Hyland, A. & Ryan, N. (2006). Writing and Using Learning Outcomes: a Practical Guide. Bologna: European Higher Education Area (EHEA). Khoza, S.B. (2011) Who promotes web-based teaching and learning in high education?, Progressio: South African Journal for Open and Distance Learning Practice, 33(1), 155-170. Khoza, S.B. (2012). Who helps an online facilitator to learn with students in a day? Mevlana International Journal of Education, 2(2), 75-84. Khoza, S.B. (2013). Can they change from being digital immigrants to digital natives? Progressio: South African Journal for Open and Distance Learning Practice 35(1), 54-71. Khoza, S.B. (2014). A lecturer s reflective experiences on becoming a published scholar: Curriculum in context. Proceedings of the 8 th Annual Teaching and Learning in Higher Education Conference held at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Pinetown on the 25-27 September, 2014. Published by UKZN Teaching and Learning Office, 1(2014), 93-103. Mezirow, J. (1990). Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Percival, F & Ellington, H. (1988). A handbook of educational technology (2nd Ed.) London: Kogen Page. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On Horizon, 5(1), 1-6. Rand Afrikaans University (RAU) (2002) Guideline on academics ethics Johannesburg: RAU Uden, L. (2007). Activity theory for designing mobile learning. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 1(1), 81-102. Van den Akker, J.; de Boer, W.; Folmer, E.; Kuiper, W.; Letschert, J.; Nieveen, N and Thijs, A. (2009) Curriculum in Development, Enschede: Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development. Visscher-Voerman, I and K.L, Gustafson. (2004). Paradigms in the theory and practice of education and training design. Educational Technology, Research and Development. 52 (1): 69-89. -39-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 40-47, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.21.4.3 An investigation of the Predictive Role of Authenticity on Proactivity Article history Received: 17.02.2014 Received in revised form: 15.12..2014 Accepted: 16.12.2014 Key words: authenticity; proactivity; multiple regression analysis Introduction Umran Akın 1 Psychological Counseling, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey Ahmet Akın 2 Psychological Counseling, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey Authenticity and proactivity are two important constructs and play a crucial role both on psychological and social well-being of individuals. Thus the aim of this study is to investigate the predictive role of authenticity on proactivity. The study was conducted with 329 university students (140 men, 189 women; M age = 20.8 yr.). Participants completed the Turkish version of Authenticity Scale and the Turkish version of Revised Proactivity Scale. The relationships between authenticity and proactivity were examined by correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. Proactivity was correlated negatively with two sub-factors of authenticity: accepting external influence and self-alienation and positively with the authentic living factor of authenticity. In regression analysis, self-alienation and accepting external influence predicted negatively and authentic living predicted positively to proactivity, accounting for 38% of the variance collectively. The results were discussed in the light of the related literature and dependent recommendations to the area were given. Behaving congruent with feelings and thoughts and be oneself has been perceived as a moral necessity in many cultures (Bialystok, 2009). This personality trait is identified often as authenticity. Roots of authenticity stem from recommendations of the ancient Greek philosophy; such as Know thyself and To thine own self be true (Harter, 2002). Similarly, from an Anatolian perspective, a well-known Islamic scholar Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi, has highlighted the importance of being an authentic person by saying; Either appear as you are or be as you appear. Authenticity was described in different ways such as accordance between how someone presents himself and what he actually is (Bialystok, 2009) and being emotionally sincere, having self-attunement, and psychological depth, and behaving candidly and without having hidden intentions (Sheldon, 2009). Snyder and Lopez (2007) defined authenticity as expressing one's true beliefs, values, and behaviors to oneself and others sincerely, treating faithfully, and taking responsibility for one s own emotions and actions (Peterson & Park, 2004). Recently, Wood and his colleagues developed a three-dimensional authenticity model. Selfalienation, the first dimension, contains an inadequate sense of identity because of not 1 Assistant Prof. Dr. Sakarya University, Faculty of Education e-mail: uakin@sakarya.edu.tr 2 Assisociate Prof. Dr. Sakarya University, Faculty of Education e-mail: aakin@sakarya.edu.tr
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 40-47, December, 2014 knowing oneself accurately and discrepancy between conscious awareness and real experience. Authentic living, the second dimension, involves being true to oneself and behaving consistent with one s own beliefs and values. Accepting external influence, the third dimension, includes a belief that the individual must adjust to the expectations of others. These three components of authenticity have been experienced differently at the phenomenological level, while they interact mutually with each other. For example individuals who do not accept external influence behave more authentically whereas people who accept external influence are more likely to be self-alienated. In this model, authentic living is an indicator of authenticity whereas self-alienation and accepting external influence show inauthenticity (Pinto, Maltby, Wood, & Day, 2012; Wood, Linley, Maltby, & Baliousis, 2008). Studies generally demonstrated that authenticity is a positive indicator of psychological health. In these studies it was found that authenticity is related positively to self-esteem, subjective well-being, psychological well-being (Wood et al., 2008), extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness (Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne, & Ilardi, 1997), and well-being at work (Ménard & Brunet, 2011). In contrary authenticity was found negatively associated with psychological symptoms such as stress, anxiety, depression (Sheldon et al., 1997; Wood et al., 2008), and neuroticism (Sheldon et al., 1997). Proactivity Current rapid developments in technology lead many organizations to prefer people having long and permanent goals (Crant, 2000; Friedman, 2005; Grant & Ashford, 2008) and cause for many employers in industry and researchers to focus on proactivity (Campbell, 2000; Van Dyne, Ang, & Botero, 2003). Proactivity was described in 1960 s by Bonner (1967) as the interactions with the environment that people use their potentials and creativity, give importance on future orientation, make choices and take their responsibilities. According to Bonner (1967) proactive individuals, reduce the uncertainty by their planned efforts, bold fantasy and moral courage and show their potentials. A person with proactive personality operationally focuses on modern life opportunities and well-being of individuals rather than individuals failure, pathologies, burnouts, and helplessness behaviors (Caprara & Cervone, 2003). Proactive behaviors are permanent and contain intentional decisions (Morrison & Phelps, 1999) and taking risk rather than accepting the conditions (Crant, 2000; Crant & Bateman, 2000). Similarly, proactive individuals are responsible and self-determined, they make risk analysis, and take appropriate risk (Bateman & Crant, 1993; Grant & Ashford, 2008). Therefore proactivity has been proposed as an important developmental skill which in turn affects a variety of adaptive processes that ultimately fosters psychological well-being and health in general. Many researchers attended to this crucial trait in the past three decades and have conducted a plethora of studies on proactivity. Research demonstrated that proactivity related positively to work and career related variables such as work adjustment (Kammeyer- Mueller, & Wanberg, 2003), career performance (Fuller, Hester, & Cox, 2010; Gerhardt, Ashenbaum, & Newman, 2003), external and internal career success (Seibert, Kraimer, & Crant, 2001), transformational and charismatic leadership (Crant & Bateman, 2000), and successful job search (Brown, Cober, Kane, Levy, & Shalhoop, 2006). Furthermore proactivity encompasses not only an individual but also an organization achievement (Ashford & Black, 1996). With this regard, proactivity is beneficial -41-
An investigation of the Predictive Role of Authenticity U. Akın, A. Akın in organizations, community, cultures, and even global world (Covey, 1998). In recent research on the relationships between proactivity and psychological variables proactivity is found linked positively to positive affect, satisfaction with life, optimism (Sohl & Mover, 2009), vitality (Tummers, Kruyen, Vijverberg, & Voesenek, 2013), social astuteness, altruism, interpersonal influence (Shi, Chen, & Zhou, 2011) and negatively to negative affect (Sohl & Mover, 2009). Present Study Although research conducted with authenticity is encouraging, to date, however, no empirical research has examined whether authenticity predicts proactivity. Therefore the goal of the present research is to do this. Authenticity is a basic human property which has important impacts both cognitive and psychological processes. Since authentic people behave honestly, openly, and according to their innate feelings and intentions authenticity is accepted as a key characteristic of healthy functioning and psychological well-being (Harter, 2002; Wood et al., 2008). Also authenticity may protect individual against psychological symptoms. Similarly individuals who have higher levels of proactivity seem to have more positive thoughts, have more energy, external and internal career success (Seibert et al., 2001), altruism, and interpersonal influence (Shi et al., 2011). They are also less likely to have psychological symptoms and more likely to have a healthy psychological and social life (Shi et al., 2011; Tummers et al., 2013). Moreover previous evidence suggests that both authenticity and proactivity are strongly and negatively related to negative affect (Sheldon et al., 1997; Sohl & Mover, 2009; Wood et al., 2008). Considering its extensive influences, it may be suggested that higher levels of authenticity plays an important role in psychological and social well-being and thus may increase proactivity. Therefore there may be a positive association between authenticity and proactivity. Since authenticity was found linked positively with mental and psycho-social health indicators, it seems possible that proactivity may be enhanced by authenticity. The purpose of current research is to investigate relationships of authenticity with proactivity. Based on the above relationships of authenticity and proactivity, in the current research the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 1. Accepting external influence will be negatively associated with proactivity. Hypothesis 2. Self-alienation will be negatively associated with proactivity. Hypothesis 3. Authentic living will be positively associated with proactivity. Method Participants In this study, participants were 329 university students (140 men, 189 women). Students were selected from five different undergraduate programs: science education (n= 93), primary school education (n= 66), social science education (n= 40), psychological counseling and guidance (n= 80), and Foreign Language education (n= 50). Of the participants, 70 were freshman, 96 were sophomores, 103 were juniors, and 60 were seniors. Their ages ranged from 17 to 30 years old (M = 20.8, SD = 0.9). Convenience sampling was used for the selection of participants. -42-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 40-47, December, 2014 Measures Authenticity Scale. This concept was measured using the Authenticity Scale (Wood et al., 2008). This scale is a 12-item self-report inventory. Items were rated on a 7-point scale with anchors 1: Does not describe me at all and 7: Describes me very well. The scale has three sub-dimensions: Accepting external influence (e.g., Other people influence me greatly ), Self-alienating (e.g., I don t know how I really feel inside ), and Authentic living (e.g., I live in accordance with my values and beliefs ). A Turkish adaptation of this scale by Akın and Dönmezogullari (2010) with 528 Turkish university students (288 women, 242 men), has three factors explaining 57% of the total variance. Internal consistencies were.73,.72, and.75 and three-week test-retest reliability estimates were.89,.86, and.79 for the three factors, respectively. The Revised Proactivity Scale. Proactivity was measured using the Revised Proactivity Scale (Bateman & Crant, 1982). Turkish adaptation of this scale was done by Akın, Abacı, Kaya, and Arıcı (2011). The Revised Proactivity Scale is a 10-item self-report inventory (e. g., I am always looking for better ways to do things) and each item was rated on a 7-point scale (1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree). All answers given will be totaled to indicate the level of proactivity, with a high number indicating a greater incidence of proactivity. Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the model was well fit to the Turkish population (x 2 =47.91, df=29, p=0.01502, RMSEA=.044, NFI=.99, CFI=.99, IFI=.99, RFI=.97, GFI=.97, AGFI=.95, and SRMR=.033). The Cronbach s Alpha internal consistency reliability coefficient was.86. Procedure Permission for participation of students was obtained from related chief departments and students voluntarily participated in research. Completion of the scales was anonymous and there was a guarantee of confidentiality. The scales were administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. The measures were counterbalanced in administration. Prior to administration of measures, all participants were told about purposes of the study. The research was conducted in 2013 fall-term, in Sakarya University Faculty of Education. Statistical Analysis In this research, multiple linear regression analysis and Pearson correlation coefficient were used to investigate the relationships between authenticity and proactivity. The variables which were entered in multiple regression analysis were measured by summing the items of each scale. These analyses were carried out via SPSS 11.5. Results Descriptive Data and Correlations Table 1 shows descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables. Preliminary correlation analysis showed that accepting external influence (r= -.45) and self-alienation (r= -.47) were related negatively to proactivity. Authentic living (r=.43) was positively associated with proactivity. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Pearson Correlations among Variables -43-
An investigation of the Predictive Role of Authenticity U. Akın, A. Akın **p<.01 Multiple Regression Analysis Before applying regression, assumptions of multiple regression were checked. The data were examined for normality by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The Kolmogorov- Smirnov test indicated normality of distributions of test scores for all tests in the current study. Multiple regression analysis was performed in which the dependent variable was proactivity and the independent variables were dimensions of authenticity (Table 2). Table 2. Summary of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis for Variable Predicting Proactivity Variables Unstandardized coefficients Standardized Coefficents t R R 2 F B SE B β Model 1 Constant Self-alienation -.80.082 -.47-9.740.23.22 94.859* Constant Model 2 Self-alienation -.67.078 -.40-8.555 Authentic Living.50.069.33 7.182.33.33 80.554* Constant Self-alienation -.51.082 -.30-6.193 Model 3 Authentic Living.44.068.30 6.506 External -.44.084 -.26-5.234.38.38 67.185* Influence *p<.001 A three-step multiple regression analysis has applied to assess which dimensions of authenticity were the best predictors of proactivity. Table 2 showed the results of multiple regression analysis where the independent variables were Authenticity scores and the dependent variable was proactivity. Firstly, self-alienation has accounted for 23% of the variance in predicting proactivity (R 2 =.23, adjusted R 2 =.22, F(1, 327)= 94.859, p<.01). Secondly authentic living has accounted for an additional 10% of the variance (R 2 =.33, ΔR 2 =.10, adjusted R 2 =.33, F(2, 326)= 80.554, p<.01). Thirdly accepting external influence has accounted for an additional 5% of the variance (R 2 =.38, ΔR 2 =.05, adjusted R 2 =.38, F(3, 325)= 67.185, p<.01). The standardized beta coefficients indicated the relative influence of the variables in last model with self-alienation (β= -.30, p<.01), accepting external influence (β= -.26, p<.01), and authentic living (β=.30, p<.01) all significantly influencing proactivity and self-alienation was strongest predictor. Discussion Variable M SD 1 2 3 1. Proactivity 54.43 8.34 2. Accepting External Influence 12.45 4.82 -.45** 3. Self-alienation 11.13 4.95 -.47**.42** 4. Authentic Living 24.21 5.89.43** -.24 -.23** The aim of the present study was to investigate the predictive role of authenticity on proactivity. To our knowledge, this is the first study investigating the relationships between authenticity and proactivity. As predicted, results demonstrated that proactivity related to -44-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 40-47, December, 2014 accepting external influence and self-alienation negatively and to authentic living positively. In interpreting the results of the present findings, several plausible explanations exist. These findings are in line with the research that has shown that authenticity is closely associated with the indices of psychological adjustment such as self-esteem and life satisfaction (Goldman & Kernis, 2002). Findings of the present study are also consistent with the literature which demonstrated that proactivity is closely associated with the indices of psychological adjustment such as satisfaction with life, positive affect, optimism, and vitality (Sohl & Mover, 2009; Shi et al., 2011; Tummers et al., 2013). Also a proactive individual focuses on well-being rather than failure, pathologies, burnouts, and helplessness behaviors (Caprara & Cervone, 2003), s/he is beneficial in his/her organizations, community, and even global world (Covey, 1998), have more wellness, generativity, and resilience that people experience when they are authentic. Therefore authenticity and proactivity may share the same properties in nature and people who high in authenticity can behave more proactively. This study had many limitations. Firstly, it was correlational and based on a convenience sample. Secondly, the present sample s results are limited to university students so generality is restricted and more population-representative samples need to be used in future studies to examine the relationships between authenticity and proactivity. Also explicit investigation of mediating or latent variables is important. Consequently, the present research provides important information about the predictors of proactivity and would further our understanding of the psychological process of proactivity. The implication is that tendency to accept external influence and self-alienation may indicate a risk for low proactivity. Nonetheless it is important to note that scientific research on authenticity is still in its nascent phases and more research should be conducted before any implications can be drawn. References Akın, A., & Dönmezogullari, C. (2010, April) The validity and reliability of Turkish version of the Authenticity Scale. Paper presented at the 2 nd International Congress of Educational Research, 29 April-2 May, Antalya, Turkey. Akın, A., Abacı, R., Kaya, M., & Arıcı, N. (2011, June). Kısaltılmış Proaktif Kişilik Ölçeği nin (KPÖ) Türkçe formunun geçerlik ve güvenirliği [The validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the revised Proactive Personality Scale]. Paper presented at the ICES11 International Conference on Educational Sciences, June, 22-25, Famagusta, Cyprus. Ashford, S. J., & Black, J. S. (1996). Proactivity during organizational entry: The role of desire for control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 199-211. Bateman, T. S., & Crant, J. M. (1993). The proactive component of organizational behavior: A measure and correlates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 103 118. Bialystok, L. (2009). Being yourself: Identity, metaphysics, and the search for authenticity.unpublished Dissertation.University of Toronto. Toronto. Bonner, H. (1967).The proactive personality. In J. F. T. Bugental (Ed.), Challenges of humanistic psychology (s. 61-66). New York: McGraw-Hill. Brown, D. J., Cober, R. T., Kane, K., Levy, P. E., & Shalhoop, J. (2006). Proactive personality and the successful job search: A field investigation with college graduates. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(3), 717-726. Campbell, D. J. (2000). The proactive employee: Managing workplace initiative. Academy of Management Executive, 14, 52-66. -45-
An investigation of the Predictive Role of Authenticity U. Akın, A. Akın Caprara, G. V., & Cervone, D. (2003). A conception of personality for a psychology of human strengths: Personality as an agentic, self regulating system, In L.G. Aspinwall & U.M. Staudinger, (Ed), A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology. (ss.61-74). Washington: D.C: American Psychological Association. Covey, S. (1998). The 7 habits of highly effective teens: The ultimate teenage success guide. New York: Simon & Schuster. Crant, J. M. (2000). Proactive behavior in organization. Journal of Management, 26, 3, 435 462. Crant, J. M., & Bateman, T. S. (2000). Charismatic leadership viewed from above: The impact of proactive personality, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 63-75. Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York: Picador. Fuller, J. B., Hester, K., & Cox, S. (2010). Proactive personality and job performance: Exploring job autonomy as a moderator. Journal of Managerial Issues, 22(1), 35-51. Gerhardt, M., Ashenbaum, B., & Newman, W. R. (2003). Understanding the impact of proactive personality on job performance. The roles of tenure and self-management. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 16, 1, 61-72. Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H. (2002). The role of authenticity in healthy psychological functioning and subjective well-being. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 5(6), 18-20. Grant, A., & Ashford, S. J. (2008). The dynamics of proactivity at work. In B. M. Staw & R. I. Sutton (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 28, pp. 3-3-i). London: Jai Press. Harter, S. (2002). Authenticity. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 382 394. Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., & Wanberg, C. R. (2003). Unwrapping the organizational entry process: disentangling multiple antecedents and their pathways to adjustment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 5, 779-784. Ménard, J., & Brunet, L. (2011). Authenticity and well-being in the workplace: a mediation model. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 26(4), 331-346. Morrison, E. W., & Phelps, C. C. (1999). Taking charge at work: Extra role efforts to initiate workplace change. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 403 419. Peterson, S. J., & Byron, K. (2008). Exploring the role of hope in job performance: Results from four studies. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29, 785 803. Pinto, D. G., Maltby, J., Wood. A. M., & Day, L. (2012). A behavioral test of Horney s linkage between authenticity and aggression: People living authentically are lesslikely to respond aggressively in unfair situations. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 41 44. Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Crant, M. (2001). What does proactive personality do? A longitudinal model linking proactive personality and career success. Personal Psychology, 54, 845-874. Sheldon, K. M. (2009). Authenticity. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology (pp. 75-78). Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Rawsthorne, L. J., & Ilardi, B. (1997). Trait self and true self: Cross-role variation in the big-five personality traits and its relations with psychological authenticity and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1380-1393. -46-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 40-47, December, 2014 Shi, J., Chen, Z., & Zhou, L. (2011). Testing differential mediation effects of sub-dimensions of political skills in linking proactive personality to employee performance. Journal of Business Psychology, 26, 359 369. Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (2009). Positive psychology. California: Sage Publications. Sohl, S. J., & Mover, A. (2009). Refining the conceptualization of an important futureoriented self-regulatory behavior: Proactive coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(2), 139 144. Tummers, L. G., Kruyen, P. M., Vijverberg, D., & Voesenek, T. (2013). Connecting HRM and change management: How HR practices can stimulate change readiness. Paper presented at the EGPA Conference, 11-13 September, Edinburgh. Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., & Botero, I.C. (2003). Conceptualizing employee silence and employee voice as multidimensional constructs. Journal of Management Studies, 40, 1359-1392. Wood, A. M., Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., & Baliousis, M. J. S. (2008). The authentic personality: a theoretical and empirical conceptualization and the development of the authenticity scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(3), 385 399. -47-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 102-112, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.22.4.3 Article history Received: 24.02.2014 Received in revised form: 20.12..2014 Accepted: 21.12.2014 Key words: Mevlana Stories, Gestalt Therapy, Field-Shape, Awareness, Contact. Introduction Mevlana Stories and Gestalt Therapy Mehmet KAYA Psychological Counseling, Sakarya University, Sakarya Neslihan ARICI Psychological Counseling, Sakarya University, Sakarya Gestalt therapy, which is a life philosophy and life style more than a therapy approach, has taken place and takes place in every kind of field (individual, group, society, culture, and work of art, etc.) with many shapes (poem, novel, story, etc.). Since the 13 th century Mevlana stories have been a guide shedding light for those mentally in a bind, healing for those heart-broken and pacifying those souls in search. In this study five Mevlana stories, having an important place in Turkish culture, (Moses and the Shepherd, the Linguist and the Ship-owner, the Deaf and his Sick Neighbor, the Merchant and his Parrot, the Leather-man) were explained with some concepts of Gestalt Therapy (wholeness, the relationship between field and shape, the relationship among field-shape and needs, awareness, awareness experiment, producing meaning, importance of senses, poles, obstacles to needs, here and now, contact, introjection, and desensitization). As a result of the study it was found that five Mevlana stories and Gestalt therapy explain their philosophies with different concepts but there are similarities in their dealing with human nature. Finally, Mevlana stories are considered to be explained with Gestalt therapy concepts. Last but not least, this study suggested that following studies might analyze other Mevlana stories with Gestalt therapy concepts. Although there has been no change in the basic needs of individuals (physical needs: eating, drinking, emotional needs: loving, belonging etc.) since the first age, ways of meeting these needs have changed according to time and geographical position. Mevlana was an Islamic sufi, who lived during the 13 th century, affected the humanity thanks to his language touching souls, and was tolerant towards the whole humanity and varieties. In Mevlana stories, it is stated that an individual is a part of a whole (the Creator) in the universe, an individual should know herself/himself physically, mentally, spiritually and wholeheartedly so as to recognize her/his aim in the universe, and s/he can achieve this by accepting and getting in touch with people. Mevlana stories are especially said to be a guide shedding light for those mentally in a bind, healing for those heart-broken and pacifying those souls in search (Karaköse 2009, p. 9). Gestalt therapy is a therapy approach and even a life philosophy using here and now and mehmetkaya@sakarya.edu.tr neslihan@neslihanarici.com
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 102-112, December, 2014 dialogue methodology which took its roots from humanistic, existentialist, holistic and phenomenological approach in the early periods of the 20 th century (Hatcher & Himelstein 1995; Levin 2010; Paterson & Watkins 1996, p. 349-371; Woldt ve Toman 2005, p. 47-52). In Gestalt therapy approach, it is aimed that an individual understands and accepts her/his needs, desires and fears on the field and s/he recognizes how s/he obstructs them while reaching her/his aims (Daş 2006, p.19-21, Mackewn 1997, p. 34, Woldt & Toman 2005, p. 84-96). When considered in this respect, there are many common points with regard to the way both Mevlana's philosophy and Gestalt therapy approach to humans. In this study, the aim is to explain Mevlana Stories with basic concepts of Gestalt therapy. For this purpose, five Mevlana stories (Moses and the Shepherd, The Linguist and the Ship-owner, The Deaf and his Sick Neighbor, The Merchant and his Parrot, the Leather-man) were analyzed with Gestalt concepts of wholeness, field and shape relationship, field-shape and needs relationship, awareness, awareness experiment, producing meaning, importance of senses, poles, obstacles to needs, here and now, contact, introjection, and desensitization. Mevlana and Gestalt Therapy Below can be found five Mevlana stories (Moses and the Shepherd, The Linguist and the Ship-owner, The Deaf and the Sick, The Merchant and his Parrot, the Leather-man) analyzed with Gestalt therapy concepts of wholeness, field and shape relationship, fieldshape and needs relationship, awareness, awareness experiment, producing meaning, importance of senses, poles, obstacles to needs, here and now, contact, introjection, and desensitization. Firstly basic concepts of Gestalt therapy were explained, secondly stories were summarized shortly and finally, stories were evaluated with Gestalt therapy concepts. ii.i. Moses and the Shepherd: Wholeness, Field-Shape and Needs Relationship, Introjection A human is a whole with her/his intuitions, senses, thoughts and behaviors and as a whole, s/he interacts with her/his environment and becomes a part of the environment (Perls 1969, p. 6). For the individual who becomes a whole by interaction to be a whole internally, s/he has to recognize her/his needs (Corey, 2008, p. 213-214; Daş 2006, p. 66-67; Latner 1973; Paterson & Watkins 1996, p. 350-351; Perls, 1969; Woldt & Toman, 2005, p. 88-94). Needs of the individual are energy sources leading to behaviors stemming from her/his field. Those needs full of energy and leading to behaviors are gathered in two categories (basic needs and psychological needs) and one need arises after the fulfillment of another one (Daş, 2006, p. 67-73; Latner, 1973). Although needs stem from an individual's field, behaviors emerging so as to fulfill those needs may not cohere with an individual's field. Therefore, it is necessary to recognize the needs underlying the behaviors instead of the behaviors themselves and to focus on these needs (Daş 2006, p. 73-74; Polster & Polster 1974, p.46). For an individual to focus on and meet her/his needs instead of behaviors/figures, s/he should use contact manners consistent with both her/his field and environment. Otherwise, an individual may lose contact with both herself/himself and her/his environment and also s/he may not meet her/his needs (Daş 2006, p.73-74; Polster & Polster, 1974; Scherler, 2007). For -103-
Mevlana Stories and Gestalt Therapy M. Kaya & N. Arıcı instance, if an individual's need is to say no to what s/he doesn't want in the work place, but, during the contact with the ones in the work place, if s/he exactly obeys to given orders, s/he cannot meet her/his real need in the field. If an individual loses contact with herself/himself, it means that s/he cannot meet her/his needs. Even this loss of contact experienced by the individual leads to an increase in awareness by using five senses in now and this loss of contact may lead to a leap in dimensions within four dimensions of awareness (physical, mental, emotional and spiritual dimensions (Daş 2006, p. 49-65; Mackwen 1997; Woldt & Toman 2005, p. 87-88). These concepts of Gestalt therapy can be observed in Mevlana's Moses and the Shepherd story. The story can be shortly recounted like the following: Prophet Moses met a shepherd who was praying in his own manner but not in the religiously suggested manner. The shepherd was praying to God as the following: My dear Allah, You should know how much I love You. I can do whatever You want, Your wish is my command. If You command, I can sacrifice the fattest sheep in the herd for You without blinking an eye. My dear Allah, fried sheep meat is delicious, You can add the tail fat into your rice, it will be extremely delicious. Your wish is my command; I can wash Your feet. I can clean Your ears, kill Your lice. How much I love You. I admire You. Prophet Moses went up in the air upon hearing these and he intervened in the prayer of the shepherd. Shut up you ignorant man! What do you think you are doing? Does Allah eat rice? Does Allah have feet? How can you wash His feet? What kind of a prayer is this? You are totally falling into sin. Immediately foreswear! The shepherd blushed to the ear upon Moses' scolding; he wanted to curl up and die and cried away. Moses heard a voice that night, which was Allah: O! Moses! What have you done today? Have you come to separate or unite? You have scolded this poor shepherd. You could not understand how close he was to me. Although he did not know what he was saying, that shepherd was sincere in his faith, he was pure in heart, and his will was neat. We do not look at words, we look at will! If we were to look at words, there would not be any human on earth! We were contented with the shepherd. Anyone's praise may appear to you as worthless. Anyone's honey may be poison to you. You regarded what you heard as denial and swear but you should know that even if he has any fault, what a sweet fault it is. Upon hearing this, Moses, being sad, searched for the shepherd a lot and when he found him he said: Oh friend, I am mistaken, please forgive me. Pray as you know. This is more valuable in the sight of Allah. The shepherd said to Moses: Oh Moses, I have already gone through this phase. I am full with holy love. Actually you have whipped my horse. My horse has reared up and has gone beyond the universe (Karaköse 2009, p. 75-78). -104-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 102-112, December, 2014 In this story praying shapes emerging from the thanksgiving need of the shepherd and those patterns and shapes emerging from the field of Moses are different from each other. Thanksgiving and praying both the same needs are met in different shapes in both the shepherd and Moses and each individual is in contact with his needs. However, when Moses told the shepherd that he had to pray in the way Moses did, the shepherd exactly applied the ways Moses told (introjection) but he couldn't meet his own needs and he desensitized. When the shepherd desensitized, Allah told Moses that in the wholeness of the universe, every individual was a necessary and different part and that being different and stating her/his needs in different shapes did not harm the wholeness/unity. Therefore, Allah suggested Moses that instead of the stereotyped behaviors he should look at the needs and wills underlying the behaviors. When Moses told all these to the shepherd, the awareness in the field of the shepherd increased, the awareness experienced by the shepherd in the emotional dimension leaped at the spiritual dimension and he met himself in the upper level. ii.ii. The Linguist and the Ship-owner: The Coherence of Field-Shape Relationship and Meeting Needs Here and Now, Desensitization and Incoherence of Field-Shape In Gestalt therapy the field is a life space covering an individual's experiences (feeling, thought, observation, experience, etc.) starting from birth (Daş 2006, p.68-69; Polster & Polster 1974; Scherler 2007). When an individual forms behaviors/shapes in accordance with the needs of the organism, shapes return to the field of the individual. When needs in the field of the individual are not met, shapes remain in the field full of energy and appear in the field in different shapes until needs are met (Daş 2006, p..68-71; Greenberg & Rice 1997; Lather, 1973; Perls, 1969; Polster & Polster 1974, Woldt & Toman, 2005; p..88-89).. Therefore, abundance of experiences in an individual's field is important. Additionally, abundance of experiences expands an individual's field while scarcity of experiences shallows it. Having broad or shallow field is parallel with an individual's management of her/his needs in a correct way(daş, 2006; Scherler 2007). For an individual to manage her/his needs in a correct way, s/he should remain here and now (Latner, 1973; Perls, 1969; Woldt & Toman 2005, p.104-105). When an individual focuses on here and now, s/he recognizes the obstacles and problems in her/his body, mind, behaviors and s/he seeks solutions for these. For her/him to focus on here and now, what an individual says is not important but instead how s/he says it is important (Perls, 1969). When an individual does not remain in here and now, s/he cannot meet her/his needs (Daş 2006; Latner, 1973; Perls 1969). There are many factors which obstruct an individual's remaining in here and now and one of these is desensitization of an individual to herself/himself and her/his environment (Daş, 2006, p. 137-146; Levin, 2010; Polster & Polster, 1974). Desensitization means that an individual does not see, hear or feel or s/he uses some of her/his sides excessively or never uses them. Desensitization is observed in individuals whose cognitive sides are on the forefront (Daş, 2006, p.137-146; Scherler, 2007). These concepts of Gestalt therapy (harmony of field-shape relationship and meeting needs by remaining in now or not meeting needs due to desensitization of an individual to herself/himself by remaining in now and disharmony of field-shape) can be observed in Mevlana's The Linguist and the Ship-owner story. The story can be shortly recounted like the following: A linguist got aboard. That conceited linguist turned to the ship-owner and said: Have you ever read grammar? -105-
Mevlana Stories and Gestalt Therapy M. Kaya & N. Arıcı The ship-owner said No and the linguist replied Half of your life has gone for nothing. The ship-owner was heart-broken due to this speech and he got angry but he didn't reply immediately, he remained quiet. Later on, a wind blew and the ship was sucked into a whirlpool. At that time the ship-owner called out to the linguist: Oh, linguist, do you know how to swim? The linguist said Oh pleasant ship-owner, I do not know how to swim. The ship-owner said Oh linguist! Your whole life has gone for nothing because the ship is about to sink in this whirlpool. You should know this well, here you should know how to perish, now knowing grammar is worth nothing. Sea water carries a dead man over its head, how can an alive man rescue from the hands of the sea? If you get rid of your human qualities and bad habits by passing away, God's sea of secrets will carry you over its head. (Karaköse 2009, p. 46-47). In this story while the linguist has a lot of knowledge as to what is a grammar, he does not have experimental knowledge on how to swim. Therefore, the linguist cannot meet his need of survival after having any obstacle in the sea. This situation shows that field-shape should be in harmony with needs, and abundance of experiences in the field is important in meeting an individual's needs. In addition, while the linguist was busy with dealing what grammar says (with his past), he could not focus on here and now and desensitized towards himself and his environment. This situation shows the importance of here and now. In fact, in the story it is suggested that the linguist should focus on here and now and should live through here and now so as to get rid of desensitization and to meet his need of survival. ii.iii. The Deaf and His Sick Neighbor : Here and Now, Field-Shape Relationship, Producing Meaning, Importance of Senses, Awareness For an individual to recognize her/his needs in the field and to produce proper shapes for her/his needs, s/he should use her/his five senses here and now, s/he should perceive the stimuli in herself/himself and in her/his environment and to give meaning to these stimuli (Daş, 2006; Greenberg & Grenberg 1997; Lather, 1973). In short, here and now has a great power (Polster & Polster, 1974). When an individual uses her/his past experiences and patterns to meet her/his needs in her/his field, s/he cannot produce proper shapes and meanings for her/his needs in her/his field (Corey, 2008, p.216-217; Lather, 1973; Polster & Polster 1974). This situation is related to an individual's not recognizing her/his need full of energy. Awareness is the most effective way to cure the individual (Grenberg & Rice, 1997). These concepts of Gestalt therapy (field-shape relationship, producing meaning, importance of senses and awareness) can be observed in Mevlana's The Deaf and the Sick Neighbor story. The story can be shortly recounted like the following: A man who gives importance to neighborhood relations informed a deaf man that his neighbor was sick. Upon learning this, the deaf man thought about inquiring after his -106-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 102-112, December, 2014 neighbor's health but he wondered how he would achieve this with his deaf ears. He said to himself: When a man is sick, his voice also grows weak. I must visit him, he is a neighbor. However, it is impossible to hear what he says with these ears. For the best, I'll guess what he says when he moves his lips and I will talk accordingly. Presuming that such a conversation might take place between him and his neighbor, he prepared himself. He thought about saying Oh my sorrowful neighbor! How are you? and in return he presumed the neighbor to reply as I am fine, thanks. The deaf man would say Thank Allah and he would ask later on what type of food the sick man ate. He presumed the sick man would say I drank sherbet or I ate lentil soup. The deaf would say Enjoy your meal and he would ask which doctor came round for the treatment. When the sick would say This so-and-so doctor, the deaf would say That doctor brings good luck. He is an expert in his field. It is wise of you to call him for the treatment. With that doctor assume that your illness is over. The deaf visited his neighbor with this scenario in his mind. After greeting the sick, the deaf sat on a corner and asked How are you my dear neighbor? The sick replied I feel very bad, I am about to die. The deaf said Thank Allah and the sick felt blue. He was heart-broken due to his neighbor's words. While he was thinking about the appropriateness of being grateful, the deaf asked: What do you eat? The sick, being furious, answered as Poison and demon drink. The deaf smiling in the way he meditated before said: Enjoy your meal. Upon this answer, the sick got really furious but he did not show his emotions. The deaf kept asking: ''Which doctor comes round for the treatment? Having no more patience and with his full anger the sick shouted Who would come round? Of course, the Angel of death, Azrael is approaching. What kind of a neighbor are you? Buzz off. With all his calmness the deaf replied Oh is he coming? He brings good luck. Be happy, be joyful. Assume that your illness is over. The patient got very sad because of his neighbor and thought like We have not been able to know this neighbor. He is actually our enemy. The deaf asked for his permission to leave and left his neighbor's house joyfully thinking he realized neighborhood rights. While the deaf was leading towards his house full with the joy of realizing his duty, the sick neighbor thought about him like Visit of patients is done to inquire after one's health, to please. This man has offended us and increased our illness at the same time. (Karaköse 2009, p.57-59). In this story, the Deaf and his Sick Neighbor form a relationship with one another based on completely their own fields and their ways of producing meaning is limited to their own fields. Both of them here and now do not use their 5 senses and they are not completely open to outer stimuli. Even the Deaf does not hear, he has the capability of using his other senses (seeing and feeling) in here and now, but instead he uses the fiction in his mind and he does not understand his neighbor's reactions. In short, the Deaf is not aware of his other -107-
Mevlana Stories and Gestalt Therapy M. Kaya & N. Arıcı senses. His neighbor is also not aware of the fact that his visitor is deaf and he cannot understand the reactions of the Deaf. As both of them exhibit shapes from their own fields, neither the aim of this visit by the Deaf nor the need of the neighbor to be glad of this visit is met. ii.iv. The Merchant and His Parrot: Awareness, Here and Now, Awareness Experiment and Exaggeration Technique Awareness is an individual's being in contact with her/his own perceptional area and it is necessary for an individual to meet her/his needs appropriate to her/his field (Daş 2006, p. 105-109; Perls, 1969; Polster & Polster, 1974; Woldt & Tolman 2005). For awareness, an empty mind is necessary. An empty mind focuses an individual to here and now and offers her/him many options to meet her/his needs (Latner, 1973). Additionally, awareness, taking place here and now, is formed in four dimensions of existence (physical, mental, emotional and spiritual) and is achieved through five senses (seeing, hearing, touching, tasting and smelling) (Daş 2006, p. 108-113; Polster & Polster 1974, p. 129; Mackwen, 1997). Stereotyped thoughts and believes are obstacles to form awareness and, together with awareness, to give meaning to needs and to form proper shapes for needs (Daş, 2006; Lather 1973; Mackwen; 1997). In order to change the structures hindering awareness, various Gestalt therapy techniques are used (Joyce & Sills 2001; Mackwen 1997; Polster & Polster, 1974). Out of these techniques, the most commonly used ones are experiment and exaggeration techniques (Cohen, 2008, p.234; Daş, 2006, p. 260; Scherler 2007). Experiments increase internal (related to oneself) and external (related to a person's environment) awareness, materialize abstract concepts and form contact boundaries (Cohen, 2008, p. 227-229; Joyce & Sills, 2001; Macken, 1997; Polster & Polster 1974). During the experiments, resistance in here and now is studied thanks to active participation of an individual both physically and mentally (Mackwen, 1997). In order to gather information on an individual's resistance, to recognize her/his need and meet this need, an observed situation in an individual is exaggerated. For instance, if an individual shakes her/his leg while talking, s/he is requested to shake it more quickly (with her/his five senses and four dimensions of her/his existence) so as for her/him to recognize her/his need (Corey, 2008, p. 234,; Joyce & Sills 2001; Mackwen 1997). These concepts in Gestalt therapy (awareness, here and now, experiment and exaggeration) can be observed in Mevlana's The Merchant and his Parrot story. The story can be shortly recounted like the following: There was a certain merchant who was about to travel to India and he asked everyone in his house, including his beautifully singing parrot, what they wanted from India and he promised to bring what they desired. The parrot asked for something different. The parrot desired him to greet all parrots flying freely and tell them that he was kept confined in a cage. The merchant went to India and realized everyone's desire including the parrot as well. However, he felt very sorry while realizing the parrot's desire because the parrot that he gave the greetings of his parrot started shaking and got breathless and suddenly fell down dead. The merchant gave back everyone's desire upon his arrival to his home. When it was the parrot's turn, the merchant said that he did what he asked for but the parrot that he -108-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 102-112, December, 2014 greeted fell down dead and he felt very sorry for this and he regretted what he said. No sooner had the merchant's beautifully singing parrot heard the merchant's tale than he too started shaking and got breathless and fell down dead. Upon this, the merchant started crying. He opened the cage to take the corpse out and the parrot flew out of the cage and landed on a tree. The surprised merchant seeing this asked his parrot what the parrot in India taught him. The parrot explained to him that the Indian parrot gave the idea of pretending to be dead instead of beautifully singing so as to escape from confinement. (Karaköse, 2009, p. 36-40). In this story, while the Merchant's beautifully singing parrot is aware of its freedom need, it is not aware of how it can meet this need or by conducting which behaviors it can meet this need. Therefore, it asked for the help of a parrot which met its need of freedom in its field. The free parrot showed the Merchant's beautifully singing parrot how to meet its need of freedom by remaining here and now and exaggerating one of its behavior. Thanks to exaggerated behavior experiment, beautifully singing parrot recognized that the way/behavior of beautifully singing did not meet its need for freedom and so as to meet its need, it changed its shape/behavior in its field with the behavior of pretending to be dead here and now. By this way, the Merchant's parrot's need for freedom was met and the act of pretending to be dead returned to its field. ii.v. The Leather-man: Poles and Being a Whole In order to give meaning to her/his environment, an individual is continuously divided into parts and forms boundaries, that is poles (for instance: beautiful-ugly; hardworking-lazy; happiness-unhappiness; goodness-badness). An individual has a different part (pole) completing each of her/his parts and an individual is a whole with her/his poles (Daş, 2006; p. 217-228; Latner, 1973; Mackwen, 1997; Polster & Polster, 1974). An individual's refusal of one of her/his poles due to internal conflicts is an obstacle for her/him to live through her/his wholeness (Daş, 2006, p.217-228; Mackwen, 1997). It is important to know between two poles where a person defines herself/himself and whether s/he sticks to one pole or not. In addition, an individual's attachment to one pole is related to opacity or solidity of her/his contact boundaries and this situation is an obstacle for an individual to see the alternatives in her/his life (Daş 2006: 217-228, Latner 1973, Mackwen, 1997). An individual's keeping her/his poles in her/his field creates an unrestricted self and life space in an individual and gives the required flexibility to an individual so as to meet her/his needs in here and now (Daş, 2006, p. 217-228; Mackwen, 1997). Recognizing the poles and unifying them is an experience of Hah (an exclamation of recognizing instantly), it leads an individual to think and act differently and it reorganizes an individual's life space (Latner, 1973). In order for an individual to keep and unify the poles in her/his field, it is necessary for her/him to meet different people and live through experiences (Corey, 2008, p. 224; Mackwen 1997). These concepts of Gestalt therapy (poles and wholeness) can be observed in Mevlana's The Leatherman story. The story can be shortly recounted like the following: One day a leather-man fainted while passing through a bazaar selling rose scents. The shopkeepers seeing the leather-man fainting approached to the leather-man and applied rose scents and incenses to him. However, nothing worked out. The leather-man got worse. At -109-
Mevlana Stories and Gestalt Therapy M. Kaya & N. Arıcı that moment the leather-man's brother was crossing the road and he saw that his brother had fainted and he understood the reason. Without anybody noticing, he took some animal dirt and made his brother smell the dirt. As soon as the leather-man sniffed the dirt, he awakened and rose to his feet. Those craftsmen making effort to awaken the leather-man but not succeeding declared the leather-man's brother as a scholar. (Kanar, 2008, p. 450-451). In this story it is observed that in the leather-man's field there is only the pole of dirty and there is not the pole of clean or musk. Therefore, when the leather-man enters into a field filled with rose scent or when he is about to meet the pole of clean, he faints and refuses the pole of clean in himself. This shows that in recognizing the pole which is absent in him, the leather-man's contact boundaries are not flexible and transparent. As the contact boundary of the leather-man is not flexible and transparent, rose scents and incenses which are applied to make him come to himself do not work. On the contrary, dirty smell, which is in his field, makes the leather-man come to himself. However, this hinders the leather-man to know the poles in himself and to become a whole. In addition, in this story, it is observed that the shopkeepers selling rose scent produce shapes and alternatives according to the clean pole in their fields and they refuse their dirty poles by applying rose scent to the leather-man and they cannot contact with the leather-man. Discussion In this study, although they emerged in different times, some concepts of Gestalt therapy and some of Mevlana stories were analyzed since they were considered to deal with humans similarly. One of the reasons why Mevlana stories were handled from the point of view of Gestalt therapy is to show that there are similarities in their way of dealing with humans no matter how differently they explain their philosophy. One other reason is to draw attention to similarities in the techniques they used while handling the problems of people who lived in different times and in different cultures. For this purpose, five Mevlana stories (Moses and the Shepherd, The Linguist and the Shipowner, The Deaf and his Sick Neighbor, The Merchant and his Parrot, the Leather-man) were analyzed with Gestalt concepts (wholeness, field and shape relationship, field-shape and needs relationship, awareness, awareness experiment, producing meaning, importance of senses, poles, obstacles to needs, here and now, contact, introjection, and desensitization). In Mevlana s Moses and the Shepherd story, Gestalt therapy's wholeness, field and shape relationship and introjection concepts; in The Linguist and the Ship-owner story, disharmony of field and shape relationship, meeting needs in here and now and desensitization concepts; in The Deaf and his Sick Neighbor story, field and shape relationship, producing meaning, here and now and importance of senses concepts; in The Merchant and his Parrot story, awareness, here and now, experiment and exaggeration technique concepts and in the Leather-man story, poles and wholeness concepts were observed and interpreted. In these stories, for those living beings (individual, animal) experiencing problems to recognize their own needs, to contact with their needs and to meet their needs in healthy ways, what they should do in practice was shown. In this context, it is assumed that common aims and problem-solving methods observed in these stories show similarities with Gestalt therapy. -110-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 102-112, December, 2014 In these stories, as the problem experiencing living being did not use his senses, he desensitized to himself and his environment, he accepted what was said in his environment and accepted the patterns without thinking for a while, he acted improperly during the event, he could not give meaning to the situation he lived through, he could not act in a flexible way towards the situations and events or he acted in a flexible way excessively, he, in return, experienced problems. In fact, all these reasons showed similarities with the obstacles causing an individual not to meet her/his needs in her/his field in Gestalt therapy (obstacles during intuition, excessive use of contact ways or never using them, transparency or solidity in the boundaries, disharmony in the field-shape, obstacles in awareness). In addition, for a living being experiencing problems to solve his problems it was emphasized that he should define the problem he experienced by exaggeration or experience, he should use his senses correctly, he should give meaning to what he experienced, he should develop his behavior repertoire to meet his needs and he should be open towards differences. All these necessities and suggestions show similarities with therapy process (where the counselee is active) and therapy techniques (exaggeration, experiment) in Gestalt therapy. Apart from this, a sample on how to deal with daily life stories like Mevlana stories using basic concepts of Gestalt therapy was offered. For those counselees having problems in terms of basic concepts of Gestalt therapy, Mevlana stories associated with these basic concepts can be used so as to increase the awareness of the counselees. As a result, it is assumed that Mevlana stories can be explained through Gestalt therapy concepts. However, in this study only some of Mevlana stories were analyzed and dealt in terms of some Gestalt therapy concepts. For the following studies it is suggested that other Mevlana stories should be dealt with Gestalt concepts. References Corey, G. (2008). Theory and practice of counseling and psychology. Trans: Tuncay Ergene, Ankara: Mentis Press. Daş, C. (2006). Bütünleşmek ve büyümek [Integration and growth]. Ankara: HYB Press. Greenberg, Leslie ve Rice, Laura. Humanistic approaches to psychotherapy, In Paul L. Wachtel ve Stanley B. Messer (Editor), Theories of psychotherapy: Origins and evolution, p. 97 129, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Hatcher, C. & Himelstein, P. (1995). The handbook of gestalt therapy, Northvale, Joson Aronson Inc. Joyce, P., & Sills, C. (2001). Skills in gestalt counseling and Psychotherapy, London, Sage Publication. Kanar, M. (2008). Mevlana. Istanbul, Say Press Karaköse, Ş. (2009). Mevlana dan düşündüren hikâyeler [Thoughtful stories from Mevlana], İstanbul: Yakamoz Research. Latner, J. (1973). The gestalt therapy book.: A holistic guide to theory, principles and techniques of Gestalt therapy developed by Frederic Perls and others, New York, The Julian Press. Levin, J. (2010). Gestalt therapy: Now and tomorrow. Gestalt Review, 14 (2), 147-170. Mackewn, J. (1997). Developing Gestalt Counseling, London, Sage Publications, Paterson, Cecil, H. & Watkins, C. E (1996). Theories of Psychotherapy. 5th ed. New York: Harper Collins. Perls, F.S. (1969). Gestalt Therapy Verbatim. California: Real People Press, -111-
Mevlana Stories and Gestalt Therapy M. Kaya & N. Arıcı Polster, E., & Polster M. (1974).Gestalt Therapy Integrated, New York: Vintage Books. Scherler, H. N. (2007). Gestalt yaklaşımı eğitim materyalleri. [Unpublished Gestalt Education Materia], Istanbul. Woldt, A. & Toman, S (2005).Gestalt therapy history, theory and practice. Sage, California. -112-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 124-138, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.23.4.3 A Phenomenographic Approach for Exploring Conceptions of Learning and Teaching Biology in Turkey Özlem Sadi Department of Educational Science, Faculty of Education, Karamanoglu Mehmetbey Article history Received: 24.02.2014 Received in revised form: 24.12..2014 Accepted: 25.12.2014 Key words: conceptions of learning, conceptions of teaching, biology Introduction University, Karaman, Turkey The present study aims to determine the students conceptions of learning and teachers conceptions of teaching in biology since both of them have a profound influence on the learning process and learning outcomes. The interview data, analyzed by a phenomenographic method, gathered from 60 university biology-major students and 3 university teachers in Central Region of Anatolia in Turkey. Results showed that students revealed five categories of conceptions of learning biology (COLB), as memorizing, researching, increasing ones knowledge, application and establishing a connection with natural phenomena. Most of students had low level of conceptions in learning (memorizing, researching and increasing knowledge), whereas still few students had high level of conceptions in learning (application and establishing a connection with natural phenomena). Turkish educational system in which these university students enrolled played a role in their conceptions of learning biology. Moreover, all sampled teachers had traditional view of teaching in biology. In present study, the relations of conceptions of learning and teaching and some of solutions were discussed. For many years, educational researchers have continued to show factors affecting learning process and its outcomes. There are several studies conducted to explain students science achievement by taking into account of students differences in their conceptions of behavior and learning (Entwistle & Entwistle, 1992; Sinatra, 2001) and teachers perception about teaching (Brown, 2004; Chan, 2003; Chan & Elliott, 2004; James & Pedder, 2006) because these two factors are closely related to students learning (Donnelly, 1999; Tsai, 2002). Although, there have been many studies investigating effects of personal characteristics of students; such as their beliefs about learning (Burnett, Pillay & Dart, 2003; Chiou, Liang & Tsai, 2012; Entwistle & Peterson, 2004; Tsai, 2004) and teachers conceptions about teaching (Chan & Elliott, 2004; James & Pedder, 2006; Winterbottom, Brindley, Taber, Fisher, Finney & Riga, 2008), none of these studies focused specifically on the relationship between abovementioned factors on the subject of biology at undergraduate level. According to literature, conceptions of learning are domain-specific (Hofer, 2000; Tsai, 2004) and defined as a beliefs about learning across domains (Chi et al., 1981). Biological sciences have an important role to understand common topics which are also important for Department of Educational Science, Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Karaman, Turkey Tel.:+90(505)2430683; Fax.:+90(338)2262023; e-mail: ozlemsadi@kmu.edu.tr
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 124-138, December, 2014 other domains as chemistry. Biology is a unique discipline in the science domain (Tsai, 2006), and it is assumed to be stimulating both students and teachers to describe students conceptions in learning and teachers conceptions in teaching. Therefore, this study described how conceptions of learning would arise in biology and how conceptions of teaching would be held by the teachers in biology classes. Since learning process has been affected from these two factors, this study also aimed to get an evidence to discuss their relations on students learning biology at undergraduate level. Conceptions of learning Generally, conceptions of learning are defined as learners beliefs about the subject or process and ways of learning (Benson & Lor, 1999; Chiou, Liang &Tsai, 2012; Liang & Tsai, 2010). This is concerned with what the learners think about learning goals and values, learning strategies, learning activities and also, perceptions of learning process (Vermunt & Vermetten, 2004). The earliest research about the conception of learning has been conducted by Saljo (1979). In the study, 90 college students were interviewed about their learning beliefs and their conceptions of learning were categorized as (1) increase of knowledge, (2) memorizing, (3) acquisitions of facts and procedures, (4) abstraction of meaning, and (5) interpreting process to understand reality (Saljo, 1979 cited in Lin & Tsai, 2008). Moreover, Marton et al. (1993) used phenomenographic method and identified the six aspects of students conceptions of learning by giving them in a hierarchical order: (1) increasing one s knowledge; (2) memorizing and reproducing; (3) applying; (4) understanding; (5) seeing something in a different way and (6) changing as a person. Similarly, Marshall et al.(1999) conducted a study with university students by using a qualitative method and classified those students conceptions of learning into five categories: (1) learning as memorizing definitions, equations and procedures, (2) learning as applying equations and procedures, (3) learning as making sense of physical concepts and procedures, (4) learning as seeing phenomena in the world in a new way, and (5) learning as a change as a person (Marshall et al. 1999 cited in Li, Liang & Tsai, 2013).They, also stated that conceptions of learning can varies for different students groups because of diverse educational background. More specifically, researchers conducted both qualitative and quantitative studies to identify students conceptions of learning in science. For example, Tsai (2004) collected interview data from 120 high schools students and analyzed the data by a phenomenographic method and presented in seven categories of conception of learning science which includes; (1) memorizing, (2) preparing for tests, (3) calculating and practicing the tutorial problems, (4) increase of knowledge, (5) applying, (6) understanding, and (7) seeing in a new way. Studies revealed that these conceptions are in hierarchical order and first three conceptions can be labeled as lower level conceptions and last four conceptions can be labeled as higher level conceptions (Lin et al., 2012; Tsai, 2004; Tsai et al., 2011;) More recently, Li and coworkers (2013) examined the relationships between conceptions of and approaches to learning in chemistry by using a quantitative method. They applied two questionnaires, conception of learning chemistry (COLC) and approaches to learning chemistry (ALC) to describe 369 college chemistry major students conceptions of and approaches to learning chemistry, respectively. Studies also indicated that 4 categories of conception of learning in chemistry was presented as memorizing, testing, calculating and practicing and transforming. Moreover, the result of the study revealed that students who use surface approaches to learning chemistry, expressed lower level COLC (such as preferring memorizing and testing) and students who use deep approaches to learning chemistry expressed higher level COLC (such as increase of -125-
A Phenomenographic Approach for Exploring Conceptions of Ö. Sadi knowledge, applying understanding and seeing in a new way). Therefore, this study was designed to explore university students conceptions of learning in biology. Conceptions of Teaching Researchers gave a considerable attention to describe and categorize conceptions of teaching (Buaraphan, 2007; Gao & Watkins, 2002; Kember, 1997; Ladachart, 2011; Ladachart & Roadrangka, 2008; Mokiwa & Msila, 2013). Tilemma (2000) stated that teachers conception about teaching has an effective role on their instructional strategies since they can decide what to do in the classroom according to their prior experiences, personal characteristics and in general, their beliefs about teaching. Teachers interpret and act in line with their understanding of the word and, in so doing, use their own strategies to give lectures (Pratt, 1992). Similarly, Canbay and Beceren (2012) considered the conception of teaching as organizing and shaping the teaching actions by teachers understanding and thinking about teaching and learning process. In the related literature, although, the meanings of the conceptions are basically defined, several terms have been used including orientations, beliefs, views, intentions instead of conception, but most of the researches preferred using the term of conception of teaching in their studies (Canbay & Beceren, 2012; Devlin, 2006; Kember, 1997; Ladachart, 2011; Richardson, 2005). Pratt (1992) defines conceptions as: Conceptions are specific meanings attached to phenomena that then mediate our response to situations involving those phenomena. We form conceptions of virtually every aspect of our perceived world, and in so doing, use those abstract representations to delimit something from, and relate it to, other aspects of our world. In effect, we view the world through the lenses of our conceptions, interpreting and acting in accordance with our understanding of the world. (p. 204) For the sake of clarity, the present study used the conception of teaching by viewing what teachers do in their classroom, which styles of lecturing are used, and in general, how teaching and learning phenomena take place in their classroom. Kember (1997) divided conceptions of teaching into two main categories and also, each main category was divided into two separate subcategories as follows; (1) Teacher-centered/content-oriented a) Imparting information b) Transmitting structured knowledge. (2) Student-centered/learning-oriented a) Facilitating understanding b) Conceptual change/intellectual development. In general, educators named the first main category as traditional view and the second main category as constructivist view (Cheng, Chan, Tang, & Cheng, 2009). In the traditional view (teacher/content-centered), teachers give important concepts in an organized structure and students are generally taught with note taking strategy. This conceptions of teaching assumed that teacher is the only authority and students are not expected to participate actively in the learning-teaching process (Watkins, 1998). However, in the second category (studentcentered/learning-oriented), teachers have a role to provoke the generation of causal questions and assist students to construct meaningful concepts (Trigwell, Prosser & Waterhouse, 1999; -126-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 124-138, December, 2014 Watkins, 1998). Student-centered teaching strategies that emphasize the students management in a variety of physical and logical-scientific experiences and application of these experiences to create logical systems to have meaningful learning. Many studies argued that teachers conceptions about teaching have a potential relationship with their teaching practice (Devlin, 2006; Ho, Watkins & Kelly, 2001; Koballa et al., 2005; Ladachart, 2011; Tsai, 2002). According to Ho et al. (2001), if teachers conceive more traditional views in their lectures, they have an idea about good teaching as a transmission of knowledge by using teacher/content-centered approaches. However, if teachers tend to choose more constructivist view in their lesson, they perceiving good teaching as a become facilitator to promote students active learning by using student-centered/learning-oriented approaches (Kember & Kwan, 2000). In the light of the literature review given above, the present study aimed to show biology teachers conception of teaching which they employ in the Department of Biology at a state university in Turkey. Rationales of the study This study, exploring Turkish university students conceptions of learning and teachers conception of teaching in biology through a phenomenographic analysis, was undertaken on the basis of the some rationales. First of all, research has revealed that conception of teaching may be related to conception of learning biology, which then students adopt their learning approaches. Researchers (Cheng, et al, 2009; Chiou, Liang & Tsai, 2012; Gow & Kember, 1993; Entwistle & Peterson, 2004; Parpala & Lindblom-Ylänne, 2007) stated that if teachers use alternative strategies to improve meaningful learning and adapt a student-centered approach in their teaching, students become a more active learner who is not only asking the question but also investigating, analyzing and discussing the subjects. Moreover, Trigwell,Prosser and Waterhouse (1999) found that teachers who focus on teacher- centered/content-oriented conceptions of teaching provide information to students including concepts, facts, procedures, definitions and terms leading to students to apply surface approaches towards learning (such as memorizing, testing, calculating and practicing the tutorial problems). These findings strengthen the need for viewing different conception of teaching held by teachers and different conceptions of learning held by students, because both of them may relate to learning outcomes. Current science education literature also involves many researches to investigate students conceptions of learning and teachers conception of teaching. Especially, most of these studies were related to students conceptions of and approaches to learning science (Cheng, et al, 2009; Chiou, Liang & Tsai, 2012). These studies provide substantial evidence in science education (biology and chemistry) but they could not investigate students conceptions of learning and teachers conceptions of teaching biology at the same time. Biology teachers conceptions of teaching could play a role to shape their students conceptions of learning biology. It has been demonstrated that conceptions of learning and teaching are influenced from culture. For example, Australian and Japanese students conceptions of learning were different from each other (Purdie et al., 1996 cited in Tsai, 2004). By using qualitative research methods as phenomenography, researchers tried to identify conceptions of learning and teaching for different groups from different cultures (Boulton-Lewis et al., 2004; Richardson, 1999; Tsai, 2004). Many of these afore-cited studies provide substantial evidence in favor of the significant importance of conceptions of learning and teaching but none of them can explain the importance of these two factors to understand Turkish university students and teachers conceptions of learning and teaching biology. Moreover, Åkerlind (2012) stated that phenomenography is a popular educational approach, particularly in the UK, Australia, Hong Kong, and Sweden. In Turkey, some studies were -127-
A Phenomenographic Approach for Exploring Conceptions of Ö. Sadi done by using phenomenography (Canbay & Beceren, 2012; Çekmez, Yıldız & Bütüner, 2012; Didiş, Özcan & Abak, 2008) but it has not been widely used as in other countries. Additionally, these national studies did not mention about the students and teachers conceptions of learning and teaching biology simultaneously. Therefore, in the present study, a group of university students and teachers were interviewed in Turkey which is the center of different cultures such as west, east, Mediterranean and Islamic culture because of its geographical location. Particularly, there is no such a study investigating university students conception of learning and teachers conception of teaching biology in Turkey. Thus, it is argued that for biology educators, it is important to give information about the conceptions of learning biology, which ensures the idea that is far away from lower level conceptions. Also, biology teachers will realize the significance of their own conceptions about teaching and can benefit about how to give biology instructions so as to students should be aware of categorizing the biological concepts in their mind in a correct way (Koballa et al., 2005). Method The design of this research was a phenomenography that investigates the individual variations in the conceptions of learning and teaching experienced by the Turkish university students and teachers. Marton (1994), the founder of phenomenography, described the phenomenography as; Phenomenography is focused on the ways of experiencing different phenomena, ways of seeing them, knowing about them and having skills related to them. The aim is, however, not to find the singular essence, but the variation and the architecture of this variation by different aspects that define the phenomena (cited in Walker, 1998). Phenomenological research in science education has traditionally based on interview approaches since interview is the usual access to individuals conceptions which is highly related to cultures (Trigwell & Prosser, 1993; Tsai, 2004). Therefore, in the present study, interviews were used to understand Turkish students and teachers conceptions about learning and teaching. Participant The present study was conducted with 60 university students (45 girls and 15 boys) with an age ranging from 20 to 23, with a mean age of 21.16 (S.D=.89). The university is situated in a Region of Central Anatolia of Turkey. All the students were biology majors and had taken a series of biology courses before participating in this study. Within the context of Turkey education, the department of biological sciences aims to produce biologist who can perform biological investigations by taking core courses (chemistry, physics etc. ) and main courses (biochemistry, microbiology, cell biology, genetics and laboratory techniques etc.) in the universities. Moreover, the participants also included 3 instructors who are teaching Biological Science related courses such as general biology, biochemistry, microbiology, molecular biology and genetics etc. at the same university. The average age of instructors was 33 and teaching experience of teachers are 6, 7 and 10 years. Data collection Data in the current study were collected by semi-structured open-ended interview with the sample students and teachers. Face-to face interviews occurred with students and teachers by -128-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 124-138, December, 2014 using interview protocols. Students Interview Protocols included following questions which were modified from the studies done by Tsai (2004); What do you understand by learning biology? For the understanding of the course, which way do you prefer in your biology courses during the classes? How do you learn biology? How would you describe your learning at biology course? How do you know when you have learned something about biology? Also, Teachers Interview Protocols included following questions which were modified from the studies done by Canbay and Beceren (2012), Gow and Kember (1993), Murray and Mac Donald (1997) and Johnston (1996); What is your view of teaching? What would you describe as your main role as a teacher? What are your aims in teaching biology? What are the most common strategies that you employ in teaching biology? Data analysis In this phenomenographic research, the students and teachers interviews data was transcribed verbatim and then, the text of the interview data were read repeatedly. In order to identify and manage the data, the researcher focused on similarities and differences within students and teachers views of learning and teaching biology by checking and underlining the most important sentences (Eklund-Myrskog, 1998 cited in Tsai, 2004; Stamouli & Huggard, 2007). In later stages, the interview excerpts were de-contextualized and compared to each other (Stamouli & Huggard, 2007). By grouping the excerpts, qualitatively different categories (Tsai, 2004) were constructed for students and teachers conceptions. According to Tsai (2004), qualitatively different categories mean that each category showed a unique way of understanding the phenomenon (i.e. the conceptions of learning and teaching biology). Consequently, the phenomenographic analysis in this study was used to categorize different conceptions of students and teachers about their learning and teaching. Results Conception of learning biology The five conceptions of learning biology (COLB) described from the above explanations were named as memorizing, researching, increasing ones knowledge, application and establishing a connection with natural phenomena. Statements for each category were given in detail below. Memorizing In this category, learning biology was characterized as the memorization of concept, definitions and procedures (Tsai, 2004). Students described the learning of biology as taking notes and then try to read several times to memorize the subject. For example; Ayşe (a pseudo name) stated that: -129-
A Phenomenographic Approach for Exploring Conceptions of Ö. Sadi I only take notes and listen to teachers during the class and then I m trying to memorize my notes over and over again otherwise I forget all of the subjects. I repeat the subjects after the lesson Another student, Ali (a pseudo name) stated that: Learning of biology is totally memorizing the subjects and I feel that terms or definitions are foreign to me so I have to remember them to have higher course grade Other student, Fatma (a pseudo name): Biology contains a lot of Latin words so I have difficulty to understand all of them. I feel that I have to rehearse these topics As it can be understood from the examples, students define learning of biology as having knowledge through memorizing the subjects. Researching In the second category, students characterized the learning biology as researching the biology related subjects and they are trying to learn by using internet searches. They gain knowledge of biology while doing internet search. For instance, Ahmet (a pseudo name) replied that: Learning biology involves the research of biological topics and I can learn these topics while researching Also, Veli (a pseudo name) stated that: I would prefer to do research to make knowledge about any topic of biology and I got more knowledge derived from internet Another student, Zeynep (a pseudo name) stated that: I am trying to learn biology by using internet. It is enjoyable for me that I am not bored during researching biological subjects As mentioned in category two, students prefer to use internet to learn biology and perhaps, many of them may not really understand main idea of the subject. For these students, learning biology was viewed as a process of obtaining knowledge by researching. Increasing ones knowledge Increasing ones knowledge was another category derived from the interviews with the students. The main idea of this category is that students wish to increase their knowledge about biology. Students, for example Mehmet (a pseudo name) responded that: I am interested in biology and my purpose of learning biology is to have more knowledge about living things Veli (a pseudo name) stated that: -130-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 124-138, December, 2014 Learning biology is to gain knowledge about the nature and I think that every person should increase their knowledge about animate and inanimate beings The same as Tsai (2004) study, a few Turkish undergraduate students conceptualized the learning biology as the increase of knowledge in which it may include the acquisition of biological knowledge. Application The fourth category is application of biological knowledge into real life context. The purpose of biology learning is to apply this knowledge to practical situations (Tsai, 2004). For example, Mustafa (a pseudo name) stated that: When I learn new knowledge in biology course, I am trying to apply this knowledge to my life since I think it is useful to solve problems Emine (a pseudo name) stated that: I can connect a relation between biological knowledge and problems and then I use my experiences in biology to solve problems. I believe that when I use my knowledge in my life, I learn efficiently and do not forget the subjects. Clearly, students classified in this category emphasized application of biological knowledge to improve their life. Establishing a connection with natural phenomena In the final category, biology learning was viewed in terms of establishing a connection with natural phenomena. The accommodation of biological knowledge was to acquire a connection with natural phenomena. Actually, students evaluated the learning biology as expanding their knowledge to view natural phenomena. For instance, Hasan (a pseudo name) replied that: Learning biology is important for me since I am interested in different events in nature and I want to offer solutions to practical problems. Actually, everybody should know basic information about the biological contents and so they should be aware of what is going on in the nature Moreover, Zeynep (a pseudo name) stated that: I am trying to establish a connection between biology and real-life context when learning new knowledge about biology. I believe that learning biology is useful for me since it obtains different approach to achieve natural phenomena Based on these interview responses, learning biology is to in-depth exploration of the natural phenomena and connects them with biological knowledge. Distribution of students conceptions of learning biology This research, by using a phenomenographic model, revealed five categorizes of conception of learning biology. Based on the interview data, the author constructed these -131-
A Phenomenographic Approach for Exploring Conceptions of Ö. Sadi categories; however, one independent researcher viewed the interview data to check the validity of the categorization. Table 1 showed the distribution of students COLB. Table 1: Distribution of students conceptions of learning biology Conception n Memorizing 40 Researching 7 Increasing ones knowledge 5 Application 3 Establishing a connection with natural phenomena 5 According to Table 1, most of the students viewed learning biology as memorizing (% 66.6) and then, students conception of learning biology was seen under the category of researching (% 11.6). However, % 8.3 of the students perceived learning biology as increasing ones knowledge and establishing a connection with natural phenomena. Finally, a few students conceptualized learning biology as application (%5). Conception of teaching biology In the present study, generally, the interview data gathered from teachers revealed that teachers conceived more traditional views in their lectures. The role of the teacher categorized into teacher-centered/content oriented. In this conception, teachers are mostly active during lecture and only authority that they transmit the knowledge directly to the students. For example, the teacher Akın (a pseudo name) stated that: Although, I try to use discussion method in my class; most of time, I am very active and give information about the subject by using board. The classes are very crowded so I could not apply different teaching strategies to become students as an active learner. My main purpose of the teaching is to give basic biological knowledge and provide higher motivation to the students for their future studies about biology Moreover, Can (a pseudo name) replied that: I have limited time so I generally prefer to use traditional teaching in my lecture. Actually, I always use pictures and graphs in my power-point presentation and students takes notes about the subjects. If the classes had not been crowded, each student has a chance to become an active learner Finally, the teacher Sibel (a pseudo name) responded that: My teaching strategies can be changed when the situation are different. Mostly, I think that my responsibility is transmitting the knowledge to the students at the university level. The students should know what they should do to benefit from their teachers. The students should be excited to learn more about biology and then I am willing to become a facilitator for them In general, all sampled teachers stated that they employed teacher-centered approaches. They generally used traditional teaching approaches in which teachers are active during class. The teachers conceptualized the good teaching as a transmission of knowledge. Conclusion and Discussion -132-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 124-138, December, 2014 The result of the present study suggested a categorization of Turkish biology undergraduate students conception of learning and their teachers conceptions of teaching at the university level. Most of the students in the study viewed biology learning as memorizing and only minor amount of students expressed those of researching, increasing ones knowledge and establishing connection with natural phenomena. However, a few students perceived the conception of learning biology as application. Accordingly, %66.6 of the sampled students had a lower level conceptions (Liang & Tsai, 2010) and they reflected a typical learner model as a passive/rote learner for students. Still few students expressed higher level conceptions in which learning conceptualize as transmitting external knowledge into more meaningful and applicable knowledge (Chiou, Liang & Tsai, 2012). In Turkey, generally, students thought that biology includes large amount of content and terminology and most of the lectures depend on theoretical background so students may conceptualize learning biology simply as memorizing (Tekkaya, Ozkan & Sungur, 2001). Besides, the Turkish education system is an exam-centered education system (Yıldırım, 2010), because students have to take national exams to place and study at high school and university. At the end of primary education, they have to take the national level placement test to choose high school (vocational high schools, Anatolian high schools and science high schools). After high school, students who wish to being educated in universities have to take university entrance exam. Therefore, they most probably memorize the biological concepts, definitions, terms and formulas to get higher grade from these examinations. Because of national exams, the category of testing may be revealed by future studies as a separate category. As cited in Tsai (2004), the testing category may be overlapped with the category of memorizing in the present study because students prefer to memorize to choose correct answers in the tests. In addition, as shown at Table 1, two different categories (i.e. researching and establishing connections with natural phenomena) were presented for Turkish university students that these conceptions had not been revealed in previous studies. Tsai (2004) has asserted that students conception of learning could be characterized in terms of the sociocultural environments so some of categories may have common elements and others may have different elements across cultures and grade levels. In Turkey, the major reforms in the education curriculum have been made since 2005 and these reforms include subject-centered curriculum in which teachers should be facilitator and do not directly transmit the knowledge into students. The learner should actively involved in the learning process by investigating the subjects, asking questions, doing experiments, connecting pre-existing knowledge with new knowledge etc. For that reason, some of students try to create the ideal learning environment by researching the subjects and connecting the knowledge with nature. However, researches indicate that the new curriculum, based on constructivism, have not been applied at the desired level (Gökçe, İşçan & Erdem, 2012). If the constructivist education curriculum is applied in quality, most of students may have higher level conceptions in learning. Furthermore, this study also revealed that the students view learning biology as increasing ones knowledge (%8.3) and application (%5). According to Tsai (2004), the conception of increasing knowledge is related to quantitative view of learning in which learning biology is defined as accumulation and repetition of knowledge. The quantitative view implies that students just memorize the knowledge and they do not connect the new information with preexisting one (Purdie & Hattie, 2002). Therefore, both the conceptions of memorizing and increasing are mainly placed on the quantitative view of learning. Moreover, memorizing and increase of knowledge are closely related to surface learning approach (Dikmenli & Cardak, 2010) and thus students who hold quantitative conceptions of learning, might likely -133-
A Phenomenographic Approach for Exploring Conceptions of Ö. Sadi to use surface approach ( Li, Liang & Tsai, 2013). However, the qualitative view of learning implies that learning biology includes applying in which students use their knowledge in daily life (Biggs, 1994; Dart et al., 2000; Tsai, 2004). Students emphasizing a qualitative conception of learning tented to construct an internal illustration of knowledge and establish a connection with natural life. Based on the results in Table 1, %13.3 of the students had a qualitative view about learning biology (combining the students of applying and establishing a connection with natural phenomena ); however, most of students (%86.7) had a quantitative view of learning biology. The present study also focused on teachers conceptions of teaching biology. The sampled teachers in this study held teacher centered/content oriented conceptions of teaching. The results seemingly suggested that all of the teachers reflected a traditional view, showing conceptions of teaching biology as transmitting structured knowledge. (Richardson, 2005). Instructors used a teacher-focused approach and had an active role in the teaching process. Prosser and Trigwell (1999) proposed several variables that are related to conceptions of teaching as the teacher s prior experience, approach to teaching and perception of the situation. Similarly, many researchers stated that teachers conceptions of teaching and teachers approaches to teaching are connected to each other (Norton et al., 2005; Richardson, 2005; Trigwell &Prosser, 1996). Trigwell and Prosser (1996) stated that in higher education, if teachers used student-focused approach to teaching, they conceptualized a student-centered and learning-orientated teaching. So, to change the teachers approaches to teaching from teacher-focused approach to student-focused approach, being ensure that the teachers should conceptualize more constructivist view of teaching (Richardson, 2005). For this purpose, inservice training could be necessary but is not enough to achieve this goal. In addition, the sampled students hold mostly conception of learning as memorizing and their teachers conceptualized the teaching as teacher centered/content oriented. These findings may be related to each other and the researchers may explain why students conceptualized the learning biology simply as memorizing the facts, definitions or terms. In a teacher/content-centered conception of teaching, students are not expected to participate actively in the learning-teaching process and this view of teaching may lead to learning biology as memorizing or researching or increasing the knowledge. Trigwell, Prosser and Waterhouse (1999) stated that teachers with the content-oriented view of teaching directed, students to become a passive learner and believe that learning is a process of getting information. Biology teachers should be aware of the importance of their role during class. If they hold inappropriate conception of teaching, the students may have unfruitful conceptions of learning (i.e. memorizing, testing) (Donnelly, 1999 cited in Tsai, 2004). Therefore, in Turkey, the administrator of higher education should consider how to change teachers view of teaching to have students higher level of conceptions of learning. Moreover, in the department of biology, curriculum should be re-designed to apply theoretical part of the subject into real life and so students should have qualitative view of learning biology. In conclusion, this study explored Turkish students conceptions of learning and teachers conceptions of teaching biology at the university level. However, this study does not give an evidence for high school students conception of learning and teachers view of teaching. According to Li, Liang and Tsai (2013) grade level is important to identify students view of learning. In Turkey, there is no such a study investigated the high school students conception of learning biology and their teachers conception of teaching at the same time so the future study can conduct to show categorization of students and teachers conceptions of learning and teaching biology. It can be possible that new categorizations may be emerged to contribute to related literature. Moreover, Chiou et al. (2012, cited in Li, Liang and Tsai, -134-
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Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 113-123, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.22.4.3 The examination of high school students learning strategies and motivation levels in physics course Article history Received: 03.03.2014 Received in revised form: 21.12..2014 Accepted: 22.12.2014 Key words: learning strategies; motivation; physics education, high school students Introduction Erol Suzuk Physics Education, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey Cem Gurel Physics Education, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey Hakan Olgun Physics Education, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey Students describe the Physics as a difficult course in general. The examination of high school students motivation levels and which learning strategies they use in the physics course is important for students to be successful in this course. The aim of this study was to examine high school students motivation levels and learning strategies used by the students. Survey method is used in this study. The sample consisted of 100 high school students (49 females and 51 males) in Eregli, Zonguldak. Data were gathered via Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire which was originally developed by Pintrich, Smith, Garcia and McKeachie (1991), adopted into Turkish culture for 12-18 year old students by Büyüköztürk, Akgün, Karadeniz, Kılıç and Demirel (2008). The Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient was calculated 0.84 for the motivation sub-scale and 0.90 for the learning strategies subscale. Data analysis was done with two way MANOVA and univariate ANOVA procedures. According to the analysis, students scores on motivation and learning strategies did not vary significantly according to their grade level and school type. Their scores differ significantly according to gender in some sub factors namely intrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs, and self-efficacy for learning and performance. Even physics is an essential subject to understand natural events, students think physics as a difficult course and it is a common problem that students interest in physics is decreasing all over the world. (Süzük, Çorlu, & Gürel, 2011; Ornek, Robinson, & Haugan, 2008; Osborne, Simon and Collins, 2003, Fischer & Horstendahl, 1997; Farmer, 1985). Moreover, physics is the least popular science course for students. Students interpretations of perceived failure in physics is a common issue and self-efficacy is a significant predictor of science achievement (Britner & Pajares, 2001; Jones, Jones, & Zander, 1998). There are many research in the related literature that there has been a significant decrease in student enrolling in science classes, especially in physics. This issue is a problem important as the Erol Süzük, Department of Physics Education, Ataturk Faculty of Education, Marmara University, Goztepe Campus, Istanbul, 34722. Phone: (+90) 505-577-8148; Email: erol.suzuk@marmara.edu.tr
The examination of high school students E. Suzuk, C. Gurel & H. Olgun negative impact this decrease has on the countries economic, political, industrial and social well-being (Owen, Dickson, Stanisstreet & Boyes, 2008; Lyons, 2006; Osborne, Simon and Collins; 2003; Schibeci and Lee (2003). Even students enter high school with generally a positive attitude towards physics, they lose interest in physics over the course of their high schooling (Owen, Dickson, Stanisstreet & Boyes, 2008; Lyons, 2006; Williams, Stanisstreet, Spall, Boyes, & Dickson, 2003). Lavonen, Angell, Bymen, Henricksen and Koponen (2007) examined some background variables that may affect students desire to study physics. They found that students would their teachers to support their autonomy and would like to work individually or in small groups. Moreover, students would like to plan physics teaching with together their teachers and also discussionbased teaching appears to be attractive for almost all students. This is important to the students feeling of autonomy and may affect their motivation (Lavonen, Angell, Bymen, Henricksen & Koponen, 2007). As motivation makes students (people) to choose one activity over another, increases students level of activity or involvement in a task and when students are motivated for a task they persist at the task even in the case of difficulty, fatigue or boredom. As a result of such a motivation, the outcome would be academic performance or achievement (Pintrich, & Zusho, 2007). Students should learn self-regulated learning so that they can control their motivation. As if a thermostat regulates room temperature by monitoring the current temperature, students can monitor and adjust their own behaviour, motivation and cognition according to the situation by self-regulated learning (Pintrich, 1995). Self-regulated learning strategies include cognitive learning strategies such as rehearsal, elaboration and organization, metacognitive and self-regulatory strategies such as planning, monitoring and regulation and resource management strategies such as managing and controlling time, their effort and other people and help-seeking through peers and teachers. These all strategies are assessed by Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), a self-report instrument designed to measure students' motivation and self-regulated learning in classroom contexts (Pintrich, 1999). The research on motivation and self-regulated learning shows that both have important roles to students achievement and learning (Pintrich, 2007; Pintrich, 1999) and sense of selfefficacy ( Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Students who have positive and relatively high selfefficacy beliefs will be more likely to be engaged in the classroom in terms of their behaviour, cognition, and motivation (Linnenbrink, & Pintrich, 2003). The MSLQ has recently been adapted to Turkish thus there is need for further studies utilizing this instruments with Turkish samples. Therefore, the purpose of the first part of this study was to test if high school students motivation and learning strategies scores on the MSLQ differed significantly according to their gender, grade level and school type. The second part of the study aimed at identifying which factors of motivation and learning strategies differed significantly according to the independent variables. Method The present study aims to analyse learning strategies and motivation of high school students for physics course. For this purpose, a survey study was conducted with volunteer students attending to different schools in the Eregli District of Zonguldak, Turkey during the Spring Semester of the academic year of 2012 2013. -114-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 113-123, December, 2014 Participants The sample for this study consists of 100 secondary school students (49 girls and 51 boys) from different grades and different schools (see Table 1). Table 1. Participants Demographic Information Gender Frequency % Female 49 49 Male 51 51 Total 100 100 Grades Frequency % 9 15 15 10 20 20 11 22 22 12 43 43 Total 251 100 School Types Frequency % Anatolian high school 49 49 Anatolian vocational high school 14 14 Public high school 8 8 Private Anatolian high school 11 11 Private science high school 9 9 Vocational high school 9 9 Total 100 100 Note. Frequencies are the number of students. Fifteen percent of the students were ninth grades, %20 were tenth grades, %22 were eleventh grades and %43 were twelfth. Forty nine percent of the students were from Anatolian high school, %14 were from Anatolian vocational high school, %8 were from General high school, %11 were from Private Anatolian high school, %9 were from Private science high school and %9 were from Vocational high school. Procedure Students were given the questionnaire with the explanation that it serves for a scientific research at the Marmara University of Istanbul. Students consent was obtained and then they were asked to fill in the survey which consisted of a questionnaire of 71 questions with a seven-level answering scale and a personal information form. Students completed the survey in about 20 25 minutes. Instruments Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) was originally developed by Pintrich, Smith, Garcia and McKeachie (1991). The instrument is designed to be given in class and takes approximately 20-30 minutes to administer. There are two sections to the MSLQ, a motivation section and a learning strategies section. The 81 items on this version of -115-
The examination of high school students E. Suzuk, C. Gurel & H. Olgun the MSLQ are scored on a seven-point Likert scale, from 1 (not at all true of me) to 7 (very true of me). The motivation section consists of 31 items that assess students' goals and value beliefs for a course, their beliefs about their skills to succeed in a course, and their anxiety about tests in a course. The learning strategy section includes 50 questions: 31 items regarding students' use of different cognitive and metacognitive strategies and 19 items concerning student management of different learning resources (Garcia & Pintrich, 1996). The motivational scales are based on three general motivational constructs: expectancy, value, and affect. Expectancy components refer to students beliefs that they can accomplish a task, value components focus on the reasons students engage in an academic task and affect components taps into students worry and concern over taking exams. The learning strategies section of the MSLQ consists of three general types of scales: cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management. Cognitive strategies include students use of basic and complex strategies for the processing of information from texts and lectures. Metacognitive control strategies was measured by one large subscale related to the use of strategies that help students control and regulate their own cognition. Resource management section includes four subscales on students regulatory strategies for controlling resources other than their cognition (Duncan & McKeachie, 2005). The MSLQ was adapted into Turkish culture by Karadeniz, Büyüköztürk, Akgün, Çakmak and Demirel (2008). The scale was administrated to 1114 students aged between 12 and 18 years. After eliminating the questionnaires which have missing and extreme values, the analyses were done on 762 valid questionnaires for motivation subscale and 1100 valid questionnaires for learning strategies subscale. Results of the confirmatory factor analyses showed that the first subscale, Motivation, had six factors, and the second subscale, Learning Strategies, had nine factors according to original scale s factor structures (Karadeniz et al., 2008). At table 2, the MSLQ and the subscales can be seen. Table 2. The MSLQ and the Subscales Motivation Learning strategies General Types Sub Factors General Types Sub Factors Intrinsic Goal Orientation Rehearsal Elaboration Value Extrinsic Goal Cognitive Organization Orientation Critical Thinking Task Value Expectancy Affect Control of Learning Beliefs Self-Efficacy for Learning and Performance Test Anxiety Meta-Cognitive Resource Management Metacognitive Self- Regulation Effort Regulation Peer Learning Help Seeking Time and Study Environment Management -116-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 113-123, December, 2014 Note. MSLQ= Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Depending on the results of the confirmatory factor analysis; there were 25 items in the motivation subscale and 31 items in the learning strategies subscale in the final. The Turkish version of MSLQ was approved to be an acceptable model by statistical analysis. The corrected item-total correlations ranged between 0.58 and 0.15 for motivation subscale, and between 0.68 and 0.19 for learning strategies subscale. Internal consistency coefficients for learning strategies subscale ranged between 0.51 and 0.83, 0.26 for control beliefs sub factor of motivation and between 0.54 and 0.72 for other motivation subscales (Karadeniz et al., 2008). Personal Information Form Participants were given a personal information form inquiring information on gender (female or male), grade level (ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades) and school type (Anatolian high school, Anatolian vocational high school, General high school, Private Anatolian high school, Private science high school, and Vocational high school). Data Analysis Basic frequencies and descriptive analyses were run on all scales and demographic data to inspect the distribution of responses and check for outliers. There were no missing or invalid data on any of the main measures. There was no indication that the format of any other questions in the survey was problematic. Cronbach s alpha was calculated to check the internal consistency of the scales. Further, descriptive statistics for motivation sub factors and learning strategies sub factors were given. Then, two-way MANOVA was used to test if high school students scores on the motivation and learning strategies sections of the MSLQ differed significantly according to their gender, grade level, and school type. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted on each dependent variable as a follow-up test for MANOVA. In addition, Box s M was used to test for assumption of homogeneity of variancecovariance and Scheffe s test was used as the follow up procedure Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). For this study significance level was set at.05. Results Reliability analysis Reliability analysis was done for internal consistency of the MSLQ and the subscales. The Cronbach a Alpha Coefficient was calculated as 0.91 for MSLQ and 0.84 for motivation subscale and 0.90 for learning strategies. Reliability analysis with those alpha coefficients shows that the MSLQ and the subscales have a good internal consistency (Streiner, 2003). The first part of the study In the first part of the study, arithmetic means and standard deviations of the all sub factors were calculated. In Table 3, arithmetic means and standard deviations of motivation sub factors were given. Table 3. Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the sub factors of motivation -117-
The examination of high school students E. Suzuk, C. Gurel & H. Olgun Sub factors Mean Standard deviation Intrinsic goal orientation 4.75 1.28 Extrinsic goal orientation 4.84 1.44 Task value 4.71 1.30 Control of learning beliefs 5.22 1.12 Self-efficacy for learning and performance 4.59 1.31 Test anxiety 3.69 1.22 Note. N=100. Maximum possible score on each scale is 7. According to Table 3, students mean scores at Intrinsic goal orientation, Extrinsic goal orientation, Task value, Control of learning beliefs, Self-efficacy for learning and performance and Test anxiety are 4.75, 4.84, 4.71, 5.22, 4.59 and 3.69 respectively. Students have the highest score (M=5.22, SD=1.12) at Control of learning beliefs scale and the lowest score (M=3.69, SD=1.22) at test anxiety scale. Students believe that in physics course the achievement is contingent on theirs own effort rather than external factors such as the teacher, their peers or luck. Students do not worry about or concern over taking physics exams much. They may be aware of that without learning the physics they could not get a good score at physics exams. As a result of this, it can be said that exam anxiety is not a good motivator for the physics course. In Table 4, arithmetic means and standard deviations of learning strategies sub factors were given. Table 4. Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the sub factors of learning strategies Sub factors Mean Standard deviation Rehearsal 4.64 1.17 Elaboration 4.72 1.24 Organization 4.87 1.18 Critical thinking 4.46 1.21 Metacognitive self-regulation 4.84 0.91 Effort regulation 4.26 1.18 Peer learning 3.50 1.24 Help seeking 5.16 1.14 Time and study environment management 4.68 0.95 Note. N=100. Maximum possible score on each scale is 7. According to Table 4, students mean scores at Rehearsal, Elaboration, Organization, Critical thinking, Metacognitive self-regulation, Effort regulation, Peer learning, Help seeking, and Time and study environment management are 4.64, 4.72, 4.87, 4.46, 4.84, 4.26, 3.50, 5.16 and 4.68 respectively. Students have the highest score (M=5.16, SD=1.14) at Help seeking scale and the lowest score (M=3.50, SD=1.24) at Peer learning scale. Both of scales of Help seeking and Peer learning are part of resource management strategy. It can be said that students do not use others efficiently for the physics course. While they seek help from peers or instructors when needed, they do not want to use peers or instructors in learning physics. A reason this result may be that students think that anyone can -118-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 113-123, December, 2014 help them for learning the physics and that they must study the physics themselves. The second part of the study Two-way MANOVA was used to test if high school students scores on the motivation and learning strategies subscales of the MSLQ differed significantly according to their gender, grade level, and school type. The MSLQ sub-scales were taken as dependent variables. Gender, grade level, and school type were the independent variables. A two-way MANOVA was conducted to determine if students scores on the two sub-scales (motivation and learning strategies) differed significantly according to gender and grade level. First, the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance was tested with Box s M Test which was not significant and indicated that homogeneity of variance-covariance was fulfilled (p=.168). The MANOVA illustrated that main effects of gender [Wilks λ=.901, F(2,91)=4.996, p<.05, η 2 =.099] differences were significant on the MSLQ sub-scales. However, the MANOVA illustrated that main effects of grade level [Wilks λ=.973, F(6,182)=.414, p=.869, η 2 =.013] differences were not significant on the MSLQ sub-scales and also interaction of gender and grade level were not significant [Wilks λ=.888, F(6,182)=1.862, p=.090, η 2 =.058]. Thus, these results indicated that students in physics classes had motivation and learning strategies subscale scores varying significantly according to only their gender. However, their scores did not vary significantly according to their grade. A two-way MANOVA was conducted to determine if students scores on the two sub-scales (motivation and learning strategies) differed significantly according to gender and school type. First, the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance was tested with Box s M Test which was not significant and indicated that homogeneity of variance-covariance was fulfilled (p=.338). The MANOVA illustrated that main effects of gender [Wilks λ=.980, F(2,88)=.899, p=.411, η2=.020] and school type [Wilks λ=.872, F(10,176)=1.250, p=.262, η2=.066] differences were not significant on the MSLQ sub-scales. Thus, these results indicated that students scores on motivation and learning strategies did not vary significantly according to their gender and school type. A two-way MANOVA was conducted to determine if students scores on the two sub-scales (motivation and learning strategies) differed significantly according to grade level and school type. First, the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance was tested with Box s M Test which was not significant and indicated that homogeneity of variance-covariance was fulfilled (p=.280). The MANOVA illustrated that main effects of grade level [Wilks λ=.961, F(6,166)=.559, p=.763, η2=.020] and school type [Wilks λ=.852, F(10,166)=1.388, p=.190, η2=.077] differences were not significant on the MSLQ sub-scales. Thus, these results indicated that students scores on motivation and learning strategies did not vary significantly according to their grade level and school type. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted on each dependent variable as a follow-up test for MANOVA. Univariate ANOVAs revealed that students scores on learning strategies did not differ significantly according to gender [F(1,98)=.014, p=.907, η2=.000] while their scores on motivation did [F(1,98)=10.717, p<.001, η2=.099]. Female students had a mean of 4.377 (SD=.858) while their male peers had 4.881 (SD=.673). In other words, female students had significantly higher mean scores on motivation than male students in physics course. ANOVA results did not show significant differences in scores on both motivation [F(3,96)=1.058, p=.371, η2=.032] and learning strategies [F(3,96)=.025, p=.995, η2=.001] -119-
The examination of high school students E. Suzuk, C. Gurel & H. Olgun according to grade level. ANOVA results did not show significant differences in scores on both motivation [F(5,94)=.373, p=.866, η2=.019] and learning strategies [F(5,94)=1.634, p=.159, η2=.080] according to school type. The third part of the study The third part of the study aimed at identifying which sub factors of motivation and learning strategies which differed significantly according to the independent variables. Thus, analyses of the third part of the study involved a further examination of significant MANOVA and univariate ANOVA results which showed that scores on the motivation subscale differed significantly according to gender but did not differ significantly with respect to grade level and school type. Thus, purpose of the third part of the study was to detect as to scores of which of the six sub factors of motivation differed significantly according to gender. A Oneway MANOVA was conducted with gender being independent variable and scores on the six sub factors of motivation (intrinsic goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy for learning and performance and test anxiety) being dependent variables. MANOVA results showed that students scores on intrinsic goal orientation [F(1,98)=7.170, p=.009, η 2 =.068], task value [F(1,98)=4.420, p=.038, η 2 =.043], control of learning beliefs [F(1,98)=10.789, p=.001, η 2 =.099], and self-efficacy for learning and performance [F(1,98)=6.383, p=.013, η 2 =.061] differed significantly according to gender. However, scores on extrinsic goal orientation [F(1,98)=.231, p=.632, η 2 =.002] and test anxiety [F(1,98)=1.834, p=.179, η 2 =.018] did not differed significantly according to gender. Female students had a mean of 4.413 (SD=1.42) while their male peers had 5.078 (SD=1.04) on intrinsic goal orientation factor. In other words, male students had significantly higher mean scores on intrinsic goal orientation" than female students in physics course. Female students had a mean of 4.433 (SD=1.35) while their male peers had 4.970 (SD=1.19) on task value factor. In other words, male students had significantly higher mean scores on task value than female students in physics course. Female students had a mean of 4.864 (SD=1.18) while their male peers had 5.570 (SD=.95) on control of learning beliefs factor. In other words, male students had significantly higher mean scores on control of learning beliefs than female students in physics course. Female students had a mean of 4.261 (SD=1.46) while their male peers had 4.910 (SD=1.08) on self-efficacy for learning and performance factor. In other words, male students had significantly higher mean scores on self-efficacy for learning and performance than female students in physics course. At the Table 5 below it can be seen descriptive statistics for motivation subscale. Table 5. Descriptive statistics of motivation subscale according to gender Sub factors Gender Mean Standard deviation F 4.413 1.42 Intrinsic goal orientation M 5.078 1.03 Extrinsic goal orientation F 4.768 1.40-120-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 113-123, December, 2014 M 4.909 1.50 Task value F 4.433 1.35 M 4.969 1.19 Control of learning beliefs F 4.864 1.18 M 5.569.95 Self-efficacy for learning F 4.261 1.46 and performance M 4.910 1.08 Test anxiety F 3.522 1.25 M 3.851 1.18 Note. There are 49 females and 51 males. Discussion In this study high school students motivation and learning strategies examined thorough two way MANOVA and univariate ANOVA. The result of the analysis process showed that gender differences on motivation subscale were significant only. After a further analysis, it was found that students scores on sub factors of intrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs and self-efficacy for learning and performance differed significantly according to gender. As it can be seen in Table 5, male students had higher scores than females significantly. However, in this study it is found that grade level and school type differences on motivation subscale and gender, grade level and school type differences on learning strategies subscale were not significant. This result is not consistent with Kılıç-Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz, Büyüköztürk and Demirel (2008) and Keklik and Erdem-Keklik (2012) who also worked with high school students. They found that students scores on motivation sub factors differ significantly according to grade level. Moreover, they also found that scores on learning strategies sub factors differ significantly according to course type, but not according to grade level. This result is consistent with the current study. This might be an indicator of the effect of Student Selection Examination in Turkey which is used for entry to universities in Turkey as all high school students use similar learning strategies for physics course. In consistent with this study, Lai, Chan, and Wong (2006) found in their studies in which they studied with Hong Kong Chinese secondary school students that there were significant differences between the boys and girls in intrinsic motivation as the boys scored higher than the girls in intrinsic motivation. Pajares and Valiante (1999) found in their study that males tend to overestimate their abilities more than females do in various domains. Moreover, Zeldin, Britner, and Pajares (2008) found that there were gender differences in motivation factors. These are consistent with this study that males scores on sub factors of intrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs and self-efficacy for learning and performance were higher than females. In this study, the subject was physics course in which there is a gender gap. Although the number of women earning degrees in physical science have increased, the percentage of degrees earned by men remains higher at all levels. Moreover, more gender differences appear among high school students taking advanced level science courses and there are fewer women at all levels of academic appointments (Britner, 2008). This might be why in this study males had higher scores than girls in the above sub factors mentioned. Scores on learning strategies did not differed significantly by gender, grade level, and school type in this study. This is not consistent with the studies of Keklik and Erdem-Keklik (2012) and Rusillo and Arias (2004, as cited in Keklik and Erdem-Keklik 2012, p. 245). They both -121-
The examination of high school students E. Suzuk, C. Gurel & H. Olgun found in their studies that female students made greater use of learning strategies than males. Mih and Mih (2001, (as cited in Keklik and Erdem-Keklik 2012, p. 245) found that students scores on factors of MLSQ did not show any particular patterns of variation depending upon their grades which is consistent with this study. A limitation of the study is exclusion of students achievement on physics course. Students grades in physics course may provide a deep insight. Moreover, the study relied on only selfreport of students. In further studies, there might be interviews with students. This is study done in small district of Turkey. Similar studies should be done in other districts of Turkey to make a firm conclusion on the relationship between gender and motivation and learning strategies. Acknowledgement This paper was presented as an oral presentation at the International Counseling and Education Conference 2013 "ICEC 2013" at Sütlüce Campus, Istanbul Commerce University, 3 May 2013. References Britner, S.L., & Pajares, F. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, race, and gender in middle school science. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 7, 271 285. Britner, S. L. (2008). Motivation in high school science students: A comparison of gender differences in life, physical, and earth science classes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(8), 955-970. Dembo, M. H., & Eaton, M. J. (2000). Self-regulation of academic learning in middle-level schools. The Elementary School Journal, 100(5), 473-490. Duncan, T. G., & McKeachie, W. J. (2005). The making of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire. Educational Psychologist, 40(2), 117-128. Farmer, A. V. (1985). A new approach to physics teaching. The Physics Teacher, 23(6), 338-343. Fischer, H. E., & Horstendahl, M. (1997). Motivation and learning physics. Research in Science Education, 27(3), 411-424. Garcia, T., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). Assessing students motivation and learning strategies in the classroom context: The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. In Alternatives in assessment of achievements, learning processes and prior knowledge (pp. 319-339). Springer Netherlands. Jones, T. G., Jones, L. C., & Zander, T. (1998). Alternatives to traditional physics instruction: Students perceptions of effectiveness of a conceptual physics approach. National Association of Laboratory Schools Journal, 22(1), 5-8. Karadeniz, Ş., Büyüköztürk, Ş., Akgün, Ö. E., Kılıç-Çakmak, E., and Demirel, F. (2008). The Turkish adaptation study of Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) for 12-18 Year Old Children: Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 7 (4), 108-117. Keklik, I., & Erdem-Keklik, D. (2012). Examination of high school students motivation and learning strategies. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 42, 238-249. Kılıç Çakmak, E., Erkan-Akgün, Ö., Karadeniz, Ş., Büyüköztürk, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2008). İlköğretim ikinci kademe ve lise öğrencilerinin ders ve sınıf düzeylerine göre öğrenme stratejileri ve güdülenme düzeylerinin belirlenmesi [Identifying learning strategies and -122-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 113-123, December, 2014 motivation levels of middle and high school students according to their course and grade levels]. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 5(1). Lai, P. Y., Chan, K. W., and Wong, K. Y. A. (2006). A study of intrinsic motivation, achievement goals and study strategies of Hong Kong Chinese secondary students. Retrieved from http://repository.ied.edu.hk/dspace/bitstream/2260.2/5695/1/5695.htm 20.05.2013. Lavonen, J., Angell, C., Bymen, R., Henriksen, E., & Koponen, I. (2007). Social interaction in upper secondary physics classrooms in Finland and Norway: A survey of students expectations. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 51(1), 81-101. doi:10.1080/00313830601079082 Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2003). The role of self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement and learning in the classroom. Reading &Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 119-137. Lyons, T. (2006). The puzzle of falling enrolments in physics and chemistry courses: putting some pieces together. Research in Science Education, 36(3), 285-311. doi:10.1007/s11165-005-9008-z Ornek, F., Robinson, W. R., & Haugan, M. P. (2008). What makes physics difficult? International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 3(1), 30-34. Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: a review of the literature and its implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9), 1049-1079. doi:10.1080/0950069032000032199 Owen, S., Dickson, D., Stanisstreet, M., & Boyes, E. (2008). Teaching physics: Students' attitudes towards different learning activities. Research in Science & Technological Education, 26(2), 113-128. doi:10.1080/02635140802036734 Pintrich, P. R., & Zusho, A. (2007). Student motivation and self-regulated learning in the college classroom. In The scholarship of teaching and learning in higher education: An evidence-based perspective (pp. 731-810). Springer Netherlands. Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. International journal of educational research, 31(6), 459-470. Pintrich, P. R. (1995). Understanding self regulated learning. New directions for teaching and learning, 1995(63), 3-12. Schibeci, R., & Lee, L. (2003). Portrayals of science and scientists, and science for citizenship. Research in Science & Technological Education, 21(2), 177-192. doi:10.1080/0263514032000127220 Streiner, D. L. (2003). Starting at the beginning: an introduction to coefficient alpha and internal consistency. Journal of Personality Assessment, 80(1), 99-103. Süzük, E., Çorlu, M. A., & Gürel, C. (2011). Students perceptions of learning efficiency of introductory physics course. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education, 1(1), 65-71. Tabachnick, B. & Fidell, L. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. United State of America: Pearson Education Inc. Williams, C., Stanisstreet, M., Spall, K., Boyes, E., & Dickson, D. (2003). Why aren't secondary students interested in physics?. Physics Education, 38(4), 324. Zeldin, A. L., Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2008). A comparative study of the self efficacy beliefs of successful men and women in mathematics, science, and technology careers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(9), 1036-1058. -123-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 13-25, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.31.4.3 The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code Including High Schools Among Others Article history Received: 08.03.2014 Received in revised form: 29.10..2014 Accepted: 30.10.2014 Ahmet Akbaba 1 Educational Faculty, Department of Educational Sciences, Yüzüncü Yıl University, Van, Turkey This study aimed at examining the opinions of high school students concerning the much-debated dress code applied to primary school, middle school, and high school students and thought to affect quality in education, and revealing the importance of the issue as well as its financial, social, and pedagogical dimensions. The research is a descriptive study in survey model. A Likert-type questionnaire developed by the researcher was used in the present study a descriptive study in survey model as data collection tool. The questionnaire was administered to 350 students attending 15 high schools located in the central district of Van province. Based on the research results, it can be concluded that free dress is a right and a requirement of the age even though it causes extra cost, takes the time of students, or brings out the rich-poor discrimination. As a result of the study it can be said that freedom of dress is a right in essence. Key words: Uniform dress, Pedagogical dimension, Compulsory education, Compulsory dress, Free dress Introduction Education is one of the fundamentals of development of a country. Students are the key element of education in a country. Students, parents, teachers, and administrators are the four main elements of education system. It goes without saying that the quality of education is of particular concern to parents and administrators as well as to students and teachers. Every country has an education system. Certain dimensions of education systems of countries involve national characteristics. The length of lessons, the contents of lessons, the arrangement of classroom environments, dressing of students in schools and classrooms, disciplinary rules, and many other similar issues may vary from country to country. The ministries of education and educational administration experts of a country may change educational programs and rules considering the findings of scientific research and practices across the world. Each country has a philosophy of education and a human type unique to it. The ever-growing, changing, and dynamic nature of education makes this process essential. As countries grow, they may make amendments in dressing rules in schools, as in every field. In this regard, the uniform dress code applied in Turkey since the foundation of the Republic has been changed. The dresses worn by students in schools and the criteria set in regard to such dresses 1 Correspondence Faculty Member at Yüzüncü Yıl University Faculty of Education, Van ahmetakbaba13@gmail.com
The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code A. Akbaba complement the goal of achieving the pre-determined purposes of education. The features of such dresses are uniform and compulsory in some countries, such as Israel, Canada, Indonesia, Brasil and Argentina (http://en.wikipedia.org/canada), are under the initiative of schools and are determined by school administrations or parent-teacher associations in some countries, and are under the initiative of students in some other countries (Altınsoy, H, 2012). School is a general concept covering all systems that provide education which may have different names. School is the basic system of education system that provides education (Başaran, 1996, p.11). Schools in general and school employees in particular have to process and manage information in the face of information overload (Özdemir, 2010, p.55). The employees of an organization enter into learning and contributing relations with the information base and the cultural structure of the organization. That constitutes a capacity for organizational mind (Morgan, 1997, p. 120). The former dress code involving mandatory uniformity in public schools and private schools in Turkey was amended with the Official Gazette dated 27.11.2012 and numbered 28480. According to the new version of the code, dressing is free in public schools while it is under the initiative of majority of parents in private schools. The present study (1) focused on the concepts of education, management, acculturation, discipline, and regulations, which were included in the above-mentioned amendments, (2) reviewed the dress codes across the world, (3) examined the opinions of students on that subject, and (4) addressed the issue in terms of economy, psychology, democracy, human rights, and relationship between dress and success (Resmi Gazete, 27.11.2012, 28480). In the broadest sense, education is the process of training people for particular purposes. The personality of any person going through this process differs. Such difference emerges due to the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values acquired in the educational process. Today, schools are the most important element of the educational process (Fidan, 2012, p. 1). The most important basis of education is culture. Every nation has a culture, which is transferred to new generations formally or informally. Human is a social being, and is affected by the society s/he lives in to a certain level during his/her growth process. S/he gains various cultural acquisitions, and is acculturated in a sense during this process (Töremen, 2013, p. 19). Every society transfers the features of its own culture to new generations. Acculturation refers to the process where a society influences and changes individuals in such a way that they abide by its requirements and expectations. Conscious and unconscious learning experienced by people while are they are integrating with their society and coming to the fore in the society as a child, a youth, and an adult is a product of this process (Fidan, 2012, p. 2). The formal dimension of education is realized through teaching. The success in teaching is closely associated with the harmony among teachers, students and administrators as well as the quality of teaching and teachers. The quality in teaching is related to the quality in administration to a large extent. Administration refers to both the act of organizing actions and the instruments conducting such actions. Classically, the primary duty of administration has been to enhance the performances of people to sufficient levels by bringing them together around common goals and values. The primary duty of administration is the same today. However, the meaning of this duty has changed (Özden, 1999, p. 105). It is defined as the art of ensuring the fulfillment of works through an effective coordination of human resources and material resources in order to achieve the organization goals. In administration, decision-making process is highly -14-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 13-25, 1 December, 2014 important (Kaya 1993, p. 38). Administration has to conduct school-related works in accordance with relevant purposes within legal boundaries. Compliance with the principle of legitimacy is ensured through arbitrary discipline. If an administrator ensures it in accordance with laws and regulations by using the power of knowledge, organizational success will increase surely (Tarhan, 2013). quality rather than dressing has been focused on in education. Discipline is a set of rules applied to disruptive acts in order to ensure the fulfillment of public services and provide & protect the internal order (Arıca, 2000, p. 99). The discipline refers to the sanctions which employees are subject to due to their behaviors contrary to the institutional order, and involves the punishment of improper behaviors (Livanelioğlu, 2003, p. 3). In this sense, administrators maintain discipline by implementing relevant laws and regulations. That, in fact, refers to the pedagogical dimension. Pedagogy includes any action that aims to be influential on the behaviors of individuals, correct their mistakes, and make their proper behaviors permanent. In the past, the concept of pedagogy referred to knowledge and study area related to children. The slaves who looked after children as tutors in the past were called pedagogues. In the course of time, the limits of that concept broadened to include any kind of educative activity (Böhm, 1982). According to the pedagogical perspective, any educational event or case that does not obtain visa from its criteria cannot be a sound and strong basis for future. Pedagogy may address and examine only the educational reality existing at a particular moment (Schaller& Rainer, 1977) The Historical Background of Dress in Turkey: School uniforms started to be used in schools following the years 1924 and 1925 when education was nationalized.according to (Uzun 2012), black school uniforms were used during the single-party period in the 1930s so that the difference between rich students and poor students would not be clear. The black school uniforms that covered poverty were replaced by blue school uniforms in the 1990s. This form of dressing continued until the 1990s. The obligation to use black school uniforms in schools was abolished with the circular issued in the 1989 1990 academic year. During the period of the deceased Minister of National Education AvniAkyol, the use of black school uniforms was abolished, and it was started to use school uniforms in various colors (ultramarine blue, navy-blue, grey) and models. In 2005, the circular allowing the female students in high schools to wear pants was issued. Problem Statement What is the impact of new dress code on high schools in Turkey? According to this main problem some other sub-problems are given below. The research problem included the revelation of the importance of the new dress code that set dress free in public schools and made it under the initiative of parents in private schools, the review of the practices and the studies on this subject in other countries, and the examination of the issue in terms of economy, psychology, democracy, human rights, and relationship between dress and success, students sex, grade and age. -15-
The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code A. Akbaba Studies on this subject: No article has been published on this subject in Turkey. However, Turkish Education Union carried out a survey on the 6 th of January 2013, and announced the results of the survey in the journal of the union. According to the survey results, 66.3% of the participants thought that schools would turn into model podiums due to free dress code, 64.5% of the participants stated that the children of the families with lower income levels would have economic difficulties to have better dresses, 66.3% of the participants told that school uniforms were important and necessary for discipline, and 74.3% of the participants said that free dress code would not enhance the motivation of students for education. It is clear that the abovementioned survey results are in parallel with the results of the present study. Method Survey model was employed in the present study. A survey model aims to describe an existingsituation as it is (Karasar, 2013). Research Model The questionnaire developed by the researcher by receiving the opinions of experts and using the related literature was used as data collection tool in the present study which was a descriptive study in survey model. The data collection tool was submitted for the evaluation of instructors and teachers concerned with the field. The measurement tool was finalized after necessary corrections were made. Finalized in terms of content and expression, the measurement tool was submitted for the evaluation of field experts to ensure its validity (Balcı, 1995). Universe and Sample The universe of the study consisted of students attending high schools located in the central district of Van province. According to the information obtained from Van Provincial Directorate of National Education, there were 30 high schools in the central district of Van province, and these schools were put into 5 educational regions by clustering the areas where they were located according to their geographical positions. However, since it was not possible to reach all of those schools due to time and cost related purposes, 3 high schools were drawn from each one of the above-mentioned 5 educational regions in the central district of Van province. Thus, the study group involved 15 high schools in total. From 5250 students of these 15 schools, 525 students were randomly selected from among the final year students according to a ratio. Of those 525 students, 450 students questionnaire were collected and evaluated. Of these students 142 were female and 308 were male. The schools located in other districts and the villages of the central district were left out of the scope of the present study. Data Collection and Analyzing The Student Perspective Questionnaire, which had been developed by the researcher, was used for data collection. In the process of developing the measurement tool, the related literature was reviewed, item pool was formed, and the draft form composed of the items selected from that pool was submitted for the evaluation of instructors from various fields in the Department of Educational Sciences. The experts examined the tool in terms of language, expression, and scope. The tool was finalized based on the suggestions of the -16-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 13-25, 1 December, 2014 experts. Being a 3-point (i.e. yes, neutral, no) Likert-type questionnaire composed of 30 items, the tool was administered to 450 final year high school students after expert opinions regarding structural validity and scope validity were obtained. Questionnaire s reliability value is given below. Questionnaire Arithmetic Mean Variance Standard Deviation Item number 2,177,384,619 30,858 Cronbach Alfa At the data analysis stage, three different analyses (i.e. frequency, percentage, and chi-square) were performed. Findings The research findings are provided under two different titles: 1) the findings concerning the student answers to the questionnaire; 2) the findings concerning the student answers to the questionnaire by demographic characteristics. The findings concerning the student answers to the questionnaire Table 1 presents the distribution of the student answers to the questionnaire. Yes Neutral No n % n % n % 1. Do you pattern yourself after other friends in dressing? 69 17.1 45 11.2 289 71.7 2. Do you seek for specific brands? 106 25.9 52 12.7 249 60.9 3. Are you absent from your school due to your dress? 39 9.5 31 7.6 335 81.9 4. Does free dress code give you confidence? 163 39.9 75 18.3 169 41.3 5. Would you like to relapse into the former practice? 164 40.1 77 18.8 163 39.9 6. Are you jealous of the dresses of your friends? 59 14.4 39 9.5 310 75.8 7. Do you have any economic problem? 114 27.9 88 21.5 205 50.1 8. Does free dress code lead to security problem in schools? 228 55.7 66 16.1 114 27.9 9. Will obligatory dress standardize students? 205 50.1 69 16.9 134 32.8 10. Does uniform dress code make students well-disciplined? 175 42.8 57 13.9 172 42.1 11. Does free dress code have a positive effect on your success? 131 32.0 83 20.3 193 47.2 12. Does free dress code increase your dress costs? 219 53.5 59 14.4 123 30.1 13. Does uniform dress code eliminate your free will? 128 31.3 95 23.2 164 40.1 14. Does free dress code bring extra burden to your family? 205 50.1 65 15.9 137 33.5 15. Do you want new and different dresses from your family? 202 49.4 58 14.2 144 35.2 16. Do you attach importance to your dressing as much as you attach to your lessons? 126 30.8 56 13.7 225 55.0 17. Do you spend much time for your dressing before going to school? 132 32.3 46 11.2 228 55.7 18. Has free dress code brought out the rich-poor distinction? 249 60.9 65 15.9 92 22.5 19. Does free dress code lead to security problem inside schools? 232 56.7 69 16.9 106 25.9 20. Does free dress code lead to security problem outside schools? 161 39.4 66 16.1 180 44.0 21. Do gaudy clothes distract you during lessons? 202 49.4 48 11.7 153 37.4 22. Does free dress code make it difficult to make a distinction between students and others inside and outside schools? 260 63.6 46 11.2 100 24.4 23. Is free dress necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms? 197 48.2 68 16.6 141 34.5 24. Do you think the uniform dressing restricts one s freedom? 154 37.7 74 18.1 177 43.3 25. Does free dress code provide out-of-school powers that 178 43.5 91 22.2 136 33.3-17-
The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code A. Akbaba intend to get students adopt bad habits with a comfortable working environment? 26. Have students started to wear gaudy clothes in schools? 128 31.3 83 20.3 195 47.7 27. Do the groups of friends in schools wear identical clothes? 124 30.3 91 22.2 192 46.9 The findings concerning the student answers to the questionnaire by demographic characteristics Chi-square analysis was conducted in order to understand whether there was any difference between the student answers to the questionnaire by demographic characteristics. Table 2 presents relevant findings. Table 2 The findings concerning the student answers to the questionnaire by demographic characteristics Items Sex Grade Age χ 2 p χ 2 p χ 2 p 1. Do you pattern yourself after other friends in dressing? 7.358.025 10.185.117 15.088.129 2. Do you seek for specific brands? 1.773.412 33.974.000 35.261.000 3. Are you absent from your school due to your dress? 3.812.149 14.374.026 12.077.280 4. Does free dress code give you confidence? 22.344.000 31.068.000 16.550.085 5. Would you like to relapse into the former practice? 45.378.000 12.622.049 23.230.010 6. Are you jealous of the dresses of your friends? 10.001.007 9.533.146 28.155.002 7. Do you have any economic problem? 10.560.005 9.657.140 13.059.220 8. Does free dress code lead to security problem in schools? 20.113.000 28.172.000 25.028.005 9. Will obligatory dress standardize students? 3.516.172 11.783.067 17.202.070 10. Does uniform dress code make students well-disciplined? 3.043.218 19.640.003 16.654.082 11. Does free dress code have a positive effect on your success? 22.724.000 20.724.002 22.417.013 12. Does free dress code increase your dress costs? 33.908.000 15.721.015 17.181.070 13. Does uniform dress code eliminate your free will? 5.995.050 19.282.004 23.034.011 14. Does free dress code bring extra burden to your family? 14.577.001 16.691.010 21.985.015 15. Do you want new and different dresses from your family? 23.309.000 13.675.033 10.629.387 16. Do you attach importance to your dressing as much as you attach to your lessons? 3.646.162 5.826.443 5.793.832 17. Do you spend much time for your dressing before going to school? 18. Has free dress code brought out the rich-poor distinction? 19. Does free dress code lead to security problem inside schools? 20. Does free dress code lead to security problem outside schools? 21. Do gaudy clothes distract you during lessons? 25.272.000 7.699.261 12.989.224 32.373.000 29.583.000 17.800.058 19.873.000 10.273.114 16.098.097 9.162.010 21.350.002 19.458.035 10.253.006 12.705.048 9.419.493-18-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 13-25, 1 December, 2014 22. Does free dress code make it difficult to make a distinction between students and others inside and outside schools? 23. Is free dress necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms? 24. Do you think uniform dressing restricts one s freedom? 25. Does free dress code provide out-ofschool powers that intend to get students adopt bad habits with a comfortable working environment? 26. Have students started to wear gaudy clothes in schools? 27. Do the groups of friends in schools wear identical clothes? 17.105.000 22.125.001 12.286.266 32.956.000 17.842.007 26.438.003 12.431.002 10.360.110 20.265.027 11.628.003 19.283.004 13.120.217 9.704.008 11.158.084 12.255.428 1.258.533 6.622.357 6.090.808 Conlusion Disscussion and Suggestions The results obtained from the student answers to the questionnaire are provided below: The results obtained from the student answers to the questionnaire by demographic characteristics are provided below. By sex: According to the student answers to 1. Do you pattern yourself after other friends in dressing? the ratio of the female students patterning themselves after other friends in dressing was higher than that of the male students patterning themselves after other friends in dressing. According to the student answers to 4. Does free dress code give you confidence? the ratio of the male students stating that free dress code gave them confidence was higher than that of the female students stating that free dress code gave them confidence. According to the student answers to 5. Would you like to relapse into the former practice? the ratio of the female students stating that they would like to relapse into the former practice was higher than that of the male students stating that they would like to relapse into the former practice. According to the student answers to 6. Are you jealous of the dresses of your friends? the ratio of the female students who were jealous of the dresses of their friends was higher than that of the male students who were jealous of the dresses of their friends. According to the student answers to 7. Do you have any economic problem? the ratio of the female students having any economic problem was higher than that of the male students having such problem. According to the student answers to 8. Does free dress code lead to security problem in schools? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code would lead to security problem in schools was higher than that of the male students stating it. -19-
The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code A. Akbaba According to the student answers to 11. Does free dress code have a positive effect on your success? the ratio of the male students stating that free dress code would have a positive effect on their success was higher than that of the female students stating it. According to the student answers to 12. Does free dress code increase your dress costs? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code had increased their dress costs was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 13. Does uniform dress code eliminate your free will? the ratio of the male students stating that uniform dress code would eliminate their free will was higher than that of the female students stating it. According to the student answers to 14. Does free dress code bring extra burden to your family? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code brought extra burden to their families was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 15. Do you want new and different dresses from your family? the ratio of the female students stating that they wanted new and different dresses from their families was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 17. Do you spend much time for your dressing before going to school? the ratio of the male students stating that they did not spend much time for their dressing before going to school was higher than that of the female students stating it. According to the student answers to 18. Has free dress code brought out the rich-poor distinction? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code had brought out the rich-poor distinction was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 19. Does free dress code lead to security problem inside schools? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code led to security problem inside schools was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 20. Does free dress code lead to security problem outside schools? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code led to security problem outside schools was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 21. Do gaudy clothes distract you during lessons? the ratio of the female students stating that gaudy clothes distracted them during lessons was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 22. Does free dress code make it difficult to make a distinction between students and others inside and outside schools? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code made it difficult to make a distinction between students and others inside and outside schools was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 23. Is free dress necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms? the ratio of the male students stating that free dress was necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms was higher than that of the female students stating it. According to the student answers to 24. Do you think uniform dressing restricts one s freedom? the ratio of the male students stating that uniform dressing restricted one s freedom -20-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 13-25, 1 December, 2014 was higher than that of the female students stating it. According to the student answers to 25. Does free dress code provide out-of-school powers that intend to get students adopt bad habits with a comfortable working environment? the ratio of the female students stating that free dress code provided out-of-school powers that intended to get students adopt bad habits with a comfortable working environment was higher than that of the male students stating it. According to the student answers to 26. Have students started to wear gaudy clothes in schools? the ratio of the female students stating that students had started to wear gaudy clothes in schools was higher than that of the male students stating it. By grade: As per the student answers to 2. Do you seek for specific brands? the ratios of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 3 rd grade students seeking for specific brands were higher than those of the high school 1 st grade students and the 4 th grade students seeking for specific brands. As per the student answers to 3. Are you absent from your school due to your dress? the ratios of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 3 rd grade students who were absent from school due to dress were higher than those of the high school 1 st grade students and the 4 th grade students absent from school due to their dress. As per the student answers to 4. Does free dress code give you confidence? the ratios of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating that free procedure gave them confidence were higher than those of the high school 1 st and 3 rd grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 5. Would you like to relapse into the former practice? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade and the 3 rd grade students who would like to relapse into the former practice were higher than those of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students who would like to relapse into the former practice. As per the student answers to 8. Does free dress code lead to security problem in schools? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating that free dress code led to security problem in schools were higher than those of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 10. Does uniform dress code make students well-disciplined? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade students, the 2 nd grade students, and the 3 rd grade students stating that uniform dress code would make students well-discipline dwere higher than that of the high school 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 11. Does free dress code have a positive effect on your success? the ratios of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating that free dress code would have a positive effect on their success were higher than those of the 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 12. Does free dress code increases your dress costs? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating that free dress code increased their dress costs were higher than those of the 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade -21-
The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code A. Akbaba students stating it. As per the student answers to 13. Does uniform dress code eliminate your free will? the ratio of the high school 4 th grade students stating that uniform dress code eliminated their free will was higher than those of the 1 st grade, the 2 nd grade, and the 3 rd grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 14. Does free dress code bring extra burden to your family? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade students, the 2 nd grade students, and the 3 rd grade students stating that free dress code brought extra burden to their families were higher than that of the 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 15. Do you want new and different dresses from your family? the ratio of the high school 1 st grade students stating that they wanted new and different dresses from their families was higher than those of the 2 nd grade students, the 3 rd grade students, and the 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 18. Has free dress code brought out the rich-poor distinction? the ratio of the high school 3 rd grade students stating that free dress code had brought out the rich-poor distinction was higher than those of the 1 st grade students, the 2 nd grade students, and the 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 20. Does free dress code lead to security problem outside schools? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating that free dress code led to security problem outside schoolswere higher than those of the 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 21. Do gaudy clothes distract you during lessons? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating that gaudy clothes distracted them during lessons were higher than those of the 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 22. Does free dress code make it difficult to make a distinction between students and others inside and outside schools? the ratios of the high school 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating that free dress code made it difficult to make a distinction between students and others inside and outside schools were higher than those of the 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 23. Is free dress necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms? the ratios of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating that free dress was necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms were higher than those of the 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating it. As per the student answers to 25. Does free dress code provide out-of-school powers that intend to get students adopt bad habits with a comfortable working environment? the ratios of the high school 2 nd grade students and the 4 th grade students stating that free dress code provided out-of-school powers that intended to get students adopt bad habits with a comfortable working environment were higher than those of the 1 st grade students and the 3 rd grade students stating it. -22-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 13-25, 1 December, 2014 By age: According to the student answers to 2. Do you seek for specific brands? the ratio of the 14-years-old students seeking for specific brands was higher than those of the students in the 15 to 19 age range. According to the student answers to 5. Would you like to relapse into the former practice? the ratios of the students in the 14 to 18 age range who would like to relapse into the former practice were higher than that of the 19-years-old students. According to the student answers to 6. Are you jealous of the dresses of your friends? the ratios of the students in the 14 to 16 age range who were jealous of the dresses of their friends were higher than those of the students in the 17 to 19 age range. According to the student answers to 8. Does free dress code lead to security problem in schools? the ratios of the students in the 14 to 18 age range who stated that free dress code led to security problem in schools were higher than that of the 19-years-old students. According to the student answers to 11. Does free dress code have a positive effect on your success? the ratios of the students in the 17 to 18 age range who stated that free dress code had a positive effect on their success were higher than those of the students of other age groups. According to the student answers to 13. Does uniform dress code eliminate your free will? the ratio of the 19-years-old students who stated that uniform dress code eliminated their free will was higher than those of the students of other age groups. According to the student answers to 14. Does free dress code bring extra burden to your family? the ratios of the students in the 14 to 18 age range who stated that free dress code brought extra burden to their families were higher than that of the 19-years-old students who stated it. According to the student answers to 20. Does free dress code lead to security problem outside schools? the ratio of the 14-years-old students stating that free dress code led to security problem outside schools was higher than those of the students of other age groups. According to the student answers to 23. Is free dress necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms? the ratio of the 19-years-old students stating that free dress was necessary in terms of fundamental rights and freedoms was higher than those of the students of other age groups. According to the student answers to 24. Do you think uniform dressing restricts one s freedom? the ratio of the 19-years-old students thinking that uniform dressing restricted one s freedom was higher than those of the students of other age groups. Conclusion The results of the present study show that free dress is a right in essence. The fact that it causes extra cost, takes the time of students, or brings out the rich-poor distinction should not pose an obstacle for this right. The present study was limited to the high schools located in the central district of Van province. The scope of the present study may be broadened to cover -23-
The Student Opinions Concerning Freedom of Dress Code A. Akbaba the entire country. Apart from that, a support may be requested from guidance teachers to address such aspects of free dress code as taking the time of students or bringing out the richpoor distinction. Self-confidence improving activities may be organized for students. In addition, a similar study may be conducted on primary school students. The scope of the present study may be broadened to include the opinions of teachers, administrators, and parents on free dress code. The primary school and middle school dimensions of the free dress code should be examined, too. Suggestions based on the results of the study: 1- Students faced with strict discipline rules may occur some problems. 2- A student centered, democratic and libertarian approach should be applied to the education, training and administration subject. Suggestions for future studies: 1- Same topic can be searched in primary and secondary schools. 2- Parent, teacher and administrator s opinions can be searched as well. References Altınsoy, H, B. (2012) TürkTemelEğitimSistemindeÖğrencilerinÜniformazorunluluğunun Kaldırılması; Özgürlükmü, Tutsaklıkmı? (The Abolishment of Uniform Obligation for Students in the Turkish Basic Education System: Freedom or Captivity?) http://www.gop.edu.tr Arıca, M, N, (2000). Memursuçlarıvesoruşturma (Civil Servant Crimes and Investigation) İlksanMatbaası Ltd. Şti. Ankara, Başaran, İ. E (1996).EğitimYönetimi (Educational Administration) (5 th Edition), YargıcıMatbaası, Ankara. Bilgin, M. (1990), MerkezİlçelerindekiOrtaokullardaOkulveAileninİşbirliğiveSorunları (Parent-Teacher Cooperation and Problems in the Middle Schools Located in Central Districts), A.U. Institute of Social Sciences, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Ankara. Böhm, W. (1982).Wörterbuch der Paedagogik.Stuttgard: Alfred KrönerVerlag. Brunsma, D. (2004). The School Reform Movement and What It Tells Us About American Education: A Symbolic Crusade. Lanham.Scarecrow Education. Ertürk, S, (1979) Eğitimde program geliştirme (Programme development in education) Meteksanltd. Ankara, Fidan, N. (2012) OkuldaÖğrenmeVeÖğretme (Learning and Teaching in School).Pegem Akademi Ankara. Kaya. Y. K, (1979), EğitimYönetimi (Educational Administration). TODAİE Yayını. Ankara. Langeweld, M.J. (1978). Einfuhrung in die theoretiscehepaedagogik. Stuttgart: SatzundDruekheiEnstKleet. Livanelioğlu, Ö, (2003). MemurDisiplinHukuku (Disciplinary Law for Civil Servants) TürkHukukEnstitüsüYayınları 2, Ankara, -24-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 13-25, 1 December, 2014 Ministry of National Education.Legislation. The regulations concerning the dress of employees and students in the schools affiliated to the Ministry of National Education and other ministries 04.01.2013. Mitchel, A.1996. Clinton Will Advise Schools on Uniforms," New York Times, February 25, 1996. Morgan, G (1997). YönetimveÖrgütTeorilerindeMetafor (Metaphors in Management and Organization Theories), MESS yayınları, Ankara. Özdemir, S (Ed). (2010). TürkEğitimSitemiveOkulYönetimi (Turkish Education System and School Administration) (3 rd Edition), Nobel Yayıncılık, Ankara. Özden, Y, (1999), EğitimdeYeniDeğerler (New Values in Education) Pegem A Ankara. Schaller, K. & Rainer, L. (1977).Paedegogikin:Wörterbuch der Paedagogik. M.Band; Her Verlag, Freiburg. Uzun, M. (2012) AnadoluAjansı, 30 th of November 2012 Töremen F, (2013). EğitimBilimineGiriş (Introduction to Pedagogy). İdeal Yayıncılık, Istanbul. Varış, F. (1988) Eğitimde Program GeliştirmeTeoriveTeknikleri (Programme Development Theories and Techniques in Education) A.U. Faculty of Education. Ankara. -25-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 149-162 December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.47.4.3 Leadership by consensus at MU: A look at two leaders Adem Bayar Department of Educational Science, College of Education, Amasya University, Amasya, Turkey James H Kerns PhD Student; Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis, College of Article history Received: 27.05.2014 Received in revised form: 26.12..2014 Accepted: 27.12.2014 Key words: leadership, institution, challenge, compare Education, University of Missouri-Columbia, MO, USA The researchers are interested in the views and perceptions, about leadership, of two leaders within the University of Missouri at the Columbia campus. Therefore, the aim of this research is to understand and to compare and contrast the leadership styles of these two leaders. In order to reach the aim of this recent study, the researchers have addressed the following research question, How do you balance the needs of the various stakeholders as you are presented challenges and opportunities that require your leadership skills? in order to answer the main research question of this study, the following sub questions have been addressed: 1. What are the greatest challenges and opportunities you have faced as a leader?, 2. How do you facilitate negotiations between individuals or groups with competing values?, 3. How do you move the agenda forward to facilitate decision-making?, 4. What has been your greatest accomplishment?, and 5. What advice would you give to an incoming leader in this institution? The researchers have employed a qualitative research design in this study. For this aim, the researchers have conducted semistructured interviews with two leaders within the University of Missouri system. The first interview has been conducted with President Tim Wolfe. The second interview has been conducted with Dr. Les Hall, interim dean of the medical school. Based on analysing the collected data, the researchers have recognized the importance of leadership for the benefits and endure of organizations. The researchers have also come to the conclusion that both leaders have some similarities and differences while they are leading. Correspondence author: Ass. Prof. Dr. Adem Bayar; Department of Educational Science, College of Education, Amasya University, College of Education, adembayar80@gmail.com
Leadership by consensus at MU A. Bayar, J. H. Kerns Introduction The State, in response to social expectations for its citizens to be adequately prepared to enter into and work productively within society, established universities and colleges through statute, charter, or other legal methods. With time, higher education institutions like universities and colleges increased in size, diversity, and complexity, leadership was entrusted from the legally established boards to numerous agents in the organization (Birnbaum, 1988). As a result, governance and the resulting conflicts between various groups inside and outside the institutions, leading and managing institutions of higher education calls for leadership that promotes a good working relationship among the various stakeholders inside and outside the institution (American Association of University Professors, 1966; Bess and Dee, 2008a). The stakeholders are the various members or groups in society who are responsible for and responsible to the colleges and universities as well as the students moving into the work force. The stakeholders are a diverse group including students, families of students, faculty, staff, administrators, governing boards, the State politicians, and businesses (Bess and Dee, 2008). For example, when colleges and universities, such as the University of Missouri embarked on the journey to educate professionals, such as dentists, doctors, lawyers, and nurses, it accepts the social contract to provide responsible professionals in their respective fields of expertise. Statement of the problem The problem of managing the various types of colleges and institutions resides in the dual frameworks of power that reside within each institution. Birnbaum (1988) referred to this as the dualism of controls in which there are two control systems that are apparent within colleges and universities. First, there is the administrative control system that determines the types, numbers, and characteristics of the outputs. These outputs are educated citizens who are expected to return to the social groups, or society at large, from which they were chosen. Second, there is the group of professionals, faculty and staff, who provide the specialty training and research for the benefit of the students, the institution, and ultimately society. Administrative authority is delegated power from the State to manage resources that support the mission and vision of the institution whereas professional authority is power derived from personal or professional expert knowledge that is necessary for problem solving and information management. The role of leadership is to effectively bridge the chasm among the members within these two control systems keeping in minds the various needs of the stakeholders. The university president also has additional role of securing external funding sources (Bess and Dee, 2008). Literature review The review of the literature that informs this study was organized into three broadly defined and intertwined sections to provide the orienting framework for the research questions. First, the review characterized the institutional environment in which the research questions were situated. This discussion examined the five basic types of institutions and the elements attributable to the University of Missouri at the Columbia, Missouri campus. Second, the literature that defines leadership, the various types of leaders and leadership styles was reviewed. Third, attention was drawn to the relationships between the various institution types with their common leadership styles. Institution types -150-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 149-162, December, 2014 Birnbaum (1988) describes five institutions types as 1) collegial, 2) bureaucratic, 3) political, 4) anarchical, and 5) cybernetic. Each of the five subtypes is summarized because no institution is purely of one model. The University of Missouri has characteristics of all these models. Collegial institution The collegial institution may be regarded as an organization having a flat structure with the administration and faculty being regarded as equals in an egalitarian and democratic system. Generally, the administration and faculty are interested in the views of other stakeholders but view the importance of the stakeholder information with varying value. Because the hierarchical structure and administrative policies and procedures are generally absent, there is an emphasis on deliberation and thoroughness. Generally decisions are made by consensus and may take long times, especially if the decisions are viewed as having a major impact on the institution. Consensus does not always imply nor require unanimity as various individuals are noted as having more seniority and thus their influence is worthy of recognition and sufficient time is granted for all to voice their opinions. The administration is supportive in nature and may include faculty from time to time who eventually return to their primary duty of teaching. Since the members of the collegial group are regarded as equals, the president is generally elected, not appointed, and the president is vested with extraordinary powers not given to others. Thus, they regard the president as the first among equals. The common backgrounds with continued member interactions coupled with a long institutional history of the strong cohesive culture, maintain the important symbols, rites, and stories that keep the community unified. It is this community of individuals with shared beliefs through frequent face-to-face contact that keep this community bonded together for the common good. Thus, an increase in size may disrupt this type of atmosphere and break the collegiality of this institution. Bureaucratic institution The bureaucratic system is an institution in which there are various lines of authority and lines of communication. Some of these institutions may not have many levels and be regarded and relatively flat while others are more complex and have many levels in the organizational chart. The location of a particular office or individual in the hierarchical chart is important as it signals the relative level of importance or value of the office or individual to the organization. The organizational structure is very important as it defines the top-down management and bottom-up flow of information. The benefits include clear identification of relationships and work is accomplished through rules and regulations. Job descriptions are key in the performance of all members in this type of organizational structure. The decisions may not always be efficient or the best but are geared at linking means to an end, intentional actions, and maximizing value within the current constraints placed on the organization. One of the benefits comes from the consistent use of the rules and regulations to all people and thus creates a sense of fairness to all (Birnbaum, 1988). Political institution The political system is an institution in which the acquisition, development and use of power are paramount to obtaining the desired outcomes when groups disagree. Power may be diffuse rather than centralized. Birnbaum (1988) declared that the pivotal characteristic of political institutions is apathy. This is noted when various groups are interested in the issues -151-
Leadership by consensus at MU A. Bayar, J. H. Kerns that affect them and not others. Most activity is accomplished by existing policy and procedures. Therefore, the major advantage of this type of system is that decisions can be made without clear goals being established. The disadvantages include the formation of coalitions that discount the value of a group with less power in some particular situations. The structural hierarchy often has many levels that may determine what information is communicated and to whom it is communicated (Birnbaum, 1988). Anarchical institution The anarchical system is an institution in which there are many diverse groups each with their own particular concerns and interests. Typically, this would occur at large academic institutions in which there are many schools and colleges, academic learning centers, and many research institutes. There also seems to a number of levels of management and leadership within the hierarchy. Birnbaum (1988, p 153) refers to this as organized anarchy. He asserts that there are three characteristics: 1) problematic goals, 2) unclear technology, and 3) fluid participation. Problematic goals are poorly defined and or stated after (not before) programs are developed and implemented. Recall that technology refers to the various processes through which the institution changes inputs (resources) to outputs (research, educated students, etc.). Fluid participation refers to the changing membership of the various formal and informal groups by which decisions are made at this type of institution within the various group cultures that interact together and within the culture of the larger organization. Cybernetic institution The strength of the cybernetic organization is through self-regulation. The organization subsystems respond to limited numbers of inputs to monitor day-to-day functions, make corrections or adjustments as necessary to provide stability to the organization. This is accomplished by the use of thermostats that measure the life and stability of the organizational subsystems and feedback loops that are enacted for self-corrective actions. Goals are addressed by limiting uncertainty through limiting the number of possible responses. First, move the organization toward a new future goal, then measure the effectiveness of the change. If the improvement is acceptable, continue with the same management plan. If the change does not move the organization in the proper direction, change the approach and re-assess. This cycle can be repeated as necessary for the continued forward movement of the organization. University of Missouri The University of Missouri is regarded as a large research institution and has a multilevel hierarchical structure much like many bureaucratic systems but because it has many colleges and educational units nested within the system, each having its own set of goals and objectives, the overall structure is anarchical in appearance. Each working unit with varying degrees of subunits may have rather flat organizational structure or modestly tall organizational structure. At the subunit level in the school of medicine, depending on the leadership, the hierarchical structure may be with few or multiple layers. For example, there are 21 departments, each with a chair that reports to the dean of the medical school, each having their own structure. Within the Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women s Health there are seven divisions each having varying degrees of management and leadership styles that report to the chairman of this department. There are well structured lines of -152-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 149-162, December, 2014 communication and in some divisions the leadership may be top-down, where as in other divisions the leadership may be more relaxed and collaborative with the flow of communication as lateral between groups inside the division. Still in other divisions may have less than effective or non-existent communication. In some respects the University of Missouri is political in nature because there is the obvious and apparent use of power through the formation of alliances to create more power when issues concern multiple groups or indifference when some groups are not concerned with some other issues. In other respects the University of Missouri is like an anarchical system because of the numbers of semi-autonomous groups that may consider the events of one group as not impacting them or the interaction of multiple groups results in problematic goals, unclear technology, or fluid participation. The definition of leadership and leadership styles When the definition of leadership has been investigated in literature, it is not difficult to say that, there are a bunch of different definitions of leadership in related books and articles. For instance, Mills (2005) describes leadership as, It is a process by which one person influences the thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors of others (p. 11). In a similar vein, Yukl (2006) identifies leadership as the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives (p.8). Instead of finding the adequate definition of leadership, we can bring together the common words on leadership definitions in literature. In this context, as stated by Northouse (2010), Leadership is a process, leadership involves influence, leadership occurs in groups, and leadership involves common goals (p.3). From the mentioned common words, Northouse (2010) defines leadership as, leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (p.3). Mills (2005) highlighted the importance of leadership in organizations. Similarly, W. Edward Deming (1986) emphasized the importance of leadership for the benefits and continues of organizations. He states that leadership is very important to shape specific policies and behaviors in order to both produce high quality products and diminish waste. By doing so, leaders with their followers aim to increase the satisfaction of customers and to reach more and more customers. Deming s avocation of leadership can be summarized into five key areas: 1) change agency, 2) teamwork, 3) continuous improvement, 4) trust-building, and 5) short-term goal eradication. Sosik and Dionne (1997) identified four specific leadership styles: 1) laissez-faire, 2) management by exception, 3) transactional, and 4) transformational. Laissez-faire leadership is negatively related to change agency, continuous improvement, teamwork, trust building, and short-term goal eradication. Management by exception is negatively related to change agency, teamwork, trust building, and short-term goal eradication; but positively related to continuous improvement. Transactional leadership is negatively related to short term goal eradication; but, positively related to trust building, change agency, continuous improvement, and teamwork. Transformational leadership is positively related to change agency, continuous improvement, teamwork, trust building, and short-term goal eradication. -153-
Leadership by consensus at MU A. Bayar, J. H. Kerns Relationships between leaders and institutions Effective leadership in the collegial system is built on the process of continual social engagement with the constituents in which mutual support and exchange of benefits occur. Since the president is elected and not appointed; then, the president and other leaders are afforded prestige from the group and the members of the group receive support from the leader with mutual support. Leaders rely on expert and referent power whereas reward and coercive power are of little value in this organization. Leaders who do well in this type of organization live up to the expectations of the group, conform to the group expectations of the meaning of leadership, establish clear and effective lines of communication, listen well, reduce status differences, and listen to all constituents (Birnbaum, 1988). Effective leadership in the bureaucratic system is built on having the work coordinated, controlled, and monitored. Bureaucratic organizations work well when the leaders are regarded as legitimate. Legitimization can be achieved by tradition (current and historical traditions) and all have common agreement about the rules of the organization that defines and legitimize the roles that certain people fill (Birnbaum, 1988). In some cases the leaders use management by exception looking for continuous improvement (Sosik and Dionne, 1997). Effective leadership in the political system is built on leadership that is interested in learning about the concerns and attitudes of the stakeholders and who clarifies the group values. Many groups within this system need incentives (or coercion) in order to act in the interests of another group within the system. It is the task of leadership to reduce the cost if participation. Often there are coalitions formed as various groups work together (negotiate) because they realize that independently they have limited power but coalitions allow for collective bargaining and creating solutions (Birnbaum, 1988). These leaders may use a mix of management by exception and transactional skills looking for continuous improvement, trust building, change agency, and teamwork (Sosik and Dionne, 1997). Effective leadership in the anarchical system is built on the principles of spending time to understand the problems needing to be addressed, be persistent in bringing participants, problems, and solutions together (garbage can model) and seeing the solutions through to completion, and facilitate communication between the stakeholders with unobtrusive management. It is important for the leaders in this type of organization to remember that there is culture and history that often drives the actions of the people or groups within the larger whole (Birnbaum, 1988). Transactional leadership is important for trust building, change agency, continuous improvement, and teamwork. Transformational leadership is key to promote change, continuous improvement, teamwork, trust building, and short-term goal eradication (Sosik and Dionne, 1997). Birnbaum (1988) indicates that many leaders in the cybernetic type of institutions may lead or manage by exception and respond when there is a problem. Birnbaum (1988) suggests, presidents should realize the importance of both transactional and transformational leadership (p. 204). Transactional leadership is used for trust building, change agency, continuous improvement, and teamwork. Transformational leadership is key to promote change, continuous improvement, teamwork, trust building, and short-term goal eradication (Sosik and Dionne, 1997). -154-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 149-162, December, 2014 Research questions The researchers are interested in the views and perceptions, about leadership, of two leaders within the University of Missouri at the Columbia campus. The aim of this research is to understand and to compare and contrast the leadership styles of these two leaders. The primary research question is How do you balance the needs of the various stakeholders as you are presented challenges and opportunities that require your leadership skills? The semi-structured interviews attempted to answer five questions that supported the global research question. 1. What are the greatest challenges and opportunities you have faced as a leader? 2. How do you facilitate negotiations between individuals or groups with competing values? 3. How do you move the agenda forward to facilitate decision-making? 4. What has been your greatest accomplishment? 5. What advice would you give to an incoming leader in this institution? To address the research questions, two leaders in senior positions at the University of Missouri Columbia were invited to participate in a semi-structured interview. The significance of this study The information obtained through this research study is important for several reasons. First, the literature provides general descriptions of the types of institutions and their leaders but does not specifically apply the theoretical findings to this specific institution. Constructing a descriptive foundation facilitates current and future efforts to evaluate leadership effectiveness given the specific context in which the leader operates. Second, leaders often cite the considerable challenges they have in contributing to and leading the various institutional groups for the common good as defined in the mission and vision of their institution. Third, by characterizing the contextual elements of leadership as depicted by these leaders, this study may serve as a guide for future leaders in similar roles at this or other similar institutions. Fourth, this study may provide insight into the recruitment and retention of academic institutional leaders as well as guide the education and mentoring of current and future leaders within this institution. Fifth, this study sought to explore the similarities and differences between two leaders at the same institution but within different contexts. This research may contribute to future studies that frame leadership at a large research institution. Methodology Semi-structured interviews were conducted with two leaders within the University of Missouri system. The first interview was with President Tim Wolfe. He was chosen because of his current plans that created re-organization in the university system to foster collaboration among various groups that previously did not collaborate. The researchers regard his style of leadership as transformational, proactive to solve problems facing the university system as a whole and facilitate communication between the stakeholders. The second interview was with Dr. Les Hall, interim dean of the medical school. He was chosen because in the current fiscal changes he has called upon the chairs of the 21 departments to collaborate together under his guidance to solve difficult questions regarding fiscal and business responsibility and accountability. His style of leadership is also regarded by the researchers as transformational, proactive to solve problems facing the school of medicine within the context of the Columbia campus and the university system at large. -155-
Leadership by consensus at MU A. Bayar, J. H. Kerns Each interview lasted around 45 minutes. All interviews were recorded and transcribed word by word. After that each interview was reviewed and the information was used to formulate responses to the research questions in the areas of challenges and opportunities, alignment and agreement, agenda setting and decision management, greatest accomplishment, and advice for an incoming leader to the MU system. In order to promote the reliability and validity of data analysis process the researchers have applied peer review/ examination and adequate engagement in data collection strategies (Merriam, 2009). Limitations of the study Yin (1994) suggested, case studies, like experiments, are generalizable to theoretical propositions and not to populations or universes (p. 10). The scope of this research was limited as follows: These two leaders and their leadership styles may not be representative of the other senior leaders in this institution. The academic and institutional contexts in which each leader operates may be different for these two leaders. The members of each leader s team are already formed and thus no attempt was made to control for the influence each team exerted on its leader or the leader on the team members. The research study is confined to two specific leaders within this particular institution during challenging social-economic-political times. Findings Leader #1: Timothy Wolfe, President of the UM System Introduction: Timothy Wolf, the 23 rd president of the University of Missouri system, joined the MU family in December of 2011. He comes to the UM system after a 20 year career in IBM, three years in a consulting firm, and seven years with Novell Software. Collectively having many years of experience in leadership roles. Challenge and opportunity: His greatest challenge and opportunity as a leader comes from facilitating teams to think about the possibilities for the future by thinking outside business as usual. The goal for him as a leader of the team is to bring together the bright people, facilitate the free flow of ideas to create solutions for the challenges facing the team. He notes that it is key to have the members of the team aligned with the mission and vision of the organization, committed to the necessary changes by having everyone aligned to what the future might be, and then willing to see the change implemented and be successful. He provided an example with the departure of Chancellor Brady Deaton. It was necessary for him to clear his schedule, so that in a week s time he put together eight meetings from various stakeholders. Over 600 people consisting of students, faculty, alumni, donors, the extension program, and public and civic leaders provided input that was then presented to the public for additional comments. Alignment and agreement: The process of aligning constituents for the common good is so important to him that he will clear his schedule to meet with stakeholders, listen to their concerns, understand their position, and look for common ground between the stakeholders. After the information is gathered and processed, he provides the stakeholders with a collective summary of what he understood them to say as collective opinion. He then provides prioritization with rationale and possible solutions as provided by the teams tasked with -156-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 149-162, December, 2014 creating or managing solutions. He states that often various stakeholders want the same thing but differ in how they propose to get to the solution. He then challenges the stakeholders by asking them to evaluate if their proposed method is better, faster, cheaper, or whatever compared to other stakeholders. If so, then aligning with their plan is the rational, if not he will ask stakeholders to align with the plan that is better, faster, cheaper, or whatever. He does not seek 100% agreement, because you don t have to be in total agreement to move forward. Rather you can be aligned with something and not be in 100% agreement but believe this will get us to our objective better than doing nothing at all, so I can be comfortable with it even though I might have done a different approach. Alignment is a process of conversation that means making sure that we are talking about the same thing. To begin the discussion the objective has to be clear. He states that frequently frustration or disagreement comes from: we are not talking about the same thing. Agenda and decision management: He reports that he has regular meeting with his direct reports. He has items on the agenda, as do his direct reports that are topics pertinent to and important for the University of Missouri system. Moving through the agenda often requires intervention by him or his staff, as it is possible to go off on tangents. He requires the discussants to be professional by staying on topic, paying attention, and allow others to speak. He expects that everyone participates in the discussions and is aware of the ground rules for conversation. When you surround yourself with really, really bright people on a topic, wonderful things can happen with that conversation. Greatest accomplishment: He states that The accomplishment I am most proud of as a leader, you have the responsibility to your people and your success is to be defined by how successful your people are. He continues be defining success as helping someone achieve a goal they did not think they had the capability of achieving and seeing in others positive results. This may occur in personal life as well as professional life. Advice for a future leader: He explains that When you come into an opportunity, make sure that you spend a lot of time listening: culture is different, individuals are different, opportunities and challenges are different. This requires time, open-ended questions, and time to think about and consider the challenges and opportunities before you make decisions. He cautioned against making decisions too early in the new leadership role. Again, success is going to be in part determined by the quality od the people around you, the right people in the right roles, with the proper skills and competencies to accomplish the objectives necessary to move the organization forward. The vision and strategy you have in place needs to drive everything you do and every decision that you make. He also notes that leaders that passionate about their job and have fun are better to work for and get more done from their teams. Additional comments: President Wolfe stresses that leadership is different from management and that it is important to distinguish the two. Leadership involves a process whereby you have a group od highly skilled individuals like educators or researchers and you as the leader don t know the steps involved in meeting the objectives, then as a leader you let them decide on the pathway to accomplish the goal. Management instructs people on what to do, how to do it, and when to do it. An example he provided, a fire in your back yard, will you instruct those around you to get the hose and the bucket and put the water in a specific location as a manager in a crisis should or will you ask people opinions regarding which is better to use: the hose or the bucket. Where you have lower skilled workers such as on a manufacturing line, management is better than leadership as there is not as much opportunity for self-actualization. Often knowing when to change between the two styles is important -157-
Leadership by consensus at MU A. Bayar, J. H. Kerns and is often determined by the situation present to you. Leader #2: Lester Hall, MD, Interim Dean, School of Medicine Introduction: Dr. Hall was appointed as interim dean of the University of Missouri School of Medicine about one year ago after Dean Robert Churchill retired. Dr. Hall has been at the University of Missouri School of Medicine for approximately 15 years, 11 of which have been in a variety of leadership roles with the preceding role as Senior Associate Dean for Clinical Affairs, in the school of medicine. Challenge and opportunity: Dr. Hall reports that his greatest opportunity and privilege in the past year has been working with other leaders in the school of medicine and at this campus to affect change in the organization. As a senior leader, he values the opportunity to effect changes in the organization that create positive change in others as they together represent the values and mission of the organization by working the strategic plan of the university and also solve the problem of the day. The challenges are many and in the broadest sense are that you represent so many constituents and points of view and to keep all of those in balance. He notes that some stakeholders arm or vocal than others and he assists all the stakeholders to understand each other s needs in light of the common good of the organization. The major challenge he described is that of decreasing revenues in health care and for the school of medicine in particular. He is approaching this challenge using the team approach by gaining consensus of the team members as they align their responses with the strategic plans of the organization to address this challenge. Alignment and agreement: He listens to the various stakeholders, their viewpoints, and their expectations and then he assists them to understand the ground rules for communication, transparency of decision making, and being consistent for the common good. He recognizes that he won t get 100% agreement, but he can help the team move forward by presenting the challenge as the burning platform. This means that change is inevitable and we need to respond proactively to the change or get left behind. In this example of decreasing revenues, he cites that the well-established current fee-for-service payment structure is not sustainable in the current economic market. If this organization is to stay ahead then the people inside will need to retool the use of financial resources to continue the delivery of health care. In short, the organization moves ahead proactively by getting alignment of the team members to the vision and mission and reach consensus from the constituents. Agenda and decision management: Dr. Hall firmly believes that in reality there are two agendas and the first one is determined by the strategic plan and the second one is determined by the crisis of the day. His preference is to spend the majority of his time on the agenda related to the strategic plan as these agenda items are geared at moving the organization forward. However, he realizes that if he does not address the daily crises, then the organization may not be able to address the bigger needs. He addresses the crises by determining the value to the individual or group presenting the crisis, the value or impact the crisis has to the organization, and then determines who or what agency is best suited to address the crisis. There are times; he provided examples of two direct reports each having departmental crises, in which he needed to clear his daily schedule to address these crises. He also states that a good leader responds to those in his charge in order to maintain balance in the various areas of the organization. His role, he stated, is to assemble the right people at the right time to move the legitimate agenda forward. Legitimate agenda are the items that move the organization forward in accordance with the agreed strategic plan and solving the -158-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 149-162, December, 2014 problems of the day that hinder the forward motion of the organization. Some crises are really not crises but a misinterpretation of events and may be solved by supplying proper information to those individuals affected by the crisis. Greatest accomplishment: My two greatest accomplishments are assisting the school of medicine and the healthcare system to become more closely aligned and bringing more business rigor into the organization (school of medicine). Until recently the dean of the medical school and the CEO of the healthcare system had not been collaborating for the benefit of the stakeholders: physicians, administrators, patients, and learners. He asserts that it is beneficial for both large groups to work together and reduce cost and reduce risk. Also, by applying sound business principles within the school of medicine, that has a 290 million annual budget, he has been able to reduce costs and improved efficiencies. He asserts that continued changes are planned for the future to improve accountability and transparency of the organization. Advice for a future leader: He begins by stating, Leaders who do the best are leaders who value relationship based leadership. He stands by the following saying: People don t care what you know until they know that you care. I found this is a quote from John C. Maxwell, 2007. He recommends that leaders use relationship-based leadership and advocate for the common good of the organization. Often leaders need the proper people on the team for the good of the organization. Finally, good leaders learn for others in the organization. Additional comments: He wants to add, being a leader can be very rewarding especially if you are able to positively influence the career of another by creating opportunities for them that allows them to succeed. Discussion Comparison of leadership styles Both President Wolfe and Dr. Hall reported that their greatest challenge and opportunity is working with other individuals within the system to affect change in the organization in accordance with the strategic plan that was developed in response to internal and external forces. While neither specifically stated their theoretical lens it seems to me that they actively interact with their environments and the forces promoting change, and then they derive meaning and the potential impact that some aspect of the environment could have on the organization. They explore with their respective teams in order to comprehend, explain, and interpret the forces of change on the organization. They ask questions, obtain feedback, address concerns, and bring the information back to their constituents for continued action. This is sense-making process is both cognitive and social (Bess and Dee, 2008b). They both use team building to achieve alignment and consensus. In their world they agree that 100% agreement of all the stakeholders is not possible. Dr. Hall mused that he used to be a member of a group that firmly believed that 100% agreement was necessary for a decision to be made. He recalls that very few decisions were made as the majority could not successfully convince the few who were the hold outs against the change. They both agree that total agreement is not a workable process; thus, they use the process of consensus building by facilitating alignment of the dissenting stakeholders. This process requires communication and they both see their job is to facilitate the necessary communication between the stakeholders to create the win-win scenarios. -159-
Leadership by consensus at MU A. Bayar, J. H. Kerns They both lead by modelling behaviors that seek incremental change and then helping the team members align with the incremental changes by reviewing the ground rules for team membership, staying true to the mission and vision of the organization, and reviewing the strategic plan as needed to maintain focus. They both facilitate trust building between themselves and key members of their teams. President Wolfe alluded several times to the fact that it is very important for good leaders to surround themselves with bright knowledgeable people who have the desire, capability, and dependability to be trust-worthy at the job. He also noted that when you have bright dependable people around you then as a leader it is your role to provide that individual with the framework within which to work. Dr. Hall agrees that trust building is very important in managing the team members. For him trust also means dependability, accountability, and reliability. With these types of people, he is happy to trust them to manage their aspect of the project. Both President Wolfe and Dr. Hall have and share the long range goals known as the MU Strategic plan with their teams and use short term and intermediate goals to provide a visual pathway for any team member that needs to see incremental process. They both agree that it is the long-term goal that should receive the majority of the effort and not focus on the shortterm goals as these may change from time to time. Contrast of Leadership Styles In the process of team building, President Wolfe is able to select the individuals he wants on his management teams. He sets high expectations for their presence and active participation at the table. Lack of participation causes President Wolfe to consider the particular stakeholder and their future at the table of conversation. Dr. Hall, on the other hand, cannot easily change the 21 department chairs, so he has to build teams and excite improvement by providing various types of incentives. As Dr. Hall prefers to spend time working with proactive teams to provide incremental change to move the organization forward, he realizes that part of his duties include dealing with the crisis of the day. Dealing with these day-to-day unexpected events causes him to surround himself with capable team leaders in the numerous associate deans that work with him and are capable to continue to work the strategic plan. President Wolfe, on the other hand, made it quite clear that those team-members, who are not participating as they aught, may be asked to leave the team. President Wolfe also states that it is important to know when to employ leadership tactics and when to employ management tactics, which often are dependent on the crisis of the day. Dr. Hall, on the other hand, states that he prefers to not micromanage and may gather the assistance of one of his associate deans or administrative assistants to assist various team members complete their tasks. Summary and implications for future study Summary Both of these leaders are inside the same institution but assert their leadership in differing contexts. President Wolfe and his teams oversee the entire University of Missouri system. However, Dr. L Hall and his teams oversee the various aspects of the medical school. -160-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 149-162, December, 2014 They both use change agency, team work and team building strategies, strategies to continue to use continuous improvement, trust building, and to some degree work at short term goal eradication. Both of these leaders model the traits of transformational leadership (Sosik and Dionne, 1997) and use contingency theory as their lens (Bess and Dee, 2008b). They are ever seeking to understand the culture of the institution, the culture the stakeholders, and consider the effect of culture on the change strategies that they use to continue the forward momentum. Kezar and Eckel (2002) would support the active participation of the leadership to understand the effect of the institutional culture has on the process of change as the leaders consider use of collaboration, uses of rewards and punishments, achieving buy-in, communicating effectively, and helping some one on the team reach their goals as well. Implications for future study This study has shown that leadership is important at the president and dean levels of the University of Missouri. This study was limited to two leaders; thus, lends itself to limited interpretive scope. It is interesting that there is continued opportunity to interact with other leaders within the system and assess their styles of leadership. Continued research is needed to determine if the level at which a particular leader is situated impacts their leadership style and if their leadership style impacts the outcomes of their particular unit. Within organizations of this size it would be interesting to determine if other institution of higher education had similar type leaders and leadership styles and what type of outcomes those institutions had in facing the challenges and opportunities they faced. References American Association of University Professors, American Council on Education, & Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges. (1966). Statement on government of colleges and universities. Downloaded from: http://www.aaup.org/report/1966-statement-government-colleges-and-universities Bess, J. & Dee, J. (2008a). Colleges and universities as complex organizations. Understanding college and university organization: Theories for effective policy and practice. (pp. 18-37). Sterling, VA: Stylus Bess, J. & Dee, J. (2008b). Organizational environments. Understanding college and university organization: Theories for effective policy and practice. (pp. 126-168). Sterling, VA: Stylus Birnbaum, R. (1988). How colleges work: The cybernetics of academic organization and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Deming, W.E. (1986). Out of crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Center for Advanced Engineering. Kezar, A, & Eckel, P. (2002). The effect of institutional culture on change strategies. The Journal of Higher Education. 73(4). 435-460. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Mills, D. Q. (2005). Leadership: How to lead, how to live. Waltham, MA: MindEdge Press. Northouse, P. G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice (5 th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Sosik, J. J. & Dionne, S. D. (1997). Leadership styles and Deming s behavior factors. Journal of Business and Psychology, 11(4) p 447-462 -161-
Leadership by consensus at MU A. Bayar, J. H. Kerns Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research design and methods. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in organization (6 th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson- Prentice Hall. Appendix I Interview questions for leaders: 1. As a way of introduction, please tell me about yourself in coming to this leadership position. 2. What are the greatest challenges/opportunities you have faced as a leader? 3. How do you balance the needs of the various groups/individuals in resolving the challenges? 4. How do you facilitate negotiations between the groups/individuals? 5. How are decisions made and what is your role in the decision making process? 6. How do you move the agenda forward? What or who determines the agenda? 7. What has been your greatest accomplishment? 8. What advice would you give an incoming leader in this institution? 9. Is there anything I have not asked you that I should? 10. Is there anything else you would like to add to this conversation? -162-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 83-91, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.48.4.3 Students Beliefs on Effectiveness of Storyline Method in History Teaching Article history Received: 10.06.2014 Received in revised form: 16.12..2014 Accepted: 17.12.2014 Key words: Storyline Method, Storyline Instructional Design, History Teaching Introduction Metin Kuş Yıldız Technical University, Department of Educational Sciences Bülent Alcı Yıldız Technical University, Department of Educational Sciences The purpose of this study was to determine the students opinions on the effectiveness of storyline method in the unit of Pre-Historic Ages in the ninth-grade history lesson.the study used the qualitative research design. The method applied in this study was Focus Group Interview. The participants of the study was ninth-grade students who were studying in İstanbul Lycee in the year of 2012-2013. In the ninth-grade class there were 180 students aged 16, 90 male and 90 female. The samples of this study consist of 30 students 15 male and 15 female (n=30). Among these 30 students, the researchers chose 8 students randomly for the focus group interview. The data were collected by means of questionnaire form which consists of two open ended and ten semi-structured questions. Ten hour lesson plan developed by using storyline method in the unit of Pre- Historic Ages in the ninth-grade history lesson and applied in two weeks. In this study, qualitative data analysis which consists of classification of data and determining major themes used. The findings demonstrated that six of the students found storyline method effective only if necessary changes are made in the existing educational system in Turkey. Students found that the storyline method enjoyable and creative. Storyline as a methodology emerged in Scotland during the late 1960s in response to changing curriculum demands and the need to support teachers to meet new curricular requirements. Storyline is by no means a new approach. The Storyline method was created over forty years ago, yet it is experiencing something of a revival in recent times. As current curriculum policy evolves, teachers are looking for processes and methodologies so their teaching can also evolve to meet changing needs. The Storyline method promotes a child centred, topic based curriculum which builds on the pupils personal knowledge and creates further opportunities to extend the learning (Rhonda, 2010, p.6). In the Storyline method, story is used to give a meaningful context to the learning (Letschert, 2006, p.18). The structure of Storyline uses elements of story such as setting, characters, episodes, plot and its title name. One of the defining aspects of the Storyline approach is the consideration given to the feelings and perceptions of the characters. Pupils explore topics through the eyes of the characters, allowing them to consider sensitive issues in a safe and secure classroom environment. This combined with the simple Storyline framework its use of key questions and pupil activities, makes Storyline a flexible approach which can be applied and adapted (Harkness, 1997, p.3). In creating a Storyline, the teacher knows the curriculum requirements and the knowledge which must be covered. Rather than teaching this subject knowledge in discrete areas, the use
Students Beliefs on Effectiveness of Storyline Method M. Kuş, B. Alcı of Storyline gives context to the learning, makes the learning purposeful and gives ownership to the pupils. The story begins with a key question, designed to extract pupils prior knowledge about the subject area and build on what the students already know (Creswell, 1997, p.10). The use of imagination is also fundamental, as in the Storyline method, the pupils use their imaginations to complete any gaps in their knowledge at the beginning of the topic study. The pupils then create their own questions based on what information they need to know in order to complete the tasks and solve the problem set out in the Storyline; this allows them ownership in their own learning (Creswell, 1997, p.11). In planning any Storyline there are a number of key elements and these elements are briefly explained below: The Storyline begins with a key question Each Storyline employs a number of key episodes A frieze (or display) is created to bring the Storyline to life Each pupil creates their own character and a biography is written Incidents occur which involve the characters having to respond and solve problems The Storyline concludes with a celebration or event (Creswell, 1997, p.12). The learning taking place in the classroom is shared between the teacher and the pupils; whilst the teacher controls the key learning outcomes, the learning is led by the pupils working together and sharing the Storyline experience. The teacher is the coach, facilitator and planner, known in the world of Storyline as an educational designer (Bell, 2006, p.5). In the Storyline process, the teacher designs the line which ensures that all necessary content and curriculum aims are met. The line is a systematic approach, which is developed by the teacher who has designed the Storyline topic. The line involves a sequence of episodes and these episodes can be compared to the chapters of a book (Bell and Harkness, 2006, p.2). The key questions are used to formulate the learning sequence. The first two episodes in the Storyline are concerned with the pupils creating and making the characters and the setting. The third episode involves an event or incident which starts the story; this could be a letter or visit. The consequent episodes lead to a shared resolution of a dramatic event and the final episode is always a celebration and review of the Storyline (Bell and Harkness, 2006, p.4). Theoretical underpinnings of Storyline method lies behind the constructivism and progressivism (Rhonda,2010, p.14). Creswell (1997) views the Storyline method as a constructivist philosophy. Today s understanding of constructivism is based largely on the work of Piaget and Vygotsky. It is primarily concerned with cognitive development and deep understanding. The process of constructing learning is dependent on learners actively participating in the learning process and interacting with the other learners and their surroundings (Fosnot & Perry, 2005, p.8). In progressivism the child lies at the heart of the educational process. This progressive, child centred approach holds at its core the importance of self-expression and creativity (Fleming, 2008, p.20). Up to here, we mentioned about the emergence, functions, characteristics, key elements, teacher s role and theoretical underpinnings of storyline method. After that we gave definition, purpose, scope, importance and problems of history teaching. -84-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 83-91, December, 2014 What experience in the mind means for the individual, history is the same for the society (Tosh, 1997, p.4). We can simply define history as science of past (Kütükoğlu, 1991, p.4). In another definition Collingwood (1990), defined history as a special way of thought, research and investigation that enable us to learn things which is unknown to us. History teaching is important for the child development in the aspects of cognitive and affective domain. It is obvious that educational system must give much importance to the history teaching (Paykoç, 1998, p.7). History is not memorizing the past but after investigating and analyzing the past values, it enables us to adopt these values in our current society (Ata, 2002, p.49). The purpose of history teaching is to direct students to historical subjects, to learn about the history of his country and foreign countries, to improve his chronology knowledge, to learn how past is different than today, to learn about past people s time, settings and habits, to differentiate historical truths and comments, to understand the many causes of events, to comprehend change and sustainability (Dilek, 2001, p.47). History is generally taught by teacher centered teaching method in Turkey s educational system for this reason, students find history lessons boring and rote-learning. It is important to use different instructional design in order to fulfill the purpose of history teaching(akbaba, 2003, p.185). According to research findings problems of history teaching can be stated as follows; passive students (Karabağ, 2002, p.61), history curriculum, rote-learning in history, goal and scope of history (Yıldız, 2003, p.181), failure in history (Açıkgöz, 1998, p.323), lack of written and visual material in history (Ata, 1997, p.87). In order to give concise overview of the storyline literature we aimed to search for related studies. As there is little academic writing and research relating to Storyline specifically we have reached two studies from abroad and four studies from Turkey. Rhonda (2010) explored the relationship between the Scottish Storyline teaching method and pupils levels of motivation when engaged in a Storyline topic. Rhonda also examined the theoretical underpinnings for Storyline drawn from constructivism, progressive education, and intrinsic motivation. The results of this study; both qualitative and quantitative would suggest that Storyline had an impact on pupils levels of intrinsic motivation. Similarly, Eiriksdöttir (1995) examined the qualities of storyline method for teaching in primary school. After using the Storyline method for a year in two classes of different ages, working on two very different topics in each class, the storyline method found effective. Güney (2003) in his study aims to introduce the Storyline Method, which is not very well known in Turkey, and to evaluate its effects in the application to Social Studies classes. This research is particularly valuable for its contribution of a newly developed method to Turkish literature and applicability of this modern method in the Turkish educational system.the results of the study showed that Storyline method helped student s learning process. Another study by Yiğit (2007) aimed to determine the effect of Storyline method on student achievement about the sources of our country unit in the sixth-grade social studies curriculum. The achievement level about the unit in sample group which were taught by storyline method was higher than the control group which was taught by teacher centered traditional method. There was a meaningful significance in favour of the control group. Similarly, Bacak (2008) searched the effects of the storyline method of the achievement and -85-
Students Beliefs on Effectiveness of Storyline Method M. Kuş, B. Alcı creativity on the students in primary school s fifth-class in social studies lesson.there was a meaningful difference about marks of achievement between the experiment group used the Storyline method and the control group used traditional teaching method. The group of experiment success level increases in proportion to the control group.there was a meaningful difference about marks of creativity between the experiment group used the Storyline method and the control group used traditional teaching method. The creativity of experimental group students increased. Additionally Tepetaş (2011), aimed to determine whether the storyline method was effective for the development of the basic concept knowledge levels of the 6-year-old children or not. As a result of the study, a significant difference in favor of experimental group was found. As it can be seen from the literature, the storyline method is effective on student s achievement, motivation and learning. It can also be seen there is an urgent need for new studies about storyline method. This study can contribute to the existing literature by its qualitative analysis and provide public awereness on storyline method. The problem of this study is to determine opinions of the students about the effectiveness of storyline method in the unit of Pre-Historic Ages in the ninth-grade history lesson. In this study following research questions was tested; 1.What are the opinion of students regarding the effectiveness of storyline method? 2. What are the opinion of students regarding the storyline method? Method Research Model This study used qualitative research design. According to Creswell (2007,) qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological tradition of inquiry that explore a social and human problem.the researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants and conducts the study in a natural setting.this study aimed to determine opinions of the students about the effectiveness of storyline method in the unit of Pre-Historic Ages in the ninth-grade history lesson. Student opinions regarding the effectiveness of storyline method had taken by questionnaire form which consist of two open ended and ten semi-structured questions. This study examined two research questions by means of a qualitative data analysis and research model. The method applied in this study was focus group interview. Focus group interview is a process of collecting data through group interview which consist of four to six people (Creswell, 2007, p.218). Participants The participants of this study were ninth grade students who are studying in İstanbul Lycee in the year of 2012-2013.This school was chosen because of the availability and economical reasons. In the ninth grade class there were 180 students aged 16, 90 male and 90 female.the sample of this study consist of 30 students 15 male and 15 female (n=30). The participants of study were all in the top % 1 of the National High Schools Entrance Examination among more than 1.500.000 applicants. All the students who participated in this -86-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 83-91, December, 2014 study were homogenous in terms of academic achievement. Among 30 students 8 students was chosen randomly for the focus group interview. Instrument The data were collected by means of questionnaire form which consist of two open ended and ten semi-structured questions.questions were developed by using the principles of question construction and the researcher pilot tested the questions. This helps determine that the individuals in the sample are capable of completing the survey and that they can understand the questions. A pilot test of a questionnaire or interview survey is a procedure in which a researcher who complete and evaluate the instrument. The participants in the pilot test provide written comments directly on the survey, and the researcher modifies or changes the survey to reflect those concerns. Since the pilot group provides feedback on the questionnaire, they will be excluded from the final sample for the study (Cresswell, 2007, p.387). As with the questionnaires, a relaxed and comfortable atmosphere was promoted throughout the interviewing process and the pupils were encouraged to talk openly about their ideas. It is acknowledged that the setting for the interview gave impact on the interview itself (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007, p.97). The interviews were semi-structured, allowing a degree of freedom during the interview process. Therefore, this type of interview was chosen as it best suited the purposes of this study. In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer is free to follow up areas of interest and the interviewer is able to find out more about the participant s interests and personal concerns (Yates, 2004, p.135). This allowed some in-depth discussion during the interview, whilst still adhering to a structural process. Building a rapport between the interviewee and interviewer is fundamental to the success of the interview process (Hammersley and Atkinson, 2007, p.98). An interview schedule was organised in advance but in keeping with the semi-structured style of the interview, this was intended merely for guidance purposes (Yates, 2004, p.136). The aim of the interview was to provide depth of discussion and having the schedule helped to ensure that the discussion did not digress from the issues in question. Drever (1995) suggested that formulating an interview schedule also helps to ensure that all interviews are conducted fairly and consistently, hence providing reliable research data. Procedure 1. In order to use stoyline method in the unit of Pre-Historic Ages in the ninth-grade history lesson firstly History curriculum was analyzed by the researchers and students gains was determined. After this process life skills which were gained by the students because of the nature of storyline method were identified. 2. Ten hour lesson plan developed by using storyline method in the unit of Pre-Historic Ages in the ninth-grade history lesson and applied two week period. Storyline planning about pre-historic ages consists of eight episodes. In pre-historic ages there were stone age people and metal age people. The eight episodes were the environment, the people, social organization, everyday life, tools, happy times and sad times, incidents and review meeting stone age people and metal age people. Each episodes begins with a key question and follows activity, class organization, resources and outcomes. 3. A sample of 30 students divided into 6 groups. 3 groups represented stone Age people, other 3 groups represented metal age people. All groups completed eight episodes of -87-
Students Beliefs on Effectiveness of Storyline Method M. Kuş, B. Alcı Storyline planing. They drew pictures and created their own world by using Storyline planning episodes. 4. After completing, two weeks applications of Storyline episodes. Eight students were chosen randomly for the focus group interviews. 5. In focus group interview open ended and semi-structured questions were asked to the participants and their responses were recorded and transcribed. Data Analysis In this study, in qulitative interview researcher ask focus group participants open ended and semi-structured questions and record their answers. The researcher then transcribes and types the data into written file for analysis. The process of qualitative data analysis consist of classification of data, determining major themes (Creswell, 2007, p.174). Results Table 1 indicated that storyline method enables students; permanent learning, better learning opportunity, improve their imagination power, peer learning, enhance creativity, enjoyable and productive learning, high motivation, active participation, self construction of knowledge, ability to view different perspective with respect to opinion of students regarding the effectiveness of storyline method. Regarding the research question 1 students stated above mentioned common concepts for the storyline method. Table 1. Students thoughts on the effectiveness of Storyline method Opinion of students regarding the effectiveness of Storyline Method f Permanent learning 8 Better learning opportunity 8 Improve imagination 7 Active participation 6 Peer learning 6 Enhance creativity 6 Enjoyable learning 5 Productive learning 4 Self-constructing the knowledge 3 Highly motivated 3 Ability to view different perspective 1 *Students thoughts on the effectiveness of Storyline method n:8 Table 2 presented strength and weaknesses of storyline method. According to students strength of storyline methods were; creativity, social interaction, enjoyable learning, reinforcement, thinking skills, permanent learning. As for weaknesses they were; evaluation problems, unreal, difficult to obtain result, time consuming, difficult to proof, difficult to reach truth. All eight students who participated in focus group interview shared this concepts. Results showed that storyline method was effective in creativity, social interaction, enjoyable learning, reinforcement, thinking skills, permanent learning. -88-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 83-91, December, 2014 Table 2. Students thoughts regarding the Strength and Weaknesses of Storyline method Strengths f Weaknesses f Permanent learning 8 Evaluation problems 7 Enhance Creativity 6 Unreal 7 Social interaction 5 Difficult to obtain result 6 Reinforcement 5 Time consuming 5 Enjoyable learning 5 Difficult to proof 4 Develop thinking skils 4 Difficult to reach truth 4 *Students thoughts regarding the Strength and Weaknesses of Storyline method n:8 Discussion In this study we found that storyline method enhance creativity, provide better learning, and increase level of motivation. Our study is supported by studies which has similar findings such as storyline method enhance creativity (Bacak, 2008), storyline method provide better learning (Güney, 2003), storyline increases level of motivation (Rhonda, 2010, p.168). As for the effectiveness of storyline method we found that the students find storyline method effective only if necessary changes are made in the existing educational system in Turkey. Our study is not consistent with studies which states storyline method effective for examle, storyline method is effective in academic achievement (Yiğit, 2007), storyline method is effective in academic achievement (Eiriksdöttir, 1995, p.51), Storyline method is effective in development of basic concept knowledge (Tepetaş, 2011). Storyline method is not widely used in our educational system. As stated before, our educational system is not suitable to storyline method. It is necessary to encoruage researchers study storyline method in the future and provide further support on the effectiveness of storyline method. Although interviewees advised to use Storyline method in the Schools, they further argued that it is difficult to apply this method in the existing educational system in Turkey. In addition they stressed that Storyline method must have started from the pre-school ages Most of the students view history lesson boring and they feel hatred towards it because of the teaching system based on rote-learning. Six of the students believe that if necessary changes are made in the existing educational system, the chance of success and effectiveness of storyline method are going to be high. Two of the students believe that there is no chance of success in storyline method in the existing educational system in Turkey. In storyline method the teacher must work hard to prepare instructional design of Storyline method. Similarly, there must be fewer students and also it requires standart evaluation system. Lastly, we have to be open to new ideas, we need courage, we have to change the system of rote-learning. Conclusion This article has presented a new, preliminary theoretical as well as practical explanation that can contribute to our understanding of the effectiveness of storyline method -89-
Students Beliefs on Effectiveness of Storyline Method M. Kuş, B. Alcı in history teaching. In order to empirically test it, a qualitative study was conducted among 8 ninth-grade students. The qualitative analyses performed on questionnaire items have led to the following conclusions. First, the findings demonstrate that six of the students find storyline method effective only if necessary changes are made in the existing educational system in Turkey. Two of the students believe that there is no chance of effectiveness of storyline method in the existing educational system in Turkey. Secondly, most of the participants argued that storyline method must have started from the pre-school ages. According to interviewees to apply this method in the existing educational system in Turkey, it is inevitable to decrease % 50 curriculum load. Thirdly, the teacher must work hard to prepare instructional design of storyline method, there must be fewer students and also it requires standart evaluation. In order to adapt storyline method into the existing educational system, we have to give in service training to the teachers, arrange classroom setting and equipments. Additionally, the results clearly demonstrate there is an urgent need of changing educational system. Finally, the findings contribute to our theoretical understanding of the contribution of storyline method as such, they represent a theoretical innovation. We suggest that acquisition of the storyline method proposed in this article is likely to contribute to effective learning environment. Consequently, storyline is not a frequently used method in Turkish educational system. By encouraging further studies related storyline method, we can have benefits from its comprehensive application in our educational system. Acknowledgement The author wishes to thank the students who participated Focus Group Interview for their brillant insights. The author also wishes to thank the parents of students who give consent to their pupils for participating the study. References Açıkgöz, K.Ü. (1998). Tarih Derslerinde Öğrencileri Güdüleme Stratejileri. [Motivational strategies on history teaching for students]. İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Publications. Akbaba, B. (2003). Tarih Öğretiminde Fotoğraf Kullanımı. [Using photography in history teaching]. Gazi Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(1), 185-197. Ata, B. (1998). Okul Dışı Tarih Öğretimi. [Teaching history out of school]. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 1(18), 87-94. Ata, B. (2002). Bahaeddin Yediyıldız ile Tarih Araştırmaları ve Öğretimi Konusunda Söyleşi. [Conversation with Bahaeddin Yediyıldız on history researchs and teaching]. Türk Yurdu, (175), 49-53. Bacak, S. (2008). The effects of the storyline method of the achievement and creativity on the students in primary school s 5. class in social studies lesson. (Unpublished master s thesis). Celal Bayar University, Manisa. Bell, S. (2000). Storyline, Feeling and Respect. The First International Storyline Conference, Alborg. -90-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 83-91, December, 2014 Bell, S.& Harkness, S. (2006). Storyline Promoting Language Across the Curriculum. Hertfordshire: United Kingdom Literacy Association. Collingwood, R.G. (1990). Tarih Tasarımı. [History Design]. İstanbul: Ara Publication. Creswell, J.W. (1997). Creating Worlds, Constructing Meaning. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Creswell, J.W. (2007). Educational Research Planning, Conducting and Evaluating, Quantitative and Qualitative Research. University of Nebraska. Nebraska. Dilek, D. (2001). Tarih Derslerinde Öğrenme ve Düşünce Gelişimi. [Devolopment of learning and thinking skills in history lessons]. Ankara: Pegem A Publication. Drever, E. (1995). Using semi-structured interviews in small-scale research. Edinburgh: The Scottish Council for Research in Education. Eiriksdöttir, B. (1995). Qualitities of the storyline method for Teaching in primary schools in Iceland. University of Stratheyde. Glasgow. Fleming, M. (2008). Arts in education and creativity: A review of the literature. A report for Creative Partnerships. London: Creative Partnerships. Fosnot, C.T.& Perry, R.S. (2005). Constructivism: A Psychological Theory of Learning. London: Teachers College Press. Güney, S.Y. (2003). A case study on the storyline method in primary 5th grade. (Unpublished master s thesis). Hacettepe University, Ankara. Hammersley, M.& Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography. London: Routledge. Harkness, S. (1997). Prologue: The Storyline Method, How it all began. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Karabağ, G. (2002). Postmodernizm ve Tarih Öğretimi. [Postmodernizm and history teaching]. Türk Yurdu, (175), 61-67. Kütükoğlu, M. (1991). Tarih Araştırmalarında Usül. [Method in history researchs]. İstanbul: Kubbealtı Publication. Letschert, J. (2006). Beyond Storyline. Netherlands: SLO Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development. Paykoç, F. (1991). Tarih Öğretimi. [History teaching]. Eskişehir: Anadolu University Publications. Rhonda, M.B. (2010). An analysis of the storyline method in primary school; its theoretical underpinnings and its impact on pupils intrinsic motivation. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Durham University. Durham. Tepetaş, G.Ş. (2011). An instructional practice based on the storyline method oriented to support basic concept knowledge levels of the 6-year-old children. (Unpublished master s thesis). Ankara University. Ankara. Tosh, J. (1997). Tarihin Peşinde. [In search of history]. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Publications. Yates, S.J. (2004). Doing social science research. London: Sage Publications. Yıldız, Ö. (2003). Türkiye de Tarih Öğretiminin Sorunları ve Çağdaş Çözüm Önerileri. [Problems of history teaching and suggested solutions in Turkey]. Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. 15(2): 181-190. Yiğit, E.Ö. (2007). The effect of storyline method on student achievement about the sources of our country unit in 6th grade social studies curriculum. (Unpublished master s thesis). Abant İzzet Baysal University. Bolu. -91-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 48-68, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.49.4.3 The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on the Organizational Commitment: An Application in Primary Education Institutions Article history Received: 10.08.2014 Received in revised form: 16.12..2014 Accepted: 16.12.2014 Cemal Aküzüm 1 Faculty of Ziya Gökalp Education, Dicle University, Diyarbakır, Turkey There is a large cycle of works on regarding organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment of teachers. However, no study has been found that has been conducted on the correlation among effect of organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment and their explaining ratios of each other. The level of correlation and the effect of the organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment with each other and explaining ratios of each other have been tested in this research. In line with this purpose, seven hypotheses were developed. The participant group in the study consists of 515 elementary school teachers who are working in primary education institutions of Diyarbakir province. The relational survey model was utilized while conducting the research. Also Organizational Justice Scale, Organizational Cynicism Scale and Organizational Commitment Scale were utilized in this research. For confirmatory factor analyses and structural equality model, SPSS and AMOS packaged software were utilized. First of the most important findings of the study is that organizational justice and organizational cynicism are significant predictors of organizational commitment. Second is that organizational cynicism has a function of partial mediator between organizational justice and organizational commitment. Key words: Organizational justice, organizational cynicism, organizational commitment, primary education institution, teacher Introduction It is observed that recent studies focus on two major study fields. First of these fields are about improvement of behavioral effects and component that increase employees performance for improving organization s performance; on the contrary of the first one, the second one is studies that are performed for decreasing factors that are thought to have negative effects on performance (Barrick et al., 2013; Greiling, 2007; Parker et al., 2013). Both research fields are found in organizational behavior literature, besides they cover subjects about determination of perceptions, attitude and behaviors that are thought to have positive and negative effects on performance in the context of individual and organizational meaning (Turkoz et al., 2013). One of the studies that examine perceptions, manners and behaviors that are thought to have positive effects on the performance is on organizational justice subject. Organizational justice perception is one of important determiners for employees perception for justice. The reason for this is the fact that employees with high perception for organizational justice tend to show 1 E-mail: cemal.akuzum@dicle.edu.tr, cemalakuzum@gmail.com. Phone Number: +904122411000/8864, +905055236243. Fax: +904122488257
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 48-68, December, 2014 positive behaviors, as those with negative perception tend to show behaviors such decrease in effort and change in the level of their trust in organization. From this aspect, the organizational justice recently draws attention as one of important subjects that focuses on organizations fulfillment of their functions efficiently. Within this framework, organizational justice studies the questions about employees perceptions for how fair they are being treated in the organization and how does this perception affect the results such as commitment and satisfaction in terms of organization (Greenberg, 1996). From this point, organization managements and researchers continue their various studies towards increasing the perception for justice in organizations. Naturally, one of the studies probably the most important oneserving this purpose is to reveal the organizational behavior output variables that are affected by perceptions for justice and the relation of it with the said variables. In this context, studies are being performed to explain the relation of numerous organizational output variables with organizational commitment. Revealing the relation about mentioned variables will contribute both to the theory since there is no similar study in the field and to administrative applications in direction with increasing organizational performance. Within this frame, hypotheses were formed first in this study by drawing organizational framework about variables contained by the study, then the application made for testing the hypotheses took place. Organizational Justice It is long accepted that organizational justice is a necessity for people s personal satisfaction and organization s efficient fulfillment of functions and injustice is needed to be seen as a source for organizational problem (Greenberg, 1990). In this context, organizational justice that is regarded as a concept with a structure that can end in important results for employees and organizations in work environment can be related to various subjects such as variety management at organizational level, personnel selection and performance evaluation (Gilliland & Chan, 2001). The term organizational justice is seen as a collective research field where the organizational behavior field must be approached from important and different points of view and is used for describing how fair and just management of an organization is (Colquitt et al., 2001; Pillai et al., 1999). In other words, organizational justice is that the employees find the processes and procedures prudent, their leaders fair and sincere and their leaders work logic (Dessler, 1999). Greenberg (1996), describes organizational justice as a concept that describes employees perception about how fair they are treated and how this perception affects the results such as commitment and work satisfaction. Thus, organizational justice is an important element for all organizations, but what is more important is an accurate perception of the justice in an organization by the employees. This perception is one of the most important features of social interaction, besides it is an important factor for employees to develop a positive or negative manner and behavior towards the organizations they work for. In cases where this perception is negative, the management can have issues in motivating and directing their employees (as cited in Selvitopu & Sahin, 2013). Organizational justice that was approached only with its distributive aspect at the beginning (Deutsch, 1975; Forray, 2006) was later approached with its procedural dimension (Leventhal, 1980), and in following process it came to the fore with its interactive dimension (Harris, 2002). Distributive justice explains the fact that the individuals that are similar in terms of ethical and objective features are treated similarly; and those who are different are treated differently at the rate of their difference (Foley et al., 2002). In other words, distributive justice is taking justice as base in distribution of outputs obtained from -49-
The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on C. Aküzüm production. Distributive justice is based upon Adams (1965) theory of equity. It is that the employees get their shares at the rate of their contribution to the production process. Distributive justice isn t only based upon fair distribution of the outputs obtained from production but also on objectivity between employees in distribution of other intraorganizational payments (rewards, premiums etc.) (Beugr, 2002). Procedural justice is described as the justice that is perceived in decision making processes (Folger & Greenberg, 1985). Procedural justice that mostly covers processes leading to decision making usually focuses on effects of justice process and individual reactions against processes in workplace (Greenberg, 1987; Greenberg & Tyler, 1987). Procedural justice is important for employees for it offers a control opportunity over decision processes and results. By this means, employees have a trust feeling for fairness of their long term incomes, while they feel their value by noticing their position in the organization (Paterson et al., 2002). Since solely financial factors are not sufficient for maintaining justice between employees and managers, attentions concentrated on socio-psychological dimension of the justice (Paré & Tremblay, 2007). In this context, interactive justice is described as features of manners and behaviors that the employees and managers encounter, while they fulfill the procedures about organizational activities (procedural and distributive) (Liao & Tai, 2006). Interactive justice is related to humanitary dimension of organizational applications. It takes dimensions such as kindness, honesty and respect in communication process between source and receiver of the justice (Beugr, 2002). Importance of information share in interactive justice s becoming operative shouldn t be ignored. This, at the same time, is important in the sense of creating an organizational environment of confidence. One of most important results in creating an environment of confidence is increasing the organizational performance (Paré & Tremblay, 2007). Organizational Cynicism Organizational Cynicism is an employee s having negative manners towards the organization they work for (Dean et al., 1998). In other words, organizational Cynicism is employees belief that organizations lack ethical integrity and principles such as justice, honesty and sincerity are sacrificed for organizational benefits (Atwater et al., 2000). Therefore, organizational Cynicism is seen when employees believe that their organization lacks honesty. This perception about lack of honesty can mostly arise from the perception that all principal expectations related to justice, ethic and honesty (Dean et al., 1998). It is argued that organizational Cynicism presents a learned thought that is developed as a result of experiences, while it is conceptualized as a future-directed feature (Johnson & O leary-kelly, 2003). Despite cynicism is described both as a personality feature and an emotion, it is argued in recent studies that organizational cynicism should be interpreted rather as a employees reaction to organization s policy and applications than their general manners and personnel features (FitzGerald, 2002). According to Abraham (2000), the reason for employees negative manners against organization is a kind of strategy for dealing with their non-met requirements. It occurs as psychological contract breach of employees in these strategies. In their descriptions, Andersson (1996) and Dean et al. (1998) are on same opinion despite some differences that cynicism is a negative manner that has affective, cognitive and behavioral elements and that is based on a certain power (Stanley et al., 2005). In cognitive dimension of organizational cynicism, individuals believe that their organizations lack principles such as honesty, openness and sincerity that forms organizational integrity and these principles can be sacrificed for individual benefits. As a result of this, conscienceless behaviors can become norms. According to cynical individuals, human behaviors in -50-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 48-68, December, 2014 organizational are inconsistent and untrustworthy. Besides, their beliefs that actions have hidden purposes cause them to expect tricks rather than sincerity. In this context, they base their organizational decisions on their own benefits (Dean et al., 1998). In affective dimension, cynical individuals are not only seen as people who have faith in their organizations, but also have emotions for them (Dean et al., 1998). Affective dimension of organizational cynicism covers strong affective reactions such as disrespect, fury and shame (Abraham, 2000). According to behavioral dimension the last dimension of organizational cynicism- employees that show cynical manners against organization not only tends to make pessimist and desperate forecasts about future activities in the organization (Dean et al., 1998), but also they can show behaviors such as complaining about organization and criticizing it. Exchanging glances, smiling in a cynic and condescendingly can be given as examples for cynic behaviors of employees (Brandes & Das, 2006). Organizational Commitment Organizational commitment was initially defined in terms of a psychological or affective attachment to an organization by Kanter (1968) as the willingness of social actors to give their energy and loyalty to social systems, the attachment of personality systems to social relations that are seen as self-expressive (as cited in Klinsontorn, 2005). First core theorists of this structure Porter, Steers, Mowdaw and Boulin (1974) described organizational commitment on a basis of commitment of an individual to the organization and empowering the relation between individual and the organization. According to Porter and others, this kind of commitment should be characterized by at least three factors; a) strong belief and acceptance of organization s purpose and values, b) making voluntarily an effort for organization s interests and c) show sustainability as a member of the organizations. Commitment to the organizations happens in mutual exchange process between individual and the organization. If individual gets certain rewards or outputs from organizations, he/she commits himself/herself to the organization. In other words, individuals expect rewards in return of self-commitment to the organization (Balci, 2003). This means, organizational commitment can appear from an obligation, a desire or a need for continuing organizational membership (Meyer & Allen, 1991). In organizational commitment literature, there are three different commitment types are identified (Allen & Mayer, 1990; Dunham et al., 1994; Meyer & Allen, 1991). These are; affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. Affective commitment is an emotional attitude where individuals are in communication with the organization and are happy to be a part of it by identifying themselves with their organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). In this kind of commitment that expresses employees affective commitment to and identification with their organization; the reason for employees to stay in the organization is their identification with purposes of the organization. This dimension that is related to organizational commitment expresses employees desire for staying in the organization and their emotional commitment to the organization (Huselid & Day, 1991). Continuance commitment is a commitment element that expresses the awareness of employees that if they quit the organizations, they will pay for it (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Meyer & Allen, 1991). According to this, commitment is the one that formed with the thought of losing all the incomes such as status and money that they gained through the endeavor, time and efforts during their time in the organization, if they quit the organization (Obeng & Ugboro, 2003). Consequently, continuance commitment is the situation of continuing organization membership with the thought that if they quit, its costs will be too high. At the same time, continuance commitment occurs when there is no alternative or quitting the -51-
The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on C. Aküzüm organization will cost too much in situations where there is no other employment chance (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Normative commitment emphasizes employees tendency of commitment and loyalty to the organization since they are socialized in a culture that promotes self-commitment and loyalty (Wiener, 1982). Here, individuals belief that their deeds are true and ethic is efficient in their commitment to the organization (Obeng & Ugboro, 2003). Normative commitment contains obligation element. However, obligation here is more different than continuance commitment. Obligation takes shape within the frame of ethical feelings, not personal cost calculation. Employees feeling of commitment doesn t root from individual benefit, but from their belief in what is done is true and ethical, this shows normative commitment bears a psychological agreement feature (Meyer & Herscovitsch, 2001). As variables that were focused on in this study, perception for organizational justice and organizational cynicism that is in interaction with it effect organizational commitment closely. Though there are studies in literature that study organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment factors separately and within the frame of bilateral relation, there is no study to find that examines these three factors that are oriented at educational organizations collectively. This study aims to contribute to the literature by examining the said variables collectively and revealing the interaction between these. In this direction, hypotheses developed to test the effect of organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment on each other and their ratio of causality of each other based on theory are presented below: H1: Teachers perceptions of organizational justice affect organizational commitment positively and significantly. H2: Teachers perceptions of organizational justice explain organizational commitment significantly. H3: Teachers perceptions of organizational justice affect organizational cynicism negatively and significantly. H4: Teachers perceptions of organizational justice explain organizational cynicism significantly. H5: Teachers perceptions of organizational cynicism affect organizational commitment negatively and significantly. H6: Teachers perceptions of organizational justice and organizational cynicism together explain organizational commitment significantly. H7: Organizational cynicism has mediating role in the effect of organizational justice on organizational commitment. Method Research Model This research was performed by means of relational survey model. In relational survey model that also called correlative study, examining relation between two or more variables without interfering these variables in any way is in question (Buyukozturk et al., 2008). In this context, effect levels among organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment of teachers and explain ratio of them are searched. -52-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 48-68, December, 2014 Sample The research was performed with the data that was obtained from 515 randomly chosen and voluntarily attending teachers that work in primary education institutions in Diyarbakır city. Demographical features of the attendees are as following: %48,9 of the attendees are (n=252) female, %51,1 (n=263) is male. In terms of age variable, %33,2 of the attendees (n=171) are in 30 and younger age group, %38,6 (n=199) are in 31-40 age group and %28,2 (n=145) are in 41 and older age groups. In terms of work duration, %44,9 (n=231) has 10 or less years, %34,6 (n=178) has 11-20 years and %20,6 (n=106) has 21 or more years. Data was collected by hundred percent face to face applications of measurement means. Data Analysis SPSS 21.0 and AMOS 22.0 software were utilized in testing reliability analysis, correlation analysis, and confirmative factor analysis of scales that were performed on the data obtained from study and in testing relation between two or more variables. The mean square root of aproximate errors (RMSEA), the mean square root of the standardized residual (SRMR), goodness of fit index (GFI), the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), standardized conformity index (NFI), ki-square/latitude degree (X2/sd = CMIN/DF) and the significance level (p) were considered for confirmatory factor analysis and assessment of designed model goodness of fit. In the research, the minimum level of factor loading is decided as.30 during confirmatory factor analysis. If there were few number items in a scale prepared in social sciences area, the limit value for factor loading can be decreased till.30 (Buyukozturk, 2012). In addition, the critical ratio is taken less than 10 during the assessment of normality for confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation model. According to Kline (2005), critical ratio is an estimated value of multivarite kurtosis normality that is z value. If the critical ratio is more than 10, this shows that there is a problem in the kurtosis value of the distribution. Research Tools and Confirmatory Factor Analysis Organizational Justice Scale Teachers justice perception for their school was measured by an organizational justice scale that was developed by Niehoff and Moorman (1993). As a result of test adoption performed by Polat (2007), scale s reliability coefficient was found as.85. As factor load of any items were under.45, all of the items in test scale was transferred to main scale. As a result of reliability analysis that was applied to the organizational justice scale in the end of the application, the Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found as.96. Organizational justice scale consists of 19 items that has the assessment features for distributive (6 items), procedural (9 items) and interactional justice (4 items) levels. Organizational Justice Scale is a Likert type scale graded from 1 to 5. Accordingly, I strongly disagree: 1 point; I disagree: 2 points; I am neutral: 3 points; I agree: 4 points; I strongly agree: 5 points. There are no reverse scored the items on the scale. As a result of the analysis performed on data obtained from this study, Cronbach Alpha coefficient for the whole of the scale was found to be.95. Reliablity coefficients for the sub-dimensions of the scale were.89 for distributive justice,.94 for procedural justice and.82 for interactional justice (Table 2). Additionally the result of confirmative factor analysis of the scale is shown on Table 1. -53-
The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on C. Aküzüm Organizational Cynicism Scale Organizational Cynicism Scales was developed by Brandes et al. (1999). The scale that was adapted by Karacaoglu and Ince (2012) to Turkish language consists of three factors that consist of 13 items: Affective dimension (4 items), cognitive dimension (5 items), and behavioral dimension (4 items). Scale s Cronbach Alpha coefficient whose validity and reliability studies were performed was.91. Organizational Cynicism Scale is a Likert type scale graded from 1 to 5. Accordingly, I strongly disagree: 1 point; I disagree: 2 points; I am neutral: 3 points; I agree: 4 points; I strongly agree: 5 points. As a result of the analysis performed on data obtained from this study, Cronbach Alpha coefficient for the whole of the scale was found to be.91. Reliablity coefficients for the sub-dimensions of the scale were.91 for affective dimension,.88 for cognitive dimension and.76 for behavioral dimension (Table 2). Additionally the result of confirmative factor analysis of the scale is shown on Table 1. Organizational Commitment Scale Organizational Commitment Scales was developed by Meyer and Allen (1984). The scale that was adapted by Baysal and Paksoy (1999) to Turkish language consists of three factors that consist of 17 items: Affective commitment (6 items), continuance commitment (6 items) and normative commitment (5 items). Scale s Cronbach Alpha coefficient whose validity and reliability studies were performed was.82. Organizational Commitment Scale is a Likert type scale graded from 1 to 5. Accordingly, I strongly disagree: 1 point; I disagree: 2 points; I am neutral: 3 points; I agree: 4 points; I strongly agree: 5 points. As a result of the analysis performed on data obtained from this study, Cronbach Alpha coefficient for the whole of the scale was found to be.86. Reliablity coefficients for the sub-dimensions of the scale were.86 for affective commitment,.78 for continuance commitment and.79 for normative commitment (Table 2). Additionally the result of confirmative factor analysis of the scale is shown on Table 1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Scales To test the validity of the scales a confirmative factor analysis (CFA) was performed. CFA is known as analysis of latent variables and is utilized on examining of causative models that have theoretical basis (Sümer, 2000). This analysis method (CFA) shows if the data on the hand of the researcher (explored previously and utilized in various studies) complies with original structure (Meydan & Sesen, 2011). Results obtained confirmative factor analysis is shown in table (Table 1) below. Table 1. The results of confirmatory factor analysis of scales *Fit Indices Δχ 2 df Δχ 2 /df RMSEA SRMR GFI CFI AGFI NFI Organizational justice 469.66 164 2.864.070.050.910.950.902.930 Organizational cynicism 239.69 82 2.923.070.048.930.960.900.940 Organizational commitment 417.41 146 2.859.070.076.910.910.905.912 * RMSEA value was 0-0,08; SRMR value was 0-0.10; GFI value was.90-1.00; CFI value was.90-1.00; AGFI value was.85-1.00; NFI value was.90-1.00; X2/sd (CMIN/DF) value was 0-3; p value was 0.01-0.05, these shows good fit indexes. (Bayram, 2010; Byrne, 2001; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993; Kline, 2005; Reisinger & Mavondo, 2006; Schermelleh-Engel & Moosbrugger, 2003; Simsek, 2007). When the evaluation of normality is considered as a result of confirmative factor analysis, -54-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 48-68, December, 2014 critical rate (c.r.) for Organizational Justice Scale was found to be 44.451; critical rate (c.r.) for Organizational Cynicism Scale was 49.11 and critical rate (c.r.) for Organizational Commitment Scales was 41.920 in terms of multivariate (Mardia) values. Since there was no items whose critical rate is bigger than 10, all the items were included for the next step. Additionally, when Table 1 is examined, compliance values for scales seem to be acceptable. This situation shows that three factor structure of organizational justice scales, organizational cynicism scale and organizational commitment scale are confirmed in terms of this study. Findings Correlation Analysis Arithmetic mean and standard deviation values related to dependent and independent variables of this study and correlation coefficients between these variables are given in Table 2. Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix of constructs Constructs X S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Distributive Justice 3.32.94 (0.89) 2. Procedural Justice 3.17.90 0.73** (0.94) 3. Interactional Justice 3.58.83 0.61** 0.69** (0.82) 4. Affective Dimension 2.26 1.05-0.66** -0.48** -0.44** (0.91) 5. Cognitive Dimension 2.49.92-0.51** -0.51** -0.46** 0.61** (0.88) 6. Behavioral Dimension 2.73.90-0.49** -0.49** -0.40** 0.50** 0.64** (0.76) 7. Affective Commitment 3.47.86 0.57** 0.65** 0.52** -0.57** -0.58** -0.53** (0.86) 8. Continuance Commitment 2.97.84 0.45* 0.46* 0.39* -0.51** -0.35** -0.32** 0.64** (0.78) 9. Normative Commitment 3.20.87 0.60** 0.53** 0.44** -0.50** -0.37** -0.46** 0.58** 0.57** (0.79) Note 1: *p-value <0.05, **p-value <0.01, N = 405. Note 2: Numbers in parentheses indicate the Cronbach s α of constructs. According to data in Table 2, in terms of organizational justice dimensions, participant teachers perception levels relating to interactional justice ( X=3.58) was higher comparing to distributive justice ( X=3.32) and procedural justice ( X=3.17). Highest grade mean in terms of organizational cynicism dimensions was in behavioral dimension ( X=2.73), as lowest grade mean was in affective dimension ( X=2.26). Highest grade mean in terms of organizational commitment was in affective commitment dimension ( X=3.47) as lowest grade mean was in continuance commitment dimension ( X=2.97). Relations that occur between variables of the study were explained below: (1) Relationship between organizational justice and organizational cynicism: It seems that organizational justice dimensions such as distributive, procedural and interactive have negative and significant relation with organizational cynicism dimensions like affective, cognitive and behavioral. This situation indicates that organizational cynicism level of employees with high organizational justice perception decreased. (2) Relationship between organizational justice and organizational commitment: It seems that organizational justice dimensions such as distributive, procedural and interactive have positive and significant relation with organizational commitment dimensions like affective, continuance and normative. This situation shows that organizational justice at a high level increases organizational commitment. -55-
The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on C. Aküzüm (3) Relationship between organizational cynicism and organizational commitment: It seems that organizational cynicism dimensions such as affective, cognitive and behavioral have negative and significant relation with organizational commitment dimensions like affective, continuance and normative. This means, a high cynicism level among employees has a decreasing effect on organizational justice. Correlation analysis only reveals the relation level between structures. Structural equality model analyses must be performed in order to reveal the direct and indirect impacts between structures, and even to reveal the mediator variables. Structural Equation Models In this part of the study, two models were tested in order to understand influence level of latent variables of organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment on each other and their explanation rate of each other and to show if cynicism is an intermediary variable in the relationship between organizational justice and organizational commitment. These are basic model and intermediary model. According to Baron and Kenny (1986) some conditions must be secured in order to prove an intermediary relation. These are; (1) Independent variable (organizational justice) must have a significant effect on dependent variable (organizational commitment), (2) Independent variable (organizational justice) must have significant effect on intermediary variable (organizational cynicism), (3) Intermediary variable (organizational cynicism) must have a significant effect on dependent variable and (4) when intermediary variable (organizational cynicism) is included to the study together with independent variable, effect of dependent variable (organizational justice) on dependent variable must decrease, while intermediary variable (organizational cynicism) has a significant effect on dependent variable (organizational commitment). Basic Model Results A structural equity analysis was performed by using covariance matrices considering maximum possibility calculations. According to results of basic model shown in Image 1, model s fit indexes that was analyzed by considering the MI values (Modification Indices) was found as following: RMSEA=.060; SRMR=.069; CMIN\DF=2,50; GFI=.912; CFI=.920; AGFI=.908; NFI=.912; Chi squared=1448,851; df=580 and p=.000. This result shows that the fit values of the model are acceptable and at desirable rate (Bayram, 2010; Byrne, 2001; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993; Kline, 2005; Schermelleh-Engel & Moosbrugger, 2003; Simsek, 2007). Standardized beta, standard error and significance values belonging to the way leading from organizational justice latent variable to organizational commitment latent variable is shown on Table 3. According these findings, organizational justice has a significant effect on organizational commitment. Hence, it seems that the first condition related to intermediary role (Baron & Kenny, 1986) is met. Path Table 3. Path coefficients of basic model Standardize β Standard Error Organizational Justice Organizational Commitment.55.04 *** P Besides, taking into consideration the hypothesis of research, as the standardized regression -56-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 48-68, December, 2014 (Beta) coefficients that were obtained as a result of the research and that are shown in Figure 1 are reviewed, it is seen that the organizational justice has a positive and significant impact (β= 0.55; p<0,05) on organizational commitment. This result confirms the hypothesis Teachers perceptions of organizational justice affect organizational commitment positively and significantly that exists on H1. On the other hand, organizational justice contributes to organizational commitment at a ratio of 30%. In other words, the change that takes place in organizational commitment of teachers can be said to depend on their perceptions of organizational justice at a ratio of 30%. This outcome verifies the hypothesis that appears in H2 Teachers perceptions of organizational justice explain organizational commitment significantly. Figure 1. Model diagram of the effects of organizational justice on organiztaional commitment Mediation Model Results In intermediary model shown on Image 2, organizational justice latent variable is accepted as independent, organizational commitment latent variable is accepted as dependent and organizational cynicism latent variable is accepted as intermediary variable. Thus, both existence of aforementioned second, third and fourth effects intermediary role and accuracy of study hypothesis was researched. According to results of intermediary model shown on Image 2, Model s fit indexes that was analyzed by considering the MI values (Modification Indices) was found as following: RMSEA=.050; SRMR=.068; CMIN\DF=2,46; GFI=.920; CFI=.942; AGFI=.910; NFI=.918; Chi squared=2726,109; df=1110 and p=.000. This result shows that the fit values of the model are acceptable and at desirable rate. Standardized beta, standard error and significance values belonging to the way leading from organizational justice latent variable to organizational commitment latent variable is shown on Table 4. -57-
The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on C. Aküzüm Table 4. Path coefficients of mediation model Path Standardize β Standard Error Organizational Justice Organizational Cynicisim -.63.04 *** Organizational Justice Organizational Commitment.24.04 *** Organizational Cynicisim Organizational Commitment -.36.06 *** P According these findings, perception for organizational justice effects organizational cynicism significantly (standardized β= -0.63; p<0,05), also organizational cynicism effects organizational commitment significantly (standardized β= -0.36; p<0,05). Besides, organizational justice s effect on organizational silence decreases when organizational cynicism is included to the model (standardized β= 0.24; p<0,05). This shows accuracy of the hypothesis H7 Organizational cynicism has an intermediary role on organizational justice effect on organizational commitment. Hence, it seems that the second, third and fourth conditions related to intermediary role (Baron & Kenny, 1986) are met. Figure 2. Model diagram of the effects of organizational justice on organizational cyncinism and organiztaional commitment When other hypotheses of the study are regarded, following results are obtained: As the standardized regression (Beta) coefficients in mediation model that were obtained as a result of the research and that are shown in Figure 2 are reviewed, it is seen that the organizational justice has a negative and significant impact (β= -0.63; p<0,05) on organizational cynicism. This result confirms the hypothesis Teachers perceptions of organizational justice affect organizational cynicism negatively and significantly that exists -58-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 48-68, December, 2014 on H3. On the other hand, organizational justice contributes to organizational cynicism at a ratio of 39%. In other words, the change that takes place in organizational cynicism of teachers can be said to depend on their perceptions of organizational justice at a ratio of 39%. This outcome verifies the hypothesis that appears in H4 Teachers perceptions of organizational justice explain organizational cynicism significantly. With regard to the fifth research hypothesis, organizational cynicism appeared to significantly and negatively affect the organizational commitment (β= -0.36; p<0,05). This result confirms the hypothesis Teachers perceptions of organizational cynicism affect organizational commitment negatively and significantly that exists on H5. Besides it is determined as another result of this study that organizational justice and organizational cynicism latent variables together explain 30% of organizational justice latent variable. In other words, the change that takes place in organizational commitment of teachers can be said to depend on their perceptions of organizational justice and organizational cynicism at a ratio of 30%. This outcome verifies the hypothesis that appears in H6 Teachers perceptions of organizational justice and organizational cynicism together explain organizational commitment significantly (Figure 2). Discussion This study aims to reveal if organizational justice and organizational cynicism perceptions of teachers working at elementary school organizations have effects on their organizational commitment, additionally if organizational cynicism has an intermediary effect in their perception for organizational justice s effect on their organizational commitment. Data that is collected in purpose with testing the hypotheses that were aimed to be revealed are evaluated by means of structural equity model. As a result of structural equity model that aimed to reveal justice and cynicism perception s effect on organizational commitment; related to first hypothesis it was found that teacher s perception for organizational justice has a positive and significant effect on their organizational commitment. In other words, a high organizational justice performance effects organizational commitment positively. On the other hand related to second hypothesis of the study it was determined that teachers perception level for justice effects their organizational commitment positively. This means, increase in organizational justice, causes increase in organizational commitment (Daileyl & Kirk, 1992; Konovsky et al., 1987; Loi et al., 2006), while a decrease causes a decrease in commitment (Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997). According to Lambert (2003), organizational justice indicates the respect that the managers have for their employees and eventually builds a bridge of trust that strengthens employees commitment to their organization. Perception for organizational justice has effect on individuals manners and behaviors in the organization as a variable that mostly takes form within the frame of environmental factors (Meydan et al., 2011). Consequently, individuals commitment to their organization is affected in parallel with their perception for justice. These results comply with other research results about this subject. Researches performed about this subject (Ali & Jan, 2012; Arslanturk, 2012; Bagci, 2013; Buluc & Gunes, 2014; Chenga, 2013; Cihangiroglu, 2011; Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Colquitt et al., 2001; Ehtiyar & Alper, 2008; Folger & Konovsky, 1989; Foster, 2010; Hendrix et al., 1998; Isik et al., 2012; Johnson et al., 2002; Martin & Bannet, 1996; McFarlin & Sweeney, 1992; Roberts et al., 1999; Sahin, 2013; Selvitopu & Sahin, 2013; Sweeney & McFarlin, 1997; Tansky, 1993; Yazıcıoglu & Topaloglu, 2009) reveals that organizational justice effects organizational commitment positively and organizational justice predicts organizational commitment. It can -59-
The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on C. Aküzüm be said that common ground of all these studies are that justice perception is considered important by employees and giving place to fairness/righteousness in organizational applications has a strong effect on employees manners about work mostly on organizational commitment. When justice is maintained with all of its dimensions in an organization, organizational commitment of employees will occur automatically. Consequently, what is important is to maintain real justice in organizations. In this regard, school management should review school practices in the framework of organizational justice and asks for teachers participation in this review process to create positively perceived organizational commitment by teachers. Described as an individual s negative manner towards organization, cynicism can occur as a result of not-meeting the expectations like sincerity, justice and honesty by the organization (Brandes et al., 1999). In this context, since almost all organizations have employees that have this kind of negative attitude, being aware of indicators and results of organizational cynicism is required for understanding employee performance (James, 2005). In this study, the relation between organizational justice and organizational cynicism is examined and related to the tested third hypothesis of the study, a result was reached that teachers level of organizational justice affects their perception for organizational cynicism negatively and significantly. On the other hand, related to the fourth hypothesis of the study, it was determined that teachers level of organizational justice explains their organizational cynicism perceptions significantly. In organizational cynicism, an individual believes that righteousness, honesty, justice and sincerity are low in organization (Davis & Gardner, 2004). Consequently, it can be said that concepts that play a key role in formation of organizational cynicism are righteousness and justice in an organization (Naus, 2007). Study results show that when justice in an organization decreases, organizational cynicism perceptions of employees increase (Bernerth et al., 2007; Bommer et al., 2005). Besides, studies that examine indicators and results of organizational cynicism revealed that organizational justice that was assessed as one of indicators of organizational justice has a negative relation with organizational cynicism or it affects organizational cynicism negatively. Thus, in the study performed by FitzGerald (2002), it was revealed that individuals that have a high injustice perception towards their organization will have more cynical manners while in study of Ozen-Kutanis and Cetinel (2009) resulted in information that employees that have negative perception for organizational justice show more cynical manners. Additionally, in studies performed by Cetin et al. (2013); Efeoglu and Iplik (2011); Tokgoz (2011), it was concluded that there is a negative relation between employees perception for organizational justice and organizational cynicism. In addition to that, determining at to what factors at what grade do commitment that is affected by intra-organizational factors have relation is important for organizations. At this point, it is important to determine what kind of effect does justice perception that is subject to effect intra-organizational variables (Mowday et al., 1979) and organizational cynicism that is effective on intra-organizational variables (Wanous et al., 1994) have on organizational commitment. Because employees perceptions for intra-organizational justice and cynicism affect their commitment. At this point, in the event of decreased commitment for individuals that have low justice perception and high cynicism perception, raising these feelings of them by raising their perception for justice and decreasing their perception for cynicism will be able to be efficient. In this context, related to fifth hypothesis of this study, it was concluded that teachers perception for cynicism has a negative and significant effect on their organizational commitment. This result can be explained due to negative and high relation between commitment and organizational cynicism (Johnson & O Leary-Kelly, 2003; Wanous et al., 2000). Because it is reported that there can be a negative relation between organizational cynicism and commitment (Sethi et al., 1999). In other researches about this subject, it is -60-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 48-68, December, 2014 observed that as employees cynicism level increases, their organizational commitment decreases (Abraham, 2000; Altınoz et al., 2011; Brandes et al., 1999; Findik & Eryesil, 2012; Olapegba & Onuoha, 2013; Ozgan et al., 2012; Sahin et al., 2013; Turner & Valentine, 2001; Yildiz, 2013). Besides, related to the sixth hypothesis of the study, it was concluded that teachers perception for organizational justice and cynicism together affects organizational performance significantly at a rate of 30%. This means, it was revealed that the change that occurs at teachers organizational commitment depends on their perception level of organizational justice and cynicism. This finding shows that organizational justice and organizational cynicism are the most important predictors on organizational commitment. As justice perception and cynicism are reviewed separately, it seems that compared to cynicism, perception for justice is a more important factor in determining commitment. Consequently, a high organizational justice perception in organization has a positive effect on individuals perception for commitment, and the low cynicism perception that occurs as a result of this contribute to employees exhibition of a higher organizational commitment behavior. Another finding of the study is that organizational cynicism has an intermediary role in organizational justice s effect on organizational commitment. This means, low organizational cynicism perception of teachers can have and important effect in direction where their organizational commitment increases or vice versa, their high organizational cynicism perception decreases their organizational commitment. When the effects of organizational justice and organizational cynicism on organizational commitment are reviewed together, it is seen that perception for justice affects both organizational cynicism and organizational commitment; on the other hand, organizational cynicism has an effect on organizational commitment, besides, perception for justice has both direct and indirect effect on organizational commitment. As a consequence, teachers level of organizational commitment is affected positively by their organizational justice perception, while it is affected negatively by their organizational cynicism perception. Complying with the expectations expressed in theoretical framework of this study, these results emphasize that justice perception can affect organizational commitment positively, while organizational cynicism can affect teachers organizational commitment level negatively. Conclusion Suggestions made in this study showed that organizational justice perception and cynicism are quite important variables in employees exhibition of organizational commitment behavior, none the less, organizational justice perception and cynicism in organizational field are quite variables that have important effect on employees. These variables form organizational behavior by affecting each other mutually. Having organizational behavior at desired rate at schools will contribute to reaching organizational purposes. When the findings of the study is evaluated in direction with administrative applications, it is seen that by evaluating the fact that individuals with trust in their leaders and organizations will show better performance, fulfill their wishes and instructions more attentively and thus the organizational performance will be effected positively, it can be important if the managers inform their subordinates about organizational processes and maintain a just environment. -61-
The Effect of Organizational Justice and Organizational Cynicism on C. Aküzüm Recommendations This study and other studies that were performed concerning factors that affect organizational behavior showed that organizational justice, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment are important factors for educational institutions. Teachers commitment to their schools is highly efficient on purposes of educations, teachers motivation and performance. Thus, school managements need to give the required importance to organizational justice factor in order to motivate teachers and increase their performance in line with purposes of the education. With this purpose, important tasks fall to managers share in developing and adopting an organizational behavior. This study showed that for reaching the purposes of the school, it is required at first hand that the teachers need to believe that the applications at the school are just and they trust in the organization. Besides, a supportive environment can be formed for their organizational commitment in context of organizational compliance. Situations that decrease teachers commitment to the organization and cause cynicism can be researched and measures can be taken. Limitations Although this study has been carried out on the primary education institutions, representing only primary education institutions and including certain number of schools can be considered as the limitations of this study. In this context, a careful procedure of generalization of the study s results is recommended. It is important to obtain better and more generalizable conclusions, the study can be conducted with different levels of education and more schools. Moreover, including other factors determining of the organizational commitment alongside organizational justice and organizational cynicism to the study may help to increase study s substantiality and handling the topic more detailed. References Abraham, R. (2000). Organizational cynicism: Bases and consequences. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 126(3), 269-292. Ali, N. & Jan, S. (2012). Relationship between organizational justice and organizational commitment and turnover intentions amongst medical representatives of pharmaceuticals companies of Pakistan. Journal of Managerial Sciences, VI(2), 201-212. Allen, N.J. & Meyer, J.P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1-18. Altinoz, M., Cop, S. & Sigindi, T. (2011). Relationship between perceived organizational commitment and organizational cynicism: A research on four and five star accommodation establishments in Ankara. Selcuk University Journal of Economic and Social Research, 15(21), 285-315. Andersson, L.M. (1996). Employee cynicism: An examination using a contract violation framework. Human Relations, 49(11), 1395-1418. Arslanturk, G. (2012). Analyzing of the relationship between organizational justice and organizational commitment in Manisa Police Department. Turkish Journal of Police Studies, 14(1), 135-159. Atwater, L.E., Waldman, D.A., Atwater, D. & Cartier, P. (2000). An upward feedback field experiment: Supervisors cynicism, reactions, and commitment to subordinates. Personnel Psychology, 53, 275-297. -62-
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Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 92-101, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.62.4.3 An Investigation of the New Elementary Curriculum in Terms of Teachers Opinions Mehmet Arif Özerbaş Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary Education, Ankara, Turkey Article history This study aims to determine the implementation levels of common basic Received: skills in the new curriculum based on constructivist learning approach 17.07.2014 specified by Ministry of Education from the viewpoints of teachers. The Received in revised form: scope of the study is limited to the implementation levels of eight 19.12..2014 common basic skills and the viewpoints of 713 teachers working at first and second grade of primary education. At the study, descriptive method Accepted: was used. According to the findings, while no significant difference was 21.12.2014 found at any aspect of the study regarding with the gender variable, Key words: according to the variable of institution from which they were graduated, Constructivist learning, the teachers graduated from faculties of vocational education are better Information Technologies, than the other teachers graduated from other schools, and according to the Curriculum, Teacher, Primary variable of seniority, it is observed that the novice teachers adopt better Education than the experienced ones and according to the teaching field, classroom teachers are more successful than the other field teachers in implementing new program. Introduction In this era, in which information is produced and spread quickly and continously, the future of the invididual and society depends upon our ability to utilize and produce information. Acquiring and maintaining these abilities requires contemporary education based on information production, not rote-learning. Turkey has made extensive attempts to implement an efficient learning model, especially during the previous few years.. These attempts concentrate on developing a perception of our educational system based on multiple causes and multiple effects rather than routinized logic.. In the information age, when traditional educational approaches are inadequate, the constructivist learning approach has become prominent. In constructivist learning, the intention is for the individual to acquire information through interactionwith events and objects surrounding him/her and this information shall be constructed as new information by relating it with previous information that already exists (Bodner, 1986; Fosnot, 1996; Limon, 2001; Sherman, 2000; Özden, 2005). This viewpoint presupposes that the individual does not have a blank state of mind and that while acquiring information, he/sheinterprets new information through the lens of his/her present perception. It emphasizes that the student is inclined to learn by choosing the issues that can be added to the ones that already exist in his/her mind and effeciently re-construct and reinterpret new information.. The important thing here is to help the student develop intellectual abilities and construct information with a learner-centered approach, rather than changing a learners behavior with a teacher-centered approach. Dr. Assoc. Professor in the field of Educational Technology. Working areas of instructional design, distance learning, e- learning, information technologies and new approaches to teaching and learning are themes such as. Contact: Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary Education, K-block Z-26 Besevler 06800 Ankara. E-mail: ozerbas@gazi.edu.tr.
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 92-101, December, 2014 Today, to compete with developed countries, there is a need for individuals who can accomplish genuine learning, test their information, correct their mistakes, and put forth new ideas without hesitation. Due to these requirements, the Ministry of Education conducted a radical program change and launched a pilot program at new elementary education programs based on the constructivist approach in the 2004-2005 school year. Following this successful pilot study new elementary education programs based on the constructivist learning approach were implemented in all of the elementary schools around the country in the 2005-2006 school year. In order to prepare new education programs, a concept analysis of the courses was performed and a special expertise group for each course and interdisciplinary special expertise groups were evaluated through the workshops in which the field specialists and the practitioners participated. In the beginning, some parts of the program that did not function well were determined by implementing a pilot application of the new programme at 120 schools in nine provinces. Appropriate course books and materials were prepared by reviewing the new program in direct accordance with the feedback acquired through the pilot application. Along with a new program of sports, health, environment, consultancy career, entreprenership, and disaster consciousness were placed at the backbone of the program with an inter-disciplinary approach; the mutual causality principle was implemented in the place of dominant linear thinking; and knowledge, skill, perceptions and attitudes were implemented instead of surface behaviour expression. In other words, the new teaching program puts the philosophy of learning to learn at the center of the teaching philosophy rather than how to teach. The constructivist learning approach applies notions of how learning occurs instead of focusing on how to teach. Inthis approach the individual plays an active role- as a participant in learning and constructs knowledge both physically and symbolically. As the individual has to transfer his own understanding to others, he constructs the knowledge socially. At the same time, the individual trying to explain knowledge that he does not understand constructs the knowledge theoretically. A curriculum forms the structure of an educational system and the cirriculum designer is required to answer questions regarding who will participate in the teaching process, along with what and when they will learn. Thus educational reforms often concentrate on the existing curriculum (Korkmaz, 2008). A curriculum defines the duties and responsibilities of students and teachers participating in the program as well as the subject areas and disciplines to be learned. For this reason, the roles of the teachers and students within the program are re-defined during the restructuring process of the curriculum. Whether the new primary school curricula successfully realizes the objectives depends on the physical characteristics of the classes where new curricula shall be implemented and the training of teachers who will carry out the implementation. Otherwise, the time-consuming restructuring process of theseprograms may simply return to rote-learning of information on course materials and a teacher-centered approach and fail, which occurred in the attempt to restructure the 1968 educational system. In fact, in a review of research relating to this issue, Danışoğlu (2006) determined that acquisition towards humorous literary types which are present in 1st and 5th grade primary school Turkish curriculum are not reflected sufficiently when level of development, expectation and attitudes of students are taken into consideration. According to research carried out by Epçaçan and Okçu (2008), it was determined that classroom teachers neither agree[d] nor disagree[d] about the adequacy of Turkish course books. Elvan (2007) has specified that a great deal of teachers adopted Turkish Syllabus (grades 1-5) but the level of adoption, assessment, and evaluation on the part of the program is under 50 percent. Şahinel (2005:218) pointed out that in the new Turkish curriculum, traditionally dominant rote-learning methods have been -93-
An Investigation of the New Elementary Curriculum M. A. Özerbaş replaced by skills such as researching, experimenting, and being solicitous and inquisitve. According to the research done by Kan (2007), it was determined that curricula of social studies and Turkish in the acquiring of eight basic skills (being accurate, efficient and good speakers of Turkish and critical thinking, creative thinking, communication, problem-solving, research, decision making, using information technologies and entrepreneurship skills). Öztalay (2007) specified that activivities involving problem-solving, establishing semantic relationships between texts, being able to use information technology efficiently and conciously, entrepreneurship, and creativity, alldefined as high-level skills, were not adequately present in Turkish coursebooks with the research upon using basic skills aimed to be acquired by the students in the curriculum of Turkish courses at primary school in 1st grade. Tekışık (2005:13) stated that teachers and supervisors intending to implement the curriculum should be sufficiently trainedin order to ensure that the objectives of the new school curricula be executed. To accomplish this, he proposed that in-service training centers be established in states and provinces. Furthermore, he suggests that a council should be created for training teachers and evaluating and monitorying the cirriculum implementation. In additional, he points out that an information and documentation center ought to be established within the Ministry of Education, for the purposes of monitoring and documenting the findings from these evaluations. In his research, Coşkun (2005) pointed out that teachers thought in-service trainings regarding the new curriculum were inadequate in terms of duration, organization, sample activities, and occasionally frustrated by a lack of materials. Almost all of the aforementioned research concerns only one dimension of the program. The following questions are worth further investigation: What are the viewpoints of the teachers applying the curriculum in a real sense? Do the teachers think they have sufficiently implemented the program? What kind of difficulties do they encounter? As teachers are the ones who apply the theoretically developed, their viewpoints and experiences about the level of application of the program in the program s adequacy in the classroomare highly essential. Between the 2005-2006 school year and today, there have been few studies done to investigate these questions. Thus, this study aims to solve this lack of investigation and research regarding the adequacy of application and implementation of the new elementary school curriculum in Turkey. Objective The objective of the study is to determine the viewpoints of primary school teachers concerning the applicability of new primary school curriculum based on the constructivist approach, classroom characteristics, and how their level of realization of these activities differs according to variants such as the teacher s: Gender, Institution of graduation, Seniority, Teaching field and Province. Methodology Research Model Models of descriptive statistics have been used to definethe form of this study. The scope of study The scope of the study consists of 713 teachers, including 309 males and 404 females working in elementary schools in Ankara, Adana, Adıyaman, Denizli, Erzurum, Sakarya and Sivas. -94-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 92-101, December, 2014 Data Collection Tools The data obtained through the study was collected by the scale called The analysis scale of teachers viewpoints about the curriculum based on the constructivist learning approach (STVECC) developed by (Ozerbas, 2012). In order to compose the items of the scale, a preliminary study was carried out and within this scope 143 teachers working in in Ankara elementary schools were reached. A form developed by the researcher was distributed to the teachers and they were required to list positive and negative aspects regarding the primary school curriculum based on a five year period of application of the constructvist approach. Then a content analysis was performed for each objective stated by the teachers and similar statements were combined. As a result, a list including 46 different positve and negative attitudes was composed. As the last stage a draft of the scale was prepared for preliminary application. The scale developed is an assessment tool of five-part Likert scale, consisting of 39 items. Items were scaled according to Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neither Disagree nor Agree, Agree, Strongly Agree and are marked with 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. The scale consists both personal items and items regarding the elemtnary school curriculum. The researcher conducted a pilot application of a draft of the scale, with a respondent/participant total of 490 teachers working in elementary schools in Ankara, Kırıkkale, Düzce and Yozgat. According to the factor analysis done with pilot data, seven of 46 items in the scale were excluded as they had multiple factors or a low factor load. 39 items were distributed to six factors. The first factor, consisting of six items, is regarding Accurate, efficient and good speakers of Turkish. The second factor consists of seven items and is titled Teacher adopting constructivist learning approach. The third factor, containing eight items, is called Physical characteristics of the classroom. The fourth factor, Societal values and democracy possesses five items. The fifth factor is defined as Level of using information Technologies and contains six items and the sixth factor, Program (teachinglearning process), has seven items. Factor loads of items within the first factor fluctuated between.75 and.66 and this factor describes 23.5 % of the total variance. Factor loads of the items within the second factor have values between.77 and.62 and this factor describes 11.9 % of the total variance. The items of the third factor had factor loads between.76 and.65. and describe 10.4 % of the total variance. The factor loads of items within the fourth factor describe 7.3 % of the total variance. Factor loads of the items within fifth factor fell between.71 and.46 and this factor describes 6.9% of the total variance. Factor loads of the items within the sixth factor fell between.69 and.48 and this factor describes 5.4 % of the total variance. These six factors describe nearly 63.9 % of the total variance. Internal consistency reliability of these factors (Cronbach s Alpha) is.81,.84,.84,.81,.76 and.78 respectively. Data Analysis Data obtained was analysed by using the SPSS programme. T-tests and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used as statistical analysis techniques. When the F value obtained as the result of variance analysis was significant, the Scheffe test was used after variance analysis in order to find out which group (level) caused this difference. The level of significance was accepted as.05. Findings 1st sub-problem: Do the viewpoints of teachers regarding implementation levels of the new elementary school curriculum based on the constructivist learning approach differ according to the variant of gender? -95-
An Investigation of the New Elementary Curriculum M. A. Özerbaş Scales Table 1. T-test Results of the Viewpoints of Teachers According to Gender Male (n=309) X S Gender Female (n=404) S Accurate, efficient and good speakers of 3,65,70 3,63,66,388,702 Turkish Societal values and democracy 3.27.66 3.17.64 2.12.334 Level of using information technologies 2,28,63 2,31,80,580,562 Program (teaching-learning process) 3,56,68 3,52,66,766,444 Physical characteristics of the classroom 2,34,78 2,30,80,696,487 Characteristics of constructivist teacher 3,93,57 4,03,66 2,17,330 As seen in Table 1, regarding the implementation levels of the construvist learning approach curriculum, there is no significant difference between gender and the teacher s viewpoints. We may therefore conclude that the viewpoints of teachers regarding this implementation do not differ according to gender. 2nd Sub-Problem: Do teacher s viewpoints of teachers regarding implementation of the constructivist learning approach into the new elementary school curriculum differ according to their institutions of graduation? Table 2.ANOVA Results of Points About Factors According to the Institution of Graduation * Factors Fac. Of Education. (n = 461) X S Inst. of Education. (n = 145) Out of Field (n = 107) F t p p Difference (Schefe) Accurate use of Turkish 3.61.69 3.76.63 3.57.66 3.27.339 Societal values. 3.19.68 3.27.59 3.24.60.855.426 Using information Technologies. 2.51.68 2.44.70 2.21.97 9.58.000 1>2; 1>3 Program 3.51.58 3.62.68 3.50.59 1.93.145 Classroom characteristics 2.22.76 2.50.77 2.46.96 9.06.000 2>1 Char. Of Const. Teacher 4.02.53 3.87.61 4.05.69 4.53.011 1>2 * Totally 713 teachers replied to (STVECC) Scale. When the analysis results in Table 2 are examined, there is a significant difference between the viewpoints of teachers from different types of institutions of graduation in terms of three aspects (Information Technologies, classroom characteristics and the characteristics of teachers adopting constructivist approach) while there is no siginificant difference in the other three aspects. We may then conclude that there is a significant difference between teachers levels of using information technologies in their classrooms and their institutions of graduation [F (2-710) = 9.58 p<05]. According to the Scheffe test results, there is a significant difference between the teachers who graduated from faculties of education and the ones who graduated from institutes of education, with teachers who graduated from faculties of education ending up with the higher mean(scheffe.2268 p<.05). Teachers that graduated from faculties of education stated that they use information technologies in classrooms according to the subject more effectively at the medium level than the ones who graduated from institutes of education and other types of institutions. There is also a significant difference between the viewpoints of teachers about the physical characteristics of their classrooms and the institutions of graduation according to one-way variance analysis [F (2-710) = 9.06. p<05]. According to the Scheffe test results, conducted to identify between whom there was a significant difference, there was a significant difference in arithmetic means between the teachers that graduated from institutes of education and those that graduated from faculties of education and other educational institutions (Scheffe.2787 p<.05). The teachers who graduated from institutes of education stated that the physical materials of their classrooms are sufficient at medium-level to implement the new elementary school curriculum based on X S X S -96-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 92-101, December, 2014 the constructivist approach. There is a significant difference between levels of having appropriate attitudes for constructivist learning aprroach and the institutions of graduation [F (2-710) = 9.58 p<05]. According to Scheffe test results, there is a significant difference on behalf of teachers who graduated from faculties of education between arithmetic means between the teachers graduated from faculties of education and the ones graduated from the institutes of education (Scheffe.14733 p<.05). 3rd Sub-Problem: Do viewpoints of teachers regarding successful implementation of the new curriculum differ due to their seniority level? Factors Table 3. ANOVA Results of Points About Factors According to Seniority* 0-5 years (n = 200) X S.6-10 years (n = 161) X S 11-15 years (n = 142) 16-20 years (n = 82) 21 and more (n = 128) Accurate use of Turkish 3.56.68 3.62.68 3.65.74 3.80.56 3.70.64 2.16.071 Societal values. 3.17.67 3.11.66 3.31.68 3.27.58 3.28.59 2.61.034 Using information Technologies. 2.18.73 2.15.67 2.33.77 2.43.63 2.55.73 7.80.000 Program 3.50.65 3.48.65 3.58.75 3.62.64 3.55.66.93.441 Classroom characteristics 2.28.82 2.18.73 2.25.85 2.50.71 2.49.78 4.31.002 Char. Of Const. Teacher 4.09.50 3.94.57 3.90.61 3.95.44 4.00.69 2.795.025 According to the analysis results in Table 3, seniority level caused no significant difference in teacher viewpoints in two aspects (accurate and efficient speakers of Turkish and the new primary school curriculum based on the constructivist approach), while there are significant differences in the other four aspects. There is a significant difference in implementation and attitudes due to the seniority of the teacher [F (4-708) = 2.613 p<05]. Specifically, there is a significant difference between the viewpoints of teachers that have worked from 11-15 years and the viewpoints of those that have from 6-10 (Scheffe,2067 p<.05). There is also a significant difference between levels of using information technologies and the teachers seniority level [F (4-708) = 7.804 p<05]. According to the results of the Scheffe test, there is a significant difference in viewpoints of the teachers that have worked 0-5 years and 6-10 years with those that have worked more than 21 years (Scheffe.3671. p<.05), (Scheffe.4020. p<.05). We can therefore conclude that the teachers who have worked less than 10 years see themselves undervalue their utilization of technology in the classroom. On the other hand, we can conclude that the teachers who worked for 21 years or more interpret their implementation of information technologies more positively than those with less experience. The results of one-way variance analysis reveals that teachers seniority levels caused a significant difference in their viewpoint regarding the physical characteristics of their classrooms [F (4-708) = 4.317. p<05]. Specifically, there was a significant differences observed between teachers that worked 21+ years and those that had only worked from 0-5 years, in favor of those that had 21+ years of experience (Scheffe.3164. p<.05). This finding indicates that experienced teachers found the physical characteristics and equipment of their classrooms adequate at the medium-level in terms of aiding the implementation of the new curriculum. On the contrary, less-experienced teachers found the physical characteristics and materials of their classrooms inadequate at the medium-level in aiding the implementation of the new curriculum. From this finding, we may conclude that the goals and expectations of novice teachers are higher than experienced teachers, perhaps due to the qualified training they acquired from the faculty of education. Finally, via the results of one-way variance analysis, the teachers seniority level also caused significant differences in the teacher s viewpoints of their success in implmenting the duties associated with the [F (4-708) = 2.795. p<05]. According X S X S X S F p -97-
An Investigation of the New Elementary Curriculum M. A. Özerbaş to the results of the Scheffe test, there is a significant difference between the teachers that have worked 0-5 years and the teachers that have worked 11-15 years, in favor of those that have worked 0-5 years (Scheffe.1902 p<.05). 4th Sub-Problem: Do viewpoints of teachers regarding implementation levels of the constructivist learning approach-based elementary school curriculum differ according to their teaching field? There is a significant difference between the viewpoints of teachers only about the fourth variant (implementing teaching tasks according to the constructivist learning approach) [F (7-705) = 5.557. p<05], while there is no significant difference in all other aspects. According to the Scheffe test results, there is a significant difference science teachers and classroom teachers, in favor of classroom teachers (Scheffe.3659 p<.05). 5th Sub-Problem: Do viewpoints of teachers regarding implementation levels of the constructivist learning approach into the new elementary school curriculum differ according to the provinces within which they work? Factors Table 4. ANOVA Results of Points About Factors According to Provinces* Ankara (n = 128) Sivas. (n = 77) Denizli (n = 97) Erzurum (n = 115) Adana. (n = 119) Sakarya (n = 85) Adıyaman (n =92) X S X S X S X S X S X S X S Accurate using of Turkish 3.49.70 3.68.68 3.52.63 3.52.71 3.82.66 3.69.64 3.83.60 4.913.000 Societal values. 3.08.68 3.19.67 3.15.65 3.35.54 3.29.65 3.28.53 3.21.75 2.124.069 Using information Technologies. 2.32.91 2.30.82 2.21.80 2.39.42 2.31.65 2.31.60 2.25.73.562.761 Program 3.76.56 3.60.67 3.55.67 3.41.64 3.66.69 3.44.65 3.38.56 4.610.000 Classroom characteristics 2.47.95 2.39.85 2.25.78 2.18.82 2.39.71 2.38.70 2.22.65 4.199.002 Char. Of Const. Teacher 4.20.69 4.16.54 4.16.50 3.89.47 3.99.56 3.85.54 3.63 42 13.621.000 An analysis of the one-way variance results was conducted to identify the relationship between the viewpoints of teachers and the provinces within which they work. There were significant differences revealed in all of the aspects, except for two (Societal Values and Level of using Information Technologies). Significance was revealed in the aspect of accurate use of Turkish and three provinces in which the teachers [F (6-706) = 4.913 p<05]. According to the results of the Scheffe test, there is a significant difference in accurate use of Turkish between teachers working in Adiyaman and those working in Ankara, in favor of those working in Adiyaman (Scheffe.34216, p<.05). There was a similarly significant difference in accurate use of Turkish found between teachers working in Adana and those working in Ankara, in favor of those working in Adana (Scheffe.32594, p<.05). However, when the difference between arithmetic means in Table 5 is examined, there are similar results in terms of acquiring accurate and efficient Turkish speakers, almost all at the medium level. This is surely the result of the program being applied in almost all schools by the teachers in the provinces included with the research. This shows that the program is efficient in acquiring good speakers of Turkish. Another significance was identified between the provinces in which the teachers are working and the aspect of the their opinions regarding the curriculum (learning-teaching processes as the fourth aspect in Table 5 [F (6-706) = 4.610, p<05]. According to the results of the Scheffe test, more teachers working in Ankara stated that they implement the new curriculum in accordance with its objectives than the teachers working in other provinces, particularly in comparison to teachers working in Adıyaman (Scheffe.3718, p<.05), (Scheffe.3435, p<.05). F p -98-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 92-101, December, 2014 Discussion The first sub-problem of the study explored whether teacher implementation of the new constructivist learning approach-based elementary school curriculum differed according to gender. According to the teacher responses, in terms of the (STVECC) scale, there is no significant difference in neither sub-dimensions of the scale nor in the whole. This finding shows that the variant of gender plays a very slight role in terms of causing variance in teacher implementation of the new curriculum. This parallels the findings of Osborne (2003). Additionally, it goes parallel with the results of research that concluded that gender is not an important variant that makes change in the studies of Çakır and fellows (2007), Gürkan and Gökçe (2000) and Çakır, Kan and Sümbül (2006). These results show that gender does not have a significant effect over (STVECC) of teachers. In other words, it we can conclude that the teachers, regardless of gender, have similar opinions about the implementation of the new consructivist learning approach-based elementary school curriculum. The second sub-problem of the study explored whether the responses and results from the (STVECC) scale differ according to the variant of institution of graduation. According to the findings, the teachers who graduated from programs of education stated that they used information technologies in their classrooms at the medium-level. The teachers who graduated from institutes of education and other educational institutions stated that they did not use information technologies sufficiently in their classrooms. While teachers who graduated from institutes of education and other educational institutions state that equipment in the classroom is adequate at medium-level, the teachers who graduated from faculties of education stated that they are inadequate. We can conclude that teachers who graduated from faculties of education use information technologies at the medium-level due to the curriculum implemented in during their studies at faculties of education, in which they were taught what information technologies are, where and how they are used, the quality of tools used in learning-teaching processes, and the teaching style of their trainee teacher. Teachers who graduated from faculties of education become teachers through four-year initial teacher training programs in the interest and intention of of being a teacher throughout the period of their education, while teachers who graduated from other programs (Degrees in Arts and Sciences etc.) become teachers through shorter teacher-training programs after completing an education based on a specialization. Bandura (1977,1995,1997) states that beliefs of self-efficacy grow in conjunction with one s own life experiences. From this point of view, the cause of the strong self-assessment of teacher s that graduated from four-year teacher traning programs can be assumed to be the result of the experiences they acquired during that four-year period. In addition, teachers that graduated from programs of education have been exposed to classes, speakers, and trainer feedback focused on increasing the efficacy of their teaching. In contrast, the teachers that graduated from other degree programs may have had comparatively little exposure to feedback and coursework regarding the efficacy of teaching. Due to this lack of education-based exposure, they may have a low selfassessment of their ability to implement information technologies and the other components of the constructivist learning approach involved in the new elementary school curriculum. These results are in accordance with the findings of Bandura (1977, 1986), in which he concluded that verbal persuasion, which is one of the informing sources for self-efficacy and evaluations of one s own self regarding job success, considerably the behaviours of people. It is undeniable that positive and realistic approval from other people in each aspect of life increases the self-esteem of an individual. The third sub-problem of the study explored whether teacher s viewpoints, in terms of the -99-
An Investigation of the New Elementary Curriculum M. A. Özerbaş (STVECC) scale, differ according to their seniority. From the results, we can conclude that as a teacher s seniority level increases, their perceptions about using information technologies and the equipment in the classroom also increase. Bandura (1977, 1995, 1997) indicates that self-confidence and self-efficacy rise as the result of successful experiences in one s own life. From this point of view, it is possible that the higher the seniority level and therefore, the longer experience one has as a teacher the greater the level of a teacher s self-efficacy. It can further be assumed that a teacher will have a great amount of successful experiences as a teacher as their number of years as a teacher increases. Teachers working for 21 years or more found the physical characteristics of their classrooms more sufficient than the teachers working between 6-10 years. While novice teachers found then insufficient. This result is in accordance with the results of a study done by Çakıroğlu et al. (2008). Experienced teachers stated that they implement teaching duties (coaching) in accordance with constructivist learning approach and find their ability to implement these duties to be adequate and scored higher than novice teachers in this aspect. Another interesting finding from this study is in regards to teacher s perceptions of the number of students in the classroom and how the number of students affects their ability to implement the constructivist learning approach. The fourth sub-problem of the study explored the effect of the teacher s field/subject on teachers self-assessement of curriculum implementation. The results reveal that teachers of science and math had significantly lower levels of self-assessment than general classroom teachers. According to research about the ability of teachers working in elementary education schools in Turkey and their needs for in-service training (Yıldırım, Koçak and Kirazcı 2001), teachers from different teaching fields find themselves insufficient in using computers and other information technologies. When the new elementary school curriculum based on constructivist learning approach is analysed, information technologies are used most efficiently at first grade level of elementary education. As there are mostly classroom teachers working at this grade, this is in accordance with the findings of this study, in which classroom teachers saw themselves as more adequate than the teachers from other teaching fields. The fifth sub-problem of the study explored the effect that a teacher s province has upon their perceptions and implementation of the new curriculum. There are significant differences in four of the six aspects/factors. The first of the common basic skills intended with the new curriculum is the aim of producing individuals who use Turkish accurately and efficiently, think critically and creatively, are able to use and produce information, attach importance to personal and social values (MEB, 2005). The teachers working in Adıyaman stated that the constructivist learning approach-based curriculum realized its objective and the children became efficient and good speakers of Turkish after the curriculum. Şahinel (2005:218) points out that in the new Turkish curriculum, the tradionally-dominant rote learning format has been replaced to impart upon students the ability to conduct research and experiments and be inquisitive and solicitous. References Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review. 84,191-125. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.h. Freeman. -100-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 92-101, December, 2014 Coşkun, E. (2005), İlköğretim Dördüncü ve Beşinci Sınıf Öğretmen ve Öğrencilerinin Yeni Türkçe Dersi Öğretim Programıyla İlgili Görüşleri Üzerine Nitel Bir Araştırma, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt- 5, Sayı: 2, http://www.edam.com.tr Çakıroğlu, Ü., Güven, B. ve Akkan, Y. (2008). Matematik Öğretmenlerinin Matematik Eğitiminde Bilgisayar Kullanımına Yönelik İnançlarının İncelenmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 35, 38-52. Danışoğlu, H. (2006), Eğlendirici Yazınsal Türklerin Türkçe Öğretiminde Kullanımı ve Bu Çerçevede 2004 2005 Türkçe Öğretim Programının Değerlendirilmesi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Epçaçan, C. Okçu, V. (2008.b) İlköğretim Türkçe Ders Kitaplarının Öğretmen Görüşleri Doğrultusunda Değerlendirilmesi, Uluslararası Türkçe Eğitimi ve Öğretimi Sempozyumu, 27-28 Mart 2008 Gazimağusa KKTC. Kan, A. Ü. (2006), Yeni İlköğretim Programında Öngörülen Temel Becerileri Kazanmada Beşinci Sınıf Sosyal Bilgiler ve Türkçe Derslerinin Etkilerine İlişkin Öğrenci Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Elazığ, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. MEB. (2007).Bilişim Teknolojileri Öğretmen Kılavuz Kitabı. İlköğretim 4,5. Basamak. Devlet Kitapları, Birinci Baskı, Ankara. Özatalay, H. (2007) İlköğretim I. Kademe Türkçe Öğretim Programında Öğrencilere Kazandırılması Hedeflenen Temele Becerilerin Türkçe Ders Kitaplarında Kullanılmasına İlişkin Durum Çalışması, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Özerbaş, M. A. (2007) Yapılandırmacı Öğrenmenin Akademik Başarı ve Transfer Becerilerine Etkisi, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi. Güz dönemi, cilt: 5, Sayı: 4, Ankara. Şahinel, M. G. (2005), Yeni Türkçe Öğretim Programına Göre Öğrenme Öğretme Ortamının Düzenlenmesi, Eğitimde Yansımalar: VIII Yeni İlköğretim Programlarını Değerlendirme Sempozyumu, Kayseri: 14 16 Kasım 2005, Erciyes Üniversitesi Sabancı Kültür Merkezi. Tekışık, H.H. (2005), Yeni İlköğretim Programlarının Uygulanmasına Öğretmenlerin Hazırlanması, Eğitimde Yansımalar: VIII Yeni İlköğretim Programlarını Değerlendirme Sempozyumu, Kayseri: 14 16 Kasım 2005, Erciyes Üniversitesi Sabancı Kültür Merkezi. Yıldırım, S., Koçak, S. Ve Kirazcı, S. (2001).Computers Are Ready But How About Teachers: An Assessment Of Turkish Basic Education Teachers İnservice Training Needs. Paper Presented At The 12th Annual İnternational Coference Of Society Fot İnformation Techonology & Teacher Edducation. Association Fort He Advancement Of Computing İn Education (AACE), Orlando, Florida, April 2001. -101-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 139-148 December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.63.4.3 An Investigation of Science and Technology Teachers Views on the 5th Grade Science Course Article history Received: 21.07.2014 Received in revised form: 25.12..2014 Accepted: 26.12.2014 İkramettin Daşdemir Ordu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Science Education, Ordu, Turkey This study was conducted to explore the science and technology teachers views on the implementation of 5 th grade science course. Open-ended questions were used as a data collection tool. The study sample consisted of 28 science and technology teachers working in Erzurum in 2012-2013 education year. The data gathered were analysed via content analysis method. According to Key words: Science, Technology, Teacher, Science Course Introduction the results obtained from the open-ended questions, a great majority of science and technology teachers who participated in the study stated that they supported science and technology teachers who were teaching this course and therefore students performance at science courses would enhance more. On the other hand, some science and technology teachers considered the disadvantages which they would encounter while teaching at the 4 th grade science course. The reasons for the disadvantages were that they would have difficulties in targeting their instruction to the level of the students and also they would encounter much bigger problems when compared to other upper grades. The purpose of science course is to raise individuals who can examine the events encountered in daily life using cause and effect relation, think and build logical relations between the events (Çepni and Çil, 2012; Çepni and Çil, 2009; Çepni and et al, 2003). Science teaching is carried out within social studies course and science course. These courses enable students to develop their curiosity to explore their environment and thus becoming familiar with the knowledge about science in their immediate environment and the ways to obtain this knowledge (Kaptan, 1999). Students who take a science course for the first time develop attitudes towards science activities and the subjects which affect their attitudes towards the science courses which they are going to study later ( Hamurcu and et al, 2001). This situation increases the importance of science courses in the first level of primary education. The studies conducted in our country revealed that classroom teachers had many problems while teaching science courses, they did not feel themselves qualified in the field of science, they did not do most of the experiments in science courses, and classroom teachers must be given seminars on physical sciences ( Arslan, 2000, Koç and Bayraktar, 2013). In addition to this, it was discovered in the researches that classroom teachers had important misconceptions about science subjects. (Kruger et al, 1992; Sökmen and et al, 2000; Kaptan Correspondence: ikramettindasdemir@odu.edu.tr
An Investigation of Science and Technology Teachers Views İ. Daşdemir and Korkmaz, 2001; Schulte, 2001; Çepni et al 2003, Akpınar and et al, 2012).It is also reported that misconceptions which students acquire about science subjects in primary education would be difficult to correct in their later learning life (Çepni et al. 2003). Classroom teachers indicated that they could not teach the 4th and 5th grade science courses properly, the courses which they took in the field of science during their pre-service training were not enough for them to teach the 4th and 5th grade science courses as specified in the curriculum, they lacked laboratory field knowledge, because they had to deal with different fields, they did not want to spare time to study science, and most importantly, they were not interested in science very much (Çepni et al,2003). Moreover, although science is intertwined with life, it is perceived as a course which is difficult and needs to be memorized by the students (Eke, 2013). Its reasons are that these courses have been taught on theoretical basis beginning in the primary school and elementary school and their relation with the daily life and environment is not achieved (Eke 2013). In order to correct this situation, integrating science with technology and daily life intends to reconstruct science curriculum. In order to materialize this, the name of the science course was changed to science and technology course in our country. In 2004, Primary Education Science Course Curriculum became Primary Education Science and Technology Course Curriculum. Although the goals and objectives in education and teaching have been specified very well and functional course subjects have been chosen and organized, it is not possible to actualize the expected result if the teachers are not trained very well (Duman, 1990). Due to the changing conditions and increasing needs, an eight year compulsory education ended in 2012-2013 education year to increase the number of educated individuals in the society and to catch up with the average duration of education in the world. Therefore, an important change was made and the new education system of 4+4+4 has been implemented. It can be stated that our education system has undergone a radical change period to adapt to the world with the new implementation. However, this period of change must be evaluated with regard to an understanding of scientific curriculum evaluation(bay et al. 2013).Kazu and Eroğlu (2012) tried to determine the views of the faculty members towards the model in their study called Determination of Views of Education Faculty Members of a 12 Year Compulsory Education. In the study, it was discovered that faculty members did not have enough information about the 12 year compulsory education. In addition, it was revealed that faculty members reached the information related to the 12 year compulsory interrupted education via the Internet and mass media. The knowledge level and information sources of faculty members of Education Faculty which has a very important role in training teachers indicate that this issue has not been discussed in the academic filed in detail (Bay et al, 2013). The aim of the study conducted by Akpınar, Yıldırım and Karahan (2012) is to evaluate teaching 5 th grade science courses by the specialist subject teachers with regard to pre-service science teachers and classroom teachers. It was concluded in the research that pre-service science teachers had less misconceptions than classroom teachers. Koç and Bayraktar (2013) tried to detect the classroom teachers views on doing experiments in primary education Science and Technology course. The findings revealed that classroom teachers could not do the experiments embedded in science course and they stated that a seminar must be given on this issue. When the literature was analysed, what drew attention was that the results caused by the science and technology teachers while teaching science course were not examined. So, this study aimed at exploring the views of science and technology teachers teaching 5th grade science course in primary education towards the implementation in order to fill this deficiency. In line with these purposes, this study sought answers to the research questions given below: -140-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 139-148, December, 2014 1. Do you approve science and technology teachers teaching 5 th grade science and technology courses in place of classroom teachers? Please explain why you think so. Why? 2. What do you think about the timing of this implementation? 3. Do you believe that 5 th grade students achievement at science course will increase? 4. While teaching science course, are there any subjects or conditions which you have difficulty in explaining? 5. Do you want science and technology teachers to teach the 4 th grade science and technology course? Please give your reasons. 6. In your opinion, did the change in the name of the course to Science Course in the 5 th grades have an effect on the course content? How? Method 7. How are the 5 th grade students affected with these changes? What do you think? The Research Model Instrumental case study was used in the study. This method provides an opportunity to look at in-depth aspect of the issue in a short time. The most important advantage of this method is that it gives an opportunity to concentrate on a particular situation of the problem (Çepni, 2007). This method focuses on a particular quality of a case and gives a chance to use different data collection tools together (Cohen and Manion, 1994). The Sampling The sampling of the study was composed of 28 science and technology teachers working in Erzurum in 2012-2013 education year. The teachers who participated in the study were chosen among the schools located in the city centre of Erzurum via simple random sampling so that they could be reached. Two of these teachers are doing PhD in the field of science education and also the interviews were carried out with these teachers. Data Collection Tools Open-ended questions and interviews were used in the study as data collection tools. Open-ended questions were developed to detect science and technology teachers views on their teaching in the 5 th grades. The preliminary questionnaire consisted of nine questions and it was developed via examining the relevant literature. The number of questions in the questionnaire was dropped to seven questions in line with the views of the two faculty members and two science and technology teachers. The final version of the questionnaire consisted of six open ended questions. The questions in the questionnaire were asked to the two teachers doing PhD in the field of science education as an interview. The time allotted to the questionnaire and the interviews was considered to take 25 minutes on average. As the questions in the open-ended questionnaire were presented in the findings section of the study, they were not given in this section. Data Collection and Analysis -141-
An Investigation of Science and Technology Teachers Views İ. Daşdemir The open-ended question forms were distributed to the science and technology teachers working in the schools in the centre of Erzurum and they were given 25 minutes to fill them. The qualitative data obtained from the open-ended questions were exposed to content analysis. Three researchers examined the teachers questionnaire data and created the themes and codes collaboratively. Moreover, two science and technology teachers were interviewed. During the analysis disagreements were discussed and a consensus was achieved. Depending on the themes and codes, frequency and percentage for each opinion were given. Necessary explanations and interpretations related to the teachers opinions were made below the tables. Findings Question 1. Do you approve science and technology teachers teaching 5 th grade science and technology courses in place of classroom teachers? Please explain why you think so. Table 1. Analysis Results of the Participant s Responses to Question 1 Theme Code Frequency Percentage Specialist course I approve it 25 96 teacher teaching the course Presentation of the course Features of the course I partly approve it 1 4 Ineligible classroom teachers 6 15 Actualizing specialization 7 17 Implementing different teaching 1 2 Presenting the subjects in detail 3 7 Doing practical experiments 2 5 Courses with high amounts of contents 4 10 Too many diverse subjects 2 5 Too many activities and experiments 2 5 Difficulty in teaching the course 2 5 Student s condition Increasing student interest in the course 4 10 Increasing student achievement 4 10 Establishing the course on a good basis 2 5 Others Enhancing attitudes towards the course 1 2 Not being able to target instruction to the level of the students 1 2 In line with the data analysis and the information given by the teachers who were interviewed in Table 1, it was discovered from the presentation of the course, features of the course, student s condition and the information provided by the teachers who were interviewed that the teachers supported specialist subject teachers teaching the 5 th grade science course (96% I approve it, 4% I partly approve it). T1: I approve it because the teachers who complete their undergraduate studies in science department learn the course more elaborately, they will enable the students to learn without forming misconceptions. -142-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 139-148, December, 2014 T2: Yes, I approve it because I believe that classroom teachers have distinct deficiencies belonging to science and technology, mathematics and other core courses. Most of the classroom teachers are not aware of these deficiencies; however, those who know them do not make an effort to remove them. Thus, it was viewed that the students begin the second level of primary education with these distinct deficiencies and misunderstandings in these core courses. That s why I think that this implementation will be beneficial. Question 2: What do you think about the timing of this implementation? Table 2. Analysis Results of the Participant s Responses to Question 2 Theme Code Frequency Percentage Timing of the I approve it 7 27 implementation I don t approve it 1 4 I partially approve 1 4 A late decision 3 12 Wrong planning 5 19 Lack of infrastructure 5 19 Carrying out pilot study 4 15 In line with the data analysis and the information given by the teachers who were interviewed in Table 2, it was discovered that 27% of the participants approved the timing of the implementation, 4% of them did not approve it, 4% partially approved it, 12% of theme thought that it was a late decision, 19% of them drew the attention on wrong planning, 19% of them mentioned the lack of infrastructure, and 15% of them stated that a pilot study had to be carried out. The data presented below and obtained from the interviews carried out with the teachers seem to support the findings attained. T1. I approve it. However, because the implementation was materialized suddenly, it caused some troubles due to lack of some physical deficiencies. T2. Even though timing is a bit late, it is convenient. But, I believe that the implementation would be better if it had begun with the compulsory primary education. Question 3. Do you believe that 5 th grade students achievement at science course will increase? Why? Table 3. Analysis Results of the Participant s Responses to Question 3 Theme Code Frequency Percentage Increasing achievement Student achievement will increase 26 100 Reasons for an increasing achievement More content knowledge 11 42 Concretizing the course much better 2 8-143-
An Investigation of Science and Technology Teachers Views İ. Daşdemir Having the students concentrate on the 1 4 course Different teaching practices 1 4 Presenting subjects more in detail 1 4 Having the students do practical 4 15 experiments Make them enjoy the course 1 4 Having better communication with the 1 4 students Teaching basic knowledge better 2 8 Raising curiosity with the students 1 4 Removing students adaptation problems 1 4 According to the data analysis and the information given by the teachers who were interviewed in Table 3, it is viewed that students achievement at science course would increase (100%) via such an application. The most important reason is based on the view that specialist subject teachers have more content knowledge (42%). The findings obtained from the interviews promote this situation. T1. Yes, because teaching science course in the best way will be actualized with the science teachers who improved themselves in this discipline. T2. Success in science course will increase to a certain degree. However, I think that science and technology teachers teaching these courses need an in-service training about the curriculum and the content of the course. Question 4. While teaching science course, are there any subjects or conditions which you have difficulty in explaining? Table 4. Analysis Results of the Participant s Responses to Question 4 Theme Code Frequency Percentage Difficulty in I have no difficulty in explaining 17 65 Explaining the the course Lesson I have difficulty in explaining the course to a certain degree 9 35 Positive Opinions The subjects are quite simple 17 65 Negative Opinions Not being able to target their instruction to the students level Including abstract concepts 4 3 15 12 Lack of reference books 2 7 According to the findings in Table 4, 65% of the teachers stated that they did not any difficulties while lecturing due to simple subjects, % 35 of them had difficulties such as not being able to target their instruction to the level of the students (15%), science course s -144-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 139-148, December, 2014 including abstract concepts (12%), and lack of reference books (7%). Moreover, it was discovered that the two teachers who were interviewed had difficulties in explaining the abstract concepts in science course. T1. Yes. Because concrete concepts used in daily life such as heat and temperature which particularly appears in science course is not used correctly, it takes some time to remove the existing misconceptions of the students. T2. Yes, there are. These appear particularly in the units which include abstract concepts. To clarify, while explaining an even or trying to foster students conceptual learning, we encounter these difficulties.. Question 5 Do you want science and technology teachers to teach the 4 th grade science and technology course? Please give your reasons. Table 5. Analysis Results of the Participant s Responses to Question 5 Theme Code Frequency Percentage Instruction by I agree 8 31 specialist subject I don t agree 16 62 teachers Neutral 2 7 Positive Opinions Actualizing specialization at the basic level 8 31 Negative Opinions Not being able to target their instruction to the students level Simple concepts existing at the basic level Not being able to communicate Behaving childishly 4 9 1 1 15 35 4 4 Others I do not have an idea about the curriculum 1 4 In line with the data presented in Table 5, it is viewed that 31% of the teachers supported instruction of science course in the 4 th grade by the science and technology teachers, 62% of them did not support and 7% of them were undecided about it. In addition, the two teachers who were interviewed remarked that because they believed that science concepts basically need to be taught correctly, specialist subject teachers must instruct the science course in the 4 th grade. The teacher s views obtained from the interviews were given below. T1.Yes, I do. Students learn science for the first time in the 4 th grade. It will be more suitable for the specialist subject teachers to help students construct the concepts which appear in science course more correctly in their minds. Moreover, when students progress through upper grades, they will not have misconceptions. T2. According to the latest Primary and Secondary School Science Curriculum published by Ministry of National Education (M.B.E)(2013), science course is started to be taught in the 3 rd grade. Because of this, I believe that it will be more beneficial for the students to reach correct conceptual knowledge if science teachers begin to teach these courses in the 3 rd or 4 th grades. -145-
An Investigation of Science and Technology Teachers Views İ. Daşdemir Question 6 In your opinion, did the change in the name of the course to Science Course in the 5 th grades have an effect on the course content? How? Table 6. Analysis Results of the Participant s Responses to Question 6 Theme Code Frequency Percentage Effect of the course It does not have an effect 25 96 name on the It has an effect 1 4 content Opinions The name is not important, but the content The name must change because the concepts have become simple 25 1 96 4 According to the data presented in Table 6, 96% of the teachers stated that changing the name of science and technology course as science course wouldn t have an effect on the content of the course, but one teacher (4%) stated that because the concepts were simplified, the name of the course should be changed. The two teachers who were interviewed stated their views given below. T1. No, it didn t. There is no change in the content of the course. T2. I don t think that it will have a significant effect on the content of the course. Question 7. How are the 5 th grade students affected with these changes? What do you think? Table 7. Analysis Results of the Participant s Responses to Question 7 Theme Code Frequency Percentage Students condition of being affected Other Opinions Positive They are affected positively I have no idea They are partially affected positively There is no difference Learning from a different teacher is 3 9 interesting It enables them to have more satisfying 1 3 knowledge It enables them to enter different teaching 1 3 environments They communicate better 2 6 Increasing confidence in the course 1 3 Approach to being scientific 1 3 Negative Having adaptation problems 4 12 Some students are bored 1 3 Not being ready in terms of age and behaviour -146-11 4 2 1 33 12 6 3 1 3 According to the data presented in Table 7, it is discovered that 60% of the teachers stated that students were positively affected by these changes, 6% stated that they were partially
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 139-148, December, 2014 affected positively, 12% of them had no idea, 3% said that there was no difference, and 18 % of those reported negative opinions. Moreover, the two teachers who were interviewed remarked that the change would have positive effects on the students. T1. I think that this change has caused a positive effect on the students because I believe that students will learn science course best from the specialist subject teachers. T2. The 5 th graders were positively affected by science and technology teachers instruction in science course. Conclusion and Discussion Since 2012-2013 education year an important change has been made by putting an end to the eight year compulsory education and the new education system of 4+4+4 has been implemented. With this implementation specialist subject teachers began to instruct the fifth graders courses. The feedback which the teachers will give has gained importance throughout the instruction. Thus, the study aimed at detecting the science and technology teachers views regarding the implementation of the 5 th grade science course. The findings of the study revealed that a majority of science and technology teachers express approval of teaching 5 th grade science course, classroom teachers are not qualified to explain science course, they are not ale to concretize the course efficiently, they do not do enough experiments, it is difficult to teach science course and science concepts must be constructed better at the beginning. This finding corresponds with the findings discovered by Arslan, 2000) and Karahan and et al, 2012. While a majority of science and technology teachers stated that timing was right, even it was too late for the implementation, some of them remarked that lack of infrastructure and not carrying out a pilot study was a disadvantage. This finding shows parallelism with the findings of Karadeniz (2012). It was concluded that students achievement at science course would increase due to such conditions as science and technology teachers acquiring more content knowledge, presenting the subjects more elaborately, raising curiosity with the students, teaching basic knowledge better and using different teaching practises. This finding is compatible with the findings of the researches conducted by Çepni et al. (2003) and Karadeniz (2012). A majority of science and technology teachers stated that it would not be suitable for them to teach the 4 th grade science course due to the difficulty in targeting their instruction to the students level, not being able to communicate, and simple science concepts in the 4 th grade. This finding differs from the study conducted by Çepni et al. (2003). However, the two science and technology teachers who took part in the interviews stated that science concepts must be basically taught better so specialist subject teachers should teach the 4 th grade science course. This finding is compatible with the findings of the study conducted by Çepni et al. (2003). Furthermore, some teachers and the teachers participating in the interview defined that they had difficulties in teaching some abstract concepts in science educations. The following suggestions may be offered as a result of the study: 1. Classroom teachers views on this implementation can be investigated. 2. Students and parents views on this issue can be explored. -147-
An Investigation of Science and Technology Teachers Views İ. Daşdemir References Arslan, M. (2000, Eylül). Science Education in Primary Schools and Problems, 4 th Science Education Conference, Hacettepe University Education Faculty, Ankara. Akpınar, B., Yıldırım, B., Karahan, O., (2012). Evaluation of 4+4+4 Education Model Regarding Competencies of Class Teachers and Science and Technology Teachers in Science Course Content. Paper presented at the 2 nd National Education Programs and Teaching Congress, Bolu Bay, E., Türkan, A., Tosun, Ş., Deliçay, F., Ateş, G.N., Pamuk, T., Özkan, S., Demir., (2013). Evaluation of 4+4+4 Model In Terms of Partners: Is it an active participation? Is it an inactive resistance? Education and Society in the 21 st Century Vol3 (5),34-55. Çepni, S., Küçük, M., Ayvacı, H.Ş., (2003). A Study on the Implementation of Science Curriculum in Primary Education 1 st Level, Journal of Gazi Education Faculty, 23(3), 131-145. Cohen, L. ve Manion, L. (1994). Research methods in education. (Fourth Edition), Newyork: Rutledge. Çepni, S. (2007). Introduction to Research and Project Works (Revised Edition) Trabzon: Celepler Printing Çepni, S. & Çil, E. (2012). Elementary Science and Technology Program First and Second Stage Teacher's Handbook, Pegem Academy Publications, 4th Edition Çepni S., Çil E. (2009). Elementary Science and Technology Program First and Second Stage Teacher's Handbook, Ankara: Pegem A Publishing. Duman, T., (1990). Teacher Training for Secondary Education in Turkey, İstanbul, M.E. Press Eke, C., (2013). Importance of Elective Science Courses in Terms of Teaching Physical, Journal of Educational and Instructional Research, 2(2), 182-188. Hamurcu, H., Günay, Y., ve Çetin, O. (2001, September). Students Attitudes Towards Doing Experiment Activity and Use and Reliability of Laboratory in Primary Education Science Education, Science Education at the Beginning of Millennium in Turkey, Maltepe University Education Faculty, İstanbul Kaptan, F. (1999). Science Education. Milli Eğitim Printing, İstanbul. Kaptan, F., Korkmaz, A. (2000). Pre-service Science Teachers Misconceptions About Heat and Temperature in Science Education, Hacettepe University Journal of Education Faculty, 21, 59-65. Karadeniz, C.B., 2012. Teachers Views on Compulsory Education System of Öğretmenlerin 4+4+4, Journal of Education Sciences and Society, 10 (40), 34-53 Kazu, İ.Y., Eroğlu, M.. (2012). Determination of Views of Faculty Members of Education Faculty on a 12 Year Compulsory Education System. Paper presented at the 2 nd National Education Programs and Teaching Congress, Bolu. Kruger, C., Palacio, D., and Summers, M. (1992). Surveys of English Primary School Teachers Conceptions of Force, Energy and Materials, Science Education, 76(4) 339-351. Schulte, P. L. (2001). Pre-service Elementary Teachers Alternative Conceptions In Science and Attitudes Towards Teaching Science, PhD Dissertation, New Orleans University, New Orleans. Sökmen, N., Bayram, H., and Gürdal, A. (2000). 8 th and 9 th Grade Students Alternative Conceptions in Science Course, Journal of National Education, Journal of National Education, 146, 74-77. Koç, B., Bayraktar, Ş., (2013). Class Teachers Views and Practises Towards the 4 th and 5 th Grade Science and Technology Course Experiments, Journal of Social Studies, 15(1). -148-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 4(3), pp. 69-82, December, 2014 Available online at http://mije.mevlana.edu.tr/ http://dx.doi.org/10.13054/mije.14.72.4.3 An analysis of the relationship between high school teachers organizational commitment levels and perceptions of school culture Article history Received: 10.08.2014 Received in revised form: 16.12..2014 Accepted: 16.12.2014 Ahmet Ayık 1 Educational Sciences Department, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey Öznur Ataş Educational Sciences Department, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey In this study, it is aimed at investigating the relationship between high school teachers organizational commitment levels and their perceptions of school culture. Therefore, relational (correlational) model has been used in the study. The sampling group of the study consists of 265 teachers who work at high schools in Palandöken district of Erzurum. Organizational Commitment Scale and School Culture Scale have been used as data collection instruments. Data has been analysed through arithmetic mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis. At the end of the study, positive and significant correlation has been found between organizational commitment levels of high school teachers and their school culture. Teachers perception levels on emotional commitment has been found to be higher than normative and continuance commitment levels. Besides, it has been determined that high school teachers perceptions on school culture are at the highest levels in unity of purpose dimension while they are at low levels in learning partnership dimension. It has been concluded that collaborative leadership and collegial support dimensions of school culture predict teachers perceptions of emotional commitment; learning partnership dimension predicts their perceptions of continuance commitment; collaborative leadership dimension predicts their perceptions of normative commitment in positive direction and at meaningful levels. In this context, educational administrators in educational organizations should lead teachers and support them about learning partnership which is one of the factors of setting school culture. Moreover, educational administrators should produce works for setting organizational commitment which helps achieving the objectives of the institution. Regarding the fact that organizational commitment and school culture affect each other, these two variables should be compromised in school setting. Key words: organizational commitment; school culture; high schools; teachers Introduction Organizations which are composed of people that have come together to reach a specific goal should use the element of human, which is one of the most important resources they have, in order to reach their goals, to keep up with the rapid changes and developments resulting from the needs of today and to maintain sustainability in this competitive world. Organizational commitment level of employees is one of the most important factors that 1 ahmet.ayik@atauni.edu.tr
An analysis of the relationship between high school teachers A. Ayık, Ö. Ataş participate in establishing the balance between the aim of the individual and that of organization, decreasing the pace of labor turnover and enhancing performance at the highest level. The higher the employees organizational commitment is, the easier they adopt organizational goals and identify themselves with the organization, likewise, their sense of self devotion increases, they can go on working in the organization voluntarily and fulfil the needs of their roles effectively (Yazıcıoğlu and Topaloğlu, 2009, p.4). Organizational commitment, which is an important factor for the organization, is an important research area which has been addressed within the framework of education recently (Balay, 2001; Boylu, Pelit and Güçer, 2007; Choong, Wong and Lau, 2012; Çokluk and Yılmaz,2010;Durna and Eren, 2005; Izgar, 2008;Javadi and Yavarian, 2011; Khan and Rashid, 2012; Korkmaz, 2011; Nagar, 2012; Özgan, Külekçi and Özkan, 2012; Özmen, Özer and Saatçioğlu, 2005; Sezgin, 2010; Shah, Memon and Phulpoto, 2012; Topaloğlu, Koç and Yavuz, 2008;Uğurlu and Üstüner, 2011; Uygur and Yıldırım, 2011; Yılmaz,2009). Studies carried out on this topic associate organizational commitment with various variables and thus determine the factors affecting organizational commitment. Organizational commitment is closely related to organizational factors. Organizational factors that affect organizational commitment include variables such as organizational structure, organizational culture, wage, quality and importance of the job, style of management, organizational justice, and ambiguity of roles, conflict and need of belonging. Factors such as organization s size, level of formality, capacity to be controlled, unionization, image, practices about total quality management, flexibility of working hours, wages, career opportunities, the ability to make a decision together, ability to establish perception of organizational ethics, and the ability to create organizational culture have a great effect on organizational commitment (Kaya, 2009, p.37). One of the factors that greatly affect the organizational commitment of employees working at schools is school culture. The number of studies about school culture has increased recently (Boydak-Özan and Demir, 2011; Burrows and McCormack, 2011; Demirkol and Savaş, 2012; Demirtaş, 2010; Grubert, 2012; Kantek, Baykal and Altuntaş, 2010; Kennedy, Cameron and Greene, 2012; Korkut and Hacıfazlıoğlu, 2011; Şişman, Güleş and Dönmez, 2010; Tavares- Silva and Pessanha, 2012). However, it is obvious that there are not so many studies on the relationship between organizational commitment and school culture, which is one of the factors that affect the organizational commitment of teachers (Çakır, 2007; Sezgin, 2010). Because of this reason, it can be stated that this study will be helpful about developing organizational commitment and school culture by means of revealing the relations between organizational commitment and dimensions of school culture. Organizational Commitment Organizations would like to have human resources that are knowledgeable, talented and also motivated in terms of the goals of organizations. On the other hand, organizations also have to make an effort in order to make sure that human resources having these features stay within the organization. This fact makes it inevitable to study the concept of commitment in terms of organizational dimensions (Gülova and Demirsoy, 2012). The term of commitment is an emotional wording of social instinct that exists where there is the feeling of society. Commitment which defines the attitude of slave to his/her master, of employee to his/her job, of soldier to his/her country describes the state of solidarity and loyalty. In general terms, commitment is an emotion that is felt at maximum level. This -70-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 69-82, December, 2014 describes the loyalty and responsibility we have towards a person, a thought, an institution or an entity we consider bigger than ourselves (Bülbül, 2007). There are various definitions of organizational commitment in the books and articles. Mowday, Steers and Porter (1982) describe organizational commitment as all the feelings of the individual about the organization, individual s psychological connection to the organization and behaviours within the organization; Morgan and Hunt (1994) describe organizational commitment as the belief of individual in the goals and values of organization, individual s willingness to fulfil the goals of organization, individual s wish to be a member of organization; Javadi and Yavarian (2012) describe organizational commitment as the attitude of being loyal to the organization, an on-going process related to individuals participation in organization s decisions, a state that helps welfare and success, and that limits freedom in an organization. According to Meyer and Allen (1991), commitment is divided into three such as emotional commitment, continuity commitment and normative organizational commitment including wish, necessity and obligation. Emotional commitment is described as employee s attachment for, identity and participation in organization and organizational goals (Javadi and Yavarian, 2012). According to Clugston (2000), emotional commitment is the process of people s thinking over their attachment for the organization in terms of values and goals. Employees that have a strong attachment for their organizations stay within the organization because they wish so. Continuance commitment is employee s wish to stay within the organization because of employee s nonassignable investment (Javadi ve Yavarian, 2012). Meyer and Allen (1991) describe continuity commitment as the necessity to stay within the organization because of the cost resulting from leaving the organization. Normative commitment represents the employee s wish to stay within the organization depending upon the sense of duty, loyalty or moral obligation (Meyer and Allen, 1991). This type of commitment may result from job ethics that make an employee feel obliged to stay within the organization or from the individual s culture. Normative commitment can be accepted to be different from emotional and continuity commitment because employees that have the sense of normative commitment do not find it necessary to adopt the missions and goals of the organization. The sense of loyalty and service lying behind an employee s normative commitment affect individual s decision to stay within the organization (Clugston, 2000). School Culture Culture can be defined as the total of thoughts and habits learnt mentally; as the system of symbols that are a product of mental processes structurally; as a vehicle and mechanism that helps harmony functionally; as the total of meaningful symbols symbolically; as a social heritage transferred to the next generations historically; as the total of learnt behaviours behaviourally; as the total of moral values and rules that determine the activities of human beings normatively (Şişman and Turan, 2004, p.131). In each culture, there is a general culture that helps the individuals of that society to socialize with the society, to feel that they are part of that society, to become socialized and to fulfill the needs of social life and thus to maintain their existence, and that is accepted by all -71-
An analysis of the relationship between high school teachers A. Ayık, Ö. Ataş members of society and that is called as social culture. At the same time, the institutions within the society have organizational cultures that don not contradict the general culture. The culture possessed by schools which are one of these institutions is called school culture. (Yeşilyurt, 2009, p.196). School culture is composed of feelings, thoughts, values, beliefs, expectations and attitudes that employees at school bring from the previous institutions they come from and that are shared by the employees with the other ones. Schools may tend to work with individuals sharing same culture while choosing their employees. Moreover, the staff that does not share the school culture may wish to leave the school where she/he is working (Güney, 2011; Şişman and Turan, 2004). School principal is the one who directs the school culture intentionally or unintentionally. A school principal who understands the effect of school culture and its importance in terms of management processes can manage the school culture more successfully. The first duty of school principal in terms of managing school culture is to create a strong school culture. A strong school culture can be established if the principal and teachers come together around a common value, norm and beliefs. In such a strong school culture, when bureaucratic rules diminish and teachers arrange their own behaviours, principal s duty of supervision diminishes as well (Çelik, 2002). The studies carried out about school culture reveal that school culture is connected to various variables. Şimşek (2003) has studied the relationship between school culture and school principal s communication skills and found a high level of relation between these two variables. The study carried out by Ayık and Ada (2009) investigates the school culture created at primary schools and the efficiency of schools, reveals a high level of positive relation between school culture and efficiency of schools. Bass (2004) has revealed that there is a high level of relation between school culture and environment of trust while there is also a high level of relation between culture and violence, and distrust and conflict affect the general atmosphere negatively in organizations where the management has no consistency. A study that aims at determining the relation between the level of teachers despair and school culture has come to the conclusion that a strong school culture not only enhances teachers level of hope but also decreases their loss of motivation (Taner, 2008). Türkoğlu (2008) has tried to determine the relation between school culture and job satisfaction, and found out that there is a high level of positive relation between school culture and job satisfaction. These studies and various others that are not mentioned here reveal the fact that school culture is related to variables such as organizational climate, motivation, leadership, management process, organizational cynicism and organizational commitment, etc. The aim of this study is to determine the relation between the organizational commitment of secondary school teachers and their perception of school culture. In line with this aim, answers of the questions stated below have been sought: 1. What is the level of teachers perceptions related to organizational commitment and dimensions that constitute school culture? 2. Is there a meaningful relation between organizational commitment perceived by teachers and dimensions of school culture? 3. At what level do the teachers perceptions about the dimensions of school culture predict their perceptions of emotional, continuity and normative commitment? -72-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 69-82, December, 2014 Method The research model This study is a quantitative and relational study that aims at investigating the relation between the level of organizational commitment and the perception of school culture. Population and Sample The population of this study is composed of teachers working at formal secondary schools in Palandöken district of Erzurum province in educational year of 2011-2012. The sample of the study is composed of 265 teachers working at 17 secondary schools located in Palandöken. Convenience sampling method is used in this study. 119 (%44.9) of the teachers participating in the study are women while 146 (%55.1) of them are men. When these teachers are distributed in line with seniority, 85 (%32.1) of them has been working as a teacher for 1-5 years, 43 (%16.2) of them has been working as a teacher for 6-10 years, 70 (%26.4) of them has been working as a teacher for 11-15 years, 34 (%12.8) of them has been working as a teacher for 16-20 years and 33 (%12.5) of them has been working as a teacher for 21 years or more. 182 (69.6) of the participants have a bachelor s degree while 83 (31.4) of them have master s degree. Data Collection Tools Three Dimensional Organizational Commitment Scale which is developed by Allen and Meyer (1996), and adapted into Turkish by Yıldırım (2002); and School Culture Scale which is developed by Gruenert and Valentine (1998); adapted into Turkish by Ayık (2007) and revised with confirmatory factor analysis by Koşar and Yalçınkaya (2013) have been used as data collection tools in this study. Organizational Commitment Scale is composed of 18 items having fivefold Likert type rating and three dimensions such as emotional commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. In the scale, the rating alternatives of each item are expressed as Strongly disagree (1), Disagree (2), Undecided (3), Agree (4), Strongly agree (5). Alpha reliability coefficient of this scale is found to be.76 in this study. Reliability coefficients of the scale factors are found to be.68 for emotional commitment,.30 for continuance commitment and.65 for normative commitment. School Culture Scale is composed of 35 items and six dimensions such as collaborative leadership, teacher collaboration, career development, unity of purpose, collegial support and learning partnership. In the scale, the expressions are assessed such as Strongly disagree (1), Disagree (2), Undecided (3), Agree (4), Strongly agree (5) on Likert type fivefold scale. As a result of exploratory factor analysis made by Ayık (2007), it has been observed that school culture scale was collected in six factors and factor loadings of items ranged from.63 to.90. As a result of confirmatory factor analysis carried out by Koşar and Yalçınkaya (2013), goodness of fit indices for 6-dimensional model were obtained as χ2 = 41.16, sd = 6, p =.00, GFI =.99, AGFI =.94, CFI =.99, SRMR =.03, RMSEA =.072. Reliability values of dimensions included in the scale are found by Ayık (2007) to be.90 for collaborative leadership,.76 for teacher collaboration,.75 for career development,.78 for unity of purpose,.68 for collegial support and.63 for learning partnership. According to the reliability analysis carried out by the researchers, alpha reliability coefficient is.96, alpha reliability coefficients -73-
An analysis of the relationship between high school teachers A. Ayık, Ö. Ataş are.92 for collaborative leadership,.78 for teacher collaboration,.75 for career development,.82 for unity of purpose,.80 for collegial support and.75 for learning partnership. Data Analysis Statistical analysis of data is carried out with the packet programme of SPSS 20.0. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation are used in order to determine teachers perception of organizational commitment and school culture dimensions while Pearson multiple moments correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis are used in order to determine the relations between these dimensions and the level of prediction. Findings The findings that appear as a result of the analysis of data collected during the study are included in this part. Findings Related to the First Sub-Problem Findings about the levels of organizational commitment and school culture perceived by teachers are included in Table 1 below. Table 1. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation values related to organizational commitment and dimensions of school culture Sub-Dimensions Ss 1.Emotional Commitment 3.41.79 2.Continuance Commitment 2.61.62 3. Normative Commitment 2.88.77 4.Collaborative Leadership 3.10.86 5.Teacher Collaboration 3.01.82 6.Career Development 3.35.77 7. Unity of Purpose 3.36.83 8. Collegial Support 3.35.85 9. Learning Partnership 2.84.92 X According to the findings stated in Table 1, the level of teachers perception related to emotional commitment ( X =3.41) is higher than normative commitment ( X =2.88) and continuance commitment ( X =2.61). In terms of the dimensions of school culture, the highest point average is found at unity of purpose ( X =3.36) while the lowest average is found at learning partnership ( X =2.84). According to these findings, it can be said that teachers working at secondary schools mostly have emotional commitment towards their schools and they adopt the common goals of the school. Findings Related to the Second Sub-Problem Findings about the relation between organizational commitment and the dimensions of school culture perceived by teachers are included in Table 2 below. Table 2. Correlational values related to organizational commitment and dimensions of school culture Sub-Dimension 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-74-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 69-82, December, 2014 1.Emotional Commitment 2.Continuance Commitment 3.Normative Commitment 4.Collaborative Leadership 5.Teacher Collaboration 6.Career Development 7.Unity of Purpose 8. Collegial Support 9. Learning Partnership **p<.01; *p<.05 1.00.46**.39**.42**.33**.36**.34**.38**.32** 1.00.46**.31**.31**.26**.30**.26**.33** 1.00.48**.40**.38**.32**.37**.36** 1.00.73**.76**.69**.64**.68** 1.00.81**.72**.77**.70** 1.00.77**.71**.72** 1.00.68**.71** 1.00.59** 1.00 According to the findings stated in Table 2, there is a meaningful positive relation between emotional commitment and continuance commitment (r=.46, p<.01) and normative commitment (r=.39, p<.01). Moreover, there is also a meaningful and positive relation between continuance commitment and normative commitment (r=.46, p<.01). Among the dimensions of school culture, there is a meaningful and positive relation between collaborative leadership and teacher collaboration (r=.73, p<.01), career development (r=.76, p<.01), unity of purpose (r=.69, p<.01), collegial support (r=.64, p<.01) and learning partnership (r=.68, p<.01). There is also a meaningful and positive relation between teacher collaboration and career development, (r=.81, p<.01), unity of purpose (r=.72, p<.01), collegial support (r=.77, p<.01) and learning partnership dimensions. There is a meaningful and positive relation between career development and unity of purpose (r=.77, p<.01), collegial support (r=.71, p<.01) and learning partnership (r=.72, p<.01). There is a meaningful and positive relation between unity of purpose and collegial support (r=.68, p<.01) and learning partnership (r=.71, p<.01); collegial support and learning partnership (r=.59, p<.01). There is a meaningful and positive relation between teachers emotional commitment and school culture, and collaborative leadership (r=.42, p<.01), teacher collaboration (r=.33, p<.01), career development (r=.36, p<.01), unity of purpose (r=.34, p<.01), collegial support (r=.38, p<.01) and learning partnership (r=.32, p<.01); continuance commitment and collaborative leadership (r=.31, p<.01), teacher collaboration (r=.31, p<.01), career development (r=.26, p<.01), unity of purpose (r=.30, p<.01), collegial support (r=.26, p<.01) and learning partnership (r=.33, p<.01); normative commitment and collaborative leadership (r=.48, p<.01), teacher collaboration (r=.40, p<.01), career development (r=.38, p<.01), unity of purpose (r=.32, p<.01), collegial support (r=.37, p<.01) and learning partnership (r=.36, p<.01) dimensions. Findings Related to the Third Sub-Problem The results of multiple regression analysis related to prediction of emotional commitment perceived by teachers are included in Table 3. -75-
An analysis of the relationship between high school teachers A. Ayık, Ö. Ataş Table 3. Regression analysis related to prediction of emotional commitment Variable B Sh β T p Fixed 1.937.209-9.268.000 Collaborative Leadership.298.086.321 3.463.001 Teacher Collaboration -.130.111 -.134-1.177.240 Career Development.034.117.033.293.770 Unity of Purpose.026.092.028.286.775 Collegial Support.203.085.218 2.379.018 Learning Partnership.022.076.026.289.773 F=10.970, p<.01; R=.451, R 2 =.203 As is seen in Table 3, there is a medium level and meaningful relation between school culture s dimensions of collaborative leadership, teacher collaboration, career development, unity of purpose, collegial support, learning partnership and teachers perception of emotional commitment (R=451, p<.01). All the dimensions of school culture explain almost %20 of total variance within teachers emotional commitment. School culture s dimensions of collaborative leadership (β=.321, p<.01) and collegial support (β=.218, p<.05) predict teachers perceptions of emotional commitment positively and at a meaningful level. Teacher collaboration (β=-.134, p>.05), career development (β=.033, p>.05), unity of purpose (β=.028, p>.05) and learning partnership dimensions (β=.026, p>.05) are not meaningful predictors of emotional commitment. The results of multiple regression analysis related to prediction of continuance commitment perceived by teachers are included in Table 4. Table 4. Regression analysis related to prediction of continuance commitment Variable B Sh β t p Fixed 1.822.171-10.679.000 Collaborative Leadership.093.070.129 1.327.186 Teacher Collaboration.109.090.143 1.203.230 Career Development -.136.096 -.168-1.413.159 Unity of Purpose.067.075.090.888.375 Collegial Support.015.070.020.212.832 Learning Partnership.125.062.185 2.000.047 F=6.554, p<.01; R=.364, R 2 =.132 When Table 4 is examined, it is obvious that the dimensions of school culture such as collaborative leadership, teacher collaboration, career development, unity of purpose, collegial support and learning partnership have a medium level and meaningful relation with teachers continuance commitment (R=.364, p<.01). These variables explain almost %13 of total variance within teachers perception of continuance commitment. Learning partnership (β=.185, p<.05) predicts continuance commitment positively and at a meaningful level. The dimensions of school culture such as collaborative leadership (β=.129, p>.05), teacher collaboration (β=-.143, p>.05), career development (β=-.168, p>.05), unity of purpose (β=.090, p>.05) and collegial support (β=.020, p>.05) are not meaningful predictors of continuance commitment. The results of multiple regression analysis related to prediction of normative commitment perceived by teachers are included in Table 5. -76-
Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 4(3); 69-82, December, 2014 Table 5. Regression analysis related to prediction of normative commitment Variable B Sh β T p Fixed 1.504.198-7.617.000 Collaborative Leadership.378.081.420 4.654.000 Teacher Collaboration.087.105.092.834.405 Career Development -.047.111 -.047 -.424.672 Unity of Purpose -.127.087 -.137-1.450.148 Collegial Support.098.081.108 1.216.225 Learning Partnership.070.072.083.968.334 F=14.233, p<.01; R=.499, R 2 =.249 As is seen in Table 5, the dimensions of school culture such as collaborative leadership, teacher collaboration, career development, unity of purpose, collegial support, learning partnership have a medium level and meaningful relation with teachers perception of normative commitment (R=499, p<.01). All the dimensions of school culture explain %24 of total variance within teachers perception of normative commitment. School culture s dimension of collaborative leadership (β=.420, p<.01) predicts teachers perception of normative commitment positively and at a meaningful level. The dimensions of teacher collaboration (β=-.092, p>.05), career development (β=-.047, p>.05), unity of purpose (β=-.137, p>.05), collegial support (β=.108, p>.05) and learning partnership (β=.083, p>.05) are not meaningful predictors of normative commitment. Discussion, Result and Suggestions This study, which aims at investigating the relation between the level of organizational commitment of teachers working at secondary schools and their perception of school culture, reveals various results. First and foremost, it is noticed that teachers level of perception related to emotional commitment is higher than that of normative commitment and continuance commitment. This finding is similar to the findings of researches carried out by Boylu, Pelit and Güçer (2007), Kaya (2009), Karaca (2009), Özel (2009), Özkan (2008), Sezgin (2010), Zeyrek (2008). In the study carried out by Boylu, Pelit and Güçer (2007) and Özel (2009) with academicians, it is noticed that academicians participate in expressions of emotional commitment more than that of other dimensions. In the study carried out by Kaya (2009) with inspectors, it is seen that the level of inspectors emotional commitment is higher than that of their continuity commitment. In the study carried out by Karaca (2009), Özkan (2008), Sezgin (2010) and Zeyrek (2008), teachers level of emotional commitment is found to be higher than that of continuity commitment and normative commitment. The finding that states that teachers have a high level of emotional commitment can be accepted as the evidence of the fact that teachers adopt schools values and goals to a great extent. Moreover, this finding explains that teachers identify with their schools and they are attached to their schools with love. Another finding of the study is that the dimension of common goals of school culture perceptions shared by teachers working at secondary schools has the highest average while learning partnership has low average. In the study carried out by Demirtaş (2010) in order to determine the culture existing at high schools, it has been found out that common goals dimension of school culture has the highest average while teacher collaboration has the lowest average, and this can be said to support the findings of this study. Other studies carried out about school culture have revealed different results. The study carried out by Ayık and Ada (2009) in order to investigate the school culture created at primary schools has found out that -77-
An analysis of the relationship between high school teachers A. Ayık, Ö. Ataş among the dimensions of school culture, teacher collaboration has higher average than the other dimensions while collaborative leadership has the lowest average. Tanrıverdi (2007), who has investigated the relation between school culture and job motivation, has found out that the mostly existing dimension of all the dimensions of school culture perceived by teachers is career development, which is followed respectively by peer cooperation, learning partnership, common goals, teacher cooperation and participant leadership. Lastly, it has been found out that there is a positive and meaningful relation between the level of organizational commitment of teachers working at secondary schools and their perception of school culture. It is obvious that various other studies support this finding. In the study carried out by Gülova and Demirsoy (2012) with employees of service sector in order to investigate the relation between organizational culture and organizational commitment, it has been found out that there is a positive relation between functional culture and emotional commitment, and there is a negative relation between functional culture and continuity commitment. Moreover, they have come to the conclusion that there is a positive relation between organizational cultural features and emotional commitment while there is a negative relation between organizational cultural features and continuity commitment. In the study carried out by Lok and Crawford (2004) in order to investigate the effects of organizational culture and styles of leadership on organizational commitment and job satisfaction, it has been found out that innovative and supportive culture is more effective on organizational commitment and job satisfaction. In the study carried out by Momeni, Marjani and Saadat (2012) in order to investigate the relation between organizational commitment and organizational culture, it has been found out that there is a meaningful relation between organizational commitment and all the dimensions of organizational culture including the ability to adapt, participation, harmony and mission. In another study carried out by Odom, Boxx and Dunn (1990), it has been found out that innovative and supportive cultures affect employees commitment, job satisfaction and solidarity. In the study carried out by Sezgin (2010) in order to investigate the relation between teachers organizational commitment and school culture, it has been found out that the variables of support and job culture belonging to school culture predict teachers emotional and normative commitment while bureaucratic culture predicts continuity commitment. Somuncu (2008) has come to the conclusion that organizational culture, working conditions and motivation are effective in creating emotional commitment within the organization. The results of this study can be summarized as below: a) Teachers emotional commitment is higher than their continuance and normative commitment. b) Teachers perception of common goals is more dominant. c) Teachers emotional commitment is predicted by the variables of collaborative leadership and collegial support. d) The dimension of learning partnership meaningfully predicts teachers continuance commitment. e) The dimension of collaborative leadership is a meaningful predictor of teachers perception of normative commitment. In this sense, educational managers should lead and support teachers about common learning, which is one of the factors that help creating school culture in educational organizations. Moreover, educational managers should develop practices in order to create organizational commitment that helps the organization to reach its goals. Although organizational commitment has a number of different factors, one of them is school culture. In this sense, these two variables should be harmonized with each other in educational organizations. -78-
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