Chapter Contents Page No Preface Acknowledgement 1 Basics of Remote Sensing 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Definition of Remote Sensing 1 1.3. Principles of Remote Sensing 1 1.4. Various Stages in Remote Sensing 2 1.5. Electromagnetic Energy 3 1.6. Radiation Laws 4 1.6.1. Planck Radiation Law 4 1.6.2. Wien s Displacement law 5 1.6.3. Stephen-Boltzman Law 5 1.7. Electromagnetic Spectrum 5 1.8. Energy Interactions with the Atmosphere 8 1.8.1. Atmospheric Absorption 9 1.8.2. Scattering 9 1.8.2.1. Selective Scattering 10 1.8.2.2. Nonselective Scattering 11 1.9. Atmospheric Windows 11 1.10. Refraction 12 1.11. Radiation Earth Surface Interactions 12 1.12. Reflectance Characteristics of Earth's Cover Types 14 1.13. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System 15 1.14. Remote Sensing Technology and Aerial Photography 16 2 Platforms and Sensors 17 2.1. Platforms and their Types 17 2.1.1. Ground-Based Sensors 17 2.1.2. Airborne Based Sensors 17 2.1.3. Satellite Based Sensors 19 2.2. Orbits and Swaths 19 2.2.1. Geosynchronous Orbits/ Geostationary Orbits 20 2.2.2. Near Polar Orbits 20
2.2.3. Sun-Synchronous Orbits 21 2.2.4. Swath 21 2.3. Active and Passing Remote Sensing 23 2.4. Satellite Sensor Characteristics 24 2.4.1. Spatial Resolution 25 2.4.2. Spectral Resolution 26 2.4.3. Radiometric Resolution 28 2.4.4. Temporal Resolution 29 2.5. Cameras and Aerial Photography 30 2.6. Multispectral Scanning 32 2.7. Characteristics of Images 34 2.7.1. Multilayer Image 36 2.7.2. Multispectral Image 36 2.7.3. Superspectral Image 37 2.7.4. Hyperspectral Image 37 2.8. Thermal Imaging 37 2.9. Pay Load Description of Important Satellites 38 2.9.1. Earth Resources Satellites 38 2.9.2. Meteorological Satellites 41 3 Image Interpretation and Analysis 43 3.1. Types of Data Products 43 3.1.1. Pictorial Data Products 43 3.1.2. Digital Data Products 44 3.2. Image Interpretation 44 3.3. Basic Elements of Visual Interpretation 45 3.4. Digital Image Processing 49 3.4.1. Image Rectification 49 3.4.2. Image Enhancement 52 3.4.3. Image Transformations 57 3.4.4. Image Classification and Analysis 61 4 Map Basics 64 4.1. Introduction 64 4.2. Purpose of a Map 64 4.3. Map Features 64
4.4. Classification of Maps 65 4.4.1. Types of Maps 65 4.5. Uses of Maps 66 4.6. Map Characteristics 66 4.7. Coordinate System 68 4.8. Map Projections 69 4.9. Properties of Map Projections 70 4.10. Projections 71 4.10.1. Selection of Projection 72 4.10.2. Types of Projection 72 4.10.2.1. Developable Surface 73 4.10.2.2. Aspect of Projection 76 4.10.2.3. Viewpoints 77 4.11. Commonly Used Map Projections 79 4.11.1. Polyconic Projection 79 4.11.2. Mercator 79 4.11.3. Lambert Conical Orthomorphic Projection 82 4.11.4. Lambert Conformal Projection 82 5 Geographic Information Systems 84 5.1. Introduction 84 5.2. Development of GIS 84 5.3. Requirement of GIS 85 5.3.1. Computer System 85 5.3.2. Geography and Geographic Data 85 5.4. Components of a GIS 87 5.5. Spatial Data Models of GIS 92 5.5.1. Raster Data Model 92 5.5.1.1. Raster Image Structures 93 5.5.1.2. Raster Data Compression 95 5.5.2. Vector Data Model 99 5.5.2.1. Vector Feature Geometry 100 5.5.2.2. Vector Representations 100 5.6. GIS Data File Management/ Basic File Structures 106 5.7. Database Management Systems 108
5.7.1. Functions of DBMS 108 5.7.2. Components of DBMS 109 5.7.3. Database Models 109 5.7.3.1. Hierarchical Database 110 5.7.3.2. Network Systems 112 5.7.3.3. Relational Databases 113 5.7.3.4. Object Oriented Databases 114 5.8. GIS Softwares 116 6 Data Input, Storage and Editing 119 6.1. Data and its Classification 119 6.1.1. Data Acquisition 119 6.1.2. Data Input 119 6.1.3. Data Evaluation 119 6.1.4. Metadata 121 6.1.5. On-Line GIS Data 121 6.1.6. Converting from one GIS Format to Another 122 6.2. Data Capture 122 6.2.1. Converting Digital Data 122 6.2.2. Conversion of Spatial Data 124 6.3. GIS Software & Functionality of a GIS 124 6.3.1. Data Input 125 6.3.2. Data Editing 128 6.3.3. Data Storage 130 6.3.3.1. The Hybrid Data Model 131 6.3.3.2. The Integrated Data Model 131 6.3.4. Printers and Plotters 131 6.4. Querying, Maintenance and Spatial Analysis 132 7 Data Quality 134 7.1. Introduction 134 7.2. Components of Data Quality 134 7.2.1. Accuracy 135 7.2.1.1. Spatial Accuracy/ Positional Accuracy 135 7.2.1.2. Temporal Accuracy 136 7.2.1.3. Attribute Accuracy 137
7.2.1.4. Conceptual Accuracy 137 7.2.2. Precision and Resolution 138 7.2.2.1. Spatial Resolution 138 7.2.2.2. Temporal Resolution 138 7.2.2.3. Thematic Resolution 139 7.2.3. Consistency/ Logical Consistency 139 7.2.4. Completeness 139 7.2.5. Lineage 140 7.3. Sources of Error in GIS 140 7.3.1. Classification of Sources of Errors 141 7.3.2. Root Mean Square Error 142 7.4. Error Detection and Correction 143 7.4.1. Node 143 7.4.2. Common Polygon Errors 145 7.4.3. Correcting Errors 147 8 Spatial Analysis 149 8.1. Introduction 149 8.2. Analytic Functions of GIS 149 8.3. Measurements on Vector Data 150 8.3.1. Measuring Distance 150 8.3.2. Measuring Area/ Perimeter 150 8.4. Measurements on Raster Data 151 8.5. Selection 155 8.5.1. Attribute Query (Boolean Selection) 155 8.5.2. Spatial Selection Queries 156 8.6. Classification 159 8.7. Reclassification 160 8.8. Overlay Functions 161 8.8.1. Vector Overlay Operators 161 8.8.2. Raster Overlay Operators 163 8.9. Correlation and Regression 165 8.10. Neighborhood Operations 165 8.10.1. Proximity Computation 166 8.10.2. Interpolation 167
8.10.3. Topographic Functions 168 8.11. Connectivity Analysis 169 8.11.1. Spread Computation 169 8.11.2. Viewshed Modeling (Intervisibility Analysis) 170 8.11.3. Network Analysis 170 9 Remote Sensing and GIS Applications 173 9.1. Introduction 173 9.2. Managing Natural Resources 173 9.3. Surface Temperature 174 9.4. Productivity 174 9.5. Suspended Materials 174 9.6. Drought 175 9.7. Cyclone 177 9.7.1. Cyclone Warning 177 9.7.2. Cyclone Management 178 9.8. Floods 178 9.9. Earthquake 179 9.10. Volcanic Eruption 180 9.11. Landslides 181 9.12. Crop Pest and Diseases 181 9.13. Forest Fire 182 9.14. Environmental Investigation and Remediation Applications 182 9.15. Applications of GIS in Disease Surveillance 182 9.16. Geology 183 9.17. Site Investigations 183 9.18. Water Resources Engineering 183 9.19. Highway Alignment Studies Using GIS 184 9.20. Land Information System (LIS) and Cadastral Applications 186 9.20.1. Importance of Cadastral Records and Land Information Systems 186 9.20.2. GIS Issues in Land Records 186 9.20.3. Cadastre 186 9.20.4. Land Information System (LIS) 187 9.20.4.1. Typical LIS 188
9.20.4.2. Land Tenure 188 9.20.4.3. Land Records 189 9.20.4.4. LIS Players 190 Glossary 191 Bibliography 198 Index