The Vietnam War. US involvement in Southeast Asia

Transcription

1 The Vietnam War US involvement in Southeast Asia

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4 Colonial Origins Vietnamese culture: villages, rice; Buddhist historic tension with Chinese Arrival of French mid 19th century (Imperialism Colonization) seize control from local warlords & Chinese send administrators & missionaries cities; central modernized government build infrastructure: ports, RR, telegraph 20% become Catholics & modernized few permanent French settlers In 1940, France took control of Vietnam

5 French Try to Retake Vietnam By 1945, French troops moved back to Vietnam to try and reestablish its rule in Vietnam after World War II US, hoping to strengthen its ties with France, provided the French with massive economic and military support U.S. helped France believing that by stopping Minh, it was part of goal to halt the spread of communism Despite Vietnam's importance in the World, US saw it as a piece of Domino Theory one falls, they all fall. As Eisenhower said referring it to communism, You have a row of dominoes set up... You knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over quickly

6 The Domino Theory Illustrated

7 Ho Chi Minh Leader of the Communist Party in Vietnam (North Vietnam) Led his forces, Vietminh (soldiers whose goal was to free South Vietnam from foreign control), against the Japanese during WWII and the French after WWII The U.S. supported his efforts against the Japanese during WWII but later turned on him, viewing him as a communist aggressor

8 French Defeat at Dien Bien Phu French were defeated by Minh at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 Resulted in Geneva Accords (Geneva Agreement) divides Vietnam into two zones along the 17 th parallel Northern zone (communist Ho Chi Minh, capital=hanoi) and Southern zone (democratic Ngo Dinh Diem, capital=saigon) Arranges for elections to take place in both zones Only France and Ho Chi Minh signed the agreement (Cambodia, Laos, the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States did not)

9 The American Reaction to Geneva Agreement Fearing that the communists (Minh) would win (especially with massive support from Buddhist peasant population), Diem and the US refuses to allow these elections to take place forms the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to protect the independence of Vietnam U.S. agrees to support Diem (economically and militarily) if he establishes a stable reform government in South Vietnam

10 Diem Fails to Keep Bargain Diem ushered in a corrupt government that suppressed opposition of any kind Especially suppressing large Buddhist population by restricting Buddhist practices (Diem was Catholic) U.S. and Eisenhower administration took little action, however, deciding to sink or swim with Ngo Dinh Diem By 1957, a Communist opposition group known as the Vietcong (National Liberation Front [NLF]) had surfaced in the South and began attacking the Diem government (assassinating thousands of government officials) People Vs. Diem (South Vietnam) Viet Minh: North Vietnam Military (Minh) Vietcong: South Vietnamese Civilians

11 Ho Chi Minh Trail Ho Chi Minh supported the NLF and began supplying arms to them via the Ho Chi Minh Trail Ho Chi Minh Trail was a network of paths along the borders of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia Minh used this trail to move North Vietnamese troops and supplies from the north to the south By the late 1960s, heavy trucks actual operated on the trails, and there were underground depts. that supplied fuel, weapons, supplies, and even medical help

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13 Buddhist Protests

14 Buddhist Protests

15 Kennedy Steps In Like Eisenhower, JFK backs Diem financially; sends military advisers (especially after people start viewing Democrats as soft on communism) Diem s popularity plummets from corruption, lack of land reform Diem starts strategic hamlet program to fight Vietcong Villagers moved to find enemies: villagers resent being moved from ancestral homes Diem presses attacks on Buddhism; monks burn themselves in protest

16 Kennedy Steps In (cont.) To protest, several Buddhist monks and nuns publicly set fire to themselves American officials were horrified and insisted Diem stop prosecution but he refused Kennedy, seeing that South Vietnam was unstable, authorized a US-supported military coup of Diem and his administration Against Kennedy s wishes, Diem was assassinated A few weeks later, Kennedy was killed by an assassin Shortly before his death, Kennedy had announced his intent to withdraw US forces from South Vietnam, whether he actually would have or not we will never know

17 South Vietnam Grows More Unstable Diem s death brought more chaos to South Vietnam Each leader that attempted to take over proved more unstable and inefficient than Diem s had been LBJ thinks U.S. can lose international prestige if communists win On August 2, 1964, a North Vietnamese patrol fired a torpedo at an American destroyer, the USS Maddox, in the Gulf of Tonkin The torpedo missed and the Maddox returned fire Two days later, the Maddox and another destroyer alleged another attack and returned fire

18 International Waters: 12 Miles Out Economic Zones: 12 to 200 Miles

19 The Tonkin Gulf Resolution The alleged attack prompted President Johnson to ask Congress for powers to take action Johnson did not tell Congress or the American people that the U.S. had been leading secret raids against North Vietnam and the Maddox had been in the Gulf of Tonkin to spy in order to gain information for these raids Furthermore, Johnson had prepared the resolution months before and was just waiting for the right opportunity to push it through Congress

20 The Tonkin Gulf Resolution (cont.) On August 7, 1964, Congress approved Johnson s request (only two senators voted against) and adopted the Tonkin Gulf Resolution While not a resolution of war, it granted Johnson the power to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression

21 Gulf of Tonkin

22 Operation Rolling Thunder In response to a Vietcong attack that killed eight Americans, Johnson unleashed Operation Rolling Thunder a sustained bombing operation against North Vietnam By June, more than 50,000 U.S. soldiers were battling the Vietcong

23 Johnson Increases U.S. Involvement Strong Support for Containment LBJ hesitates breaking promise to keep troops out; works with: Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Secretary of State Dean Rusk Congress, majority of public support sending troops 61% of Americans supported the U.S. policy in Vietnam The Troop Buildup Accelerates General William Westmoreland U.S. commander in South Vietnam Thinks southern Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) ineffective Requests increasing numbers; by ,000 U.S. troops US believes losing Vietnam would possibly lead to Domino Theory and lead to US embarrassment The integrity of the US commitment is the principal pillar of peace throughout the world. If that commitment becomes unreliable, the communist world would draw conclusions that would lead to our ruin and almost certainly to a catastrophic war. So long as the South Vietnamese are prepared to fight for themselves, we cannot abandon them without disaster to peace and to our interests throughout the world. Dean Rusk quoted in In Retrospect

24 Robert McNamara: Secretary of Defense Robert Strange McNamara (born June 9, 1916) was an American business executive and a former United States Secretary of Defense from 1961 to McNamara was appointed by Kennedy and was kept on under LBJ Although he loyally supported administration policy, McNamara gradually became skeptical about whether the war could be won by deploying more troops to South Vietnam and intensifying the bombing of North Vietnam. He became increasingly reluctant to approve the large force increments requested by the military commanders. In early November 1967 McNamara's recommendation to freeze troop levels, stop bombing North Vietnam and for the US to hand over ground fighting to South Vietnam was rejected outright by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Largely as a result, on November 29 that year McNamara announced his pending resignation and that he would become president of the World Bank.

25 Dean Rusk: Secretary of State David Dean Rusk (February 9, 1909 December 20, 1994) was the United States Secretary of State from 1961 to 1969 under presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. As Secretary of State he was consistently hawkish, a believer in the use of military action to combat Communism. His public defense of US actions in the Vietnam War made him a frequent target of anti-war protests.

26 General William Westmoreland: Deputy Commander of Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV) William Childs Westmoreland (March 26, 1914 July 18, 2005) was a U.S. Army General who commanded American military operations in the Vietnam War from 1964 to 1968 and who served as US Army Chief of Staff from 1968 to A west Point graduate, Westmoreland had served in World War II and Korea Westmoreland said about the US involvement in Vietnam: "It's not that we lost the war militarily. The fact is we as a nation did not make good our commitment to the South Vietnamese." Despite the controversy of Vietnam, Westmoreland was always popular and beloved by the men he led. One of the highlights of his life was leading a large parade in Chicago in 1986 that honored the Vietnam veterans. Many of the men proudly wore badges inscribed "WESTY'S WARRIORS".

27 An Elusive Enemy Fighting in the Jungle Vietcong use hit-and-run, ambush tactics, move among civilians Difficult for U.S. troops to discern friend from foe: woman selling soft drinks might be a Vietcong spy or a boy standing on the corner might be ready to throw a grenade Tunnels help withstand air strikes, launch attacks, connect villages Terrain laced with booby traps, land mines laid by U.S., Vietcong A Frustrating War of Attrition Westmoreland tries to destroy Vietcong morale through attrition (gradual wearing down of the enemy by continuous harassment) Vietcong receive supplies from China, U.S.S.R.; remain defiant U.S. sees war as military struggle; Vietcong as battle for survival

28 Tunnels of the Vietcong

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30 Battle for Hearts and Minds U.S. wants to stop Vietcong from winning support of rural population: If you win the people over to your side, the communist guerrillas have no place to hide Difficult to do when the weapons for exposing tunnels often wound civilians, destroy villages napalm: gasoline-based bomb that sets fire to jungle Agent Orange: leaf-killing, toxic chemical Years Later, many blame for cancers in Vietnamese civilians and US veterans Long-term illnesses affecting soldiers, as well as birth defects in their children, have been attributed to the toxins contained in Agent Orange However, the Department of Veteran Affairs has stated that to date there is no real evidence that exposure to Agent Orange has contributed to birth defects in children

31 Search-and Destroy Search-and-destroy missions US forces tried to search out enemy troops, bomb their positions, destroy their supply lines, and force them out into the open for combat Further alienated civilians civilian suspects, destroy property Villagers go to cities, refugee camps; 1967, over 3 million refugees

32 Attack on US Embassy

33 Sinking Morale Guerrilla warfare, jungle conditions, lack of progress lower morale When we marched into the rice paddies... We carried, along with our packs and rifles, the implicit convictions that the Vietcong could be quickly beaten we kept the packs and rifles; the convictions, we lost Many soldiers turn to alcohol, drugs; some kill superior officers Government corruption, instability lead S. Vietnam to demonstrate Fighting a civil war within a civil war Fulfilling a Duty Most U.S. soldiers believe in justice of halting communism Fight courageously, take patriotic pride in fulfilling their duty (just as their fathers had done in World War II

34 The Early War at Home The Great Society Suffers War grows more costly with more troops; inflation rate rising LBJ gets tax increase to pay for war, check inflation has to accept $6 billion funding cut for Great Society The Living-Room War Combat footage on nightly TV news shows stark picture of war Critics say credibility gap between administration reports and events Senator J. William Fulbright s hearings add to doubts about war

35 The Working Class Goes to War A Manipulatable Draft Selective Service System, draft, calls men to military service Thousands look for ways to avoid the draft Many mostly white, affluent get college deferment or doctor notes 80% of U.S. soldiers come from lower economic levels

36 The Working Class Goes to War (cont.) African Americans in Vietnam African Americans serve in disproportionate numbers in ground combat Defense Dept. corrects problem by instituting draft lottery in 1969 Racial tensions high in many platoons; add to low troop morale Women Join the Ranks 10,000 women serve, mostly as military nurses Thousands volunteer: American Red Cross, United Services Organization

37 The Working Class Goes to War (cont.) I m bitter.... It s people like us who give up our sons for the country.... The college types, the professors, they go to Washington and tell the government what to do.... But their sons, they don t end up in the swamps over there in Vietnam. No sir. They re deferred, because they re in school. Or they get sent to safe places.... What bothers me about the peace crowd is that you can tell from their attitude, the way they look and what they say, that they don t really love this country. a firefighter quoted in Working-Class War

38 The Roots of Opposition The New Left New Left youth movement of 1960s, demand sweeping changes Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), Free Speech Movement (FSM): criticize big business, government; want greater individual freedom Campus Activism New Left ideas spread across colleges Students protest campus issues, Vietnam war

39 Protest Movement Emerges The Movement Grows In 1965, protest marches, rallies draw tens of thousands 1966, student deferments require good academic standing SDS calls for civil disobedience; counsels students to go abroad Small numbers of returning veterans protest; protest songs popular From Protest to Resistance Antiwar demonstrations, protests increase, some become violent Some men burn draft cards; some refuse to serve; some flee to Canada

40 Protest Movement Emerges (cont.) War Divides the Nation Doves strongly oppose war, believe U.S. should withdraw Hawks favor sending greater forces to win the war 1967 majority of Americans support war, consider protesters disloyal Johnson Remains Determined LBJ continues slow escalation, is criticized by both hawks and doves Combat stalemate leads Defense Secretary McNamara to resign

41 Protest Movement Emerges (cont.) On 1 February 1968, a suspected NLF officer was captured near the site of a ditch holding the bodies of as many as 34 police and their relatives, bound and shot, some of whom were the families of General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan's deputy and close friend. General Loan, a South Vietnamese National Police Chief, summarily shot the suspect in the head on a public street in front of journalists. The execution was filmed and photographed and provided another iconic image that helped sway public opinion in the United States against the war.

42 A Surprise Attack Tet Offensive 1968 villagers go to cities to celebrate Tet (Vietnamese new year) Vietcong among crowd attack over 100 towns, 12 U.S. air bases Tet offensive lasts 1 month before U.S., S. Vietnam regain control Westmoreland declares attacks are military defeat for Vietcong However, from a psychological standpoint, the Tet Offensive greatly shook the American pullback and widened the credibility gap of the Johnson Administration

43 Tet Offensive Turns the War Tet Changes Public Opinion Before Tet, most Americans hawks; after Tet, hawks, doves both 40% Mainstream media openly criticizes war LBJ appoints Clark Clifford as new Secretary of Defense After studying situation, Clifford concludes war is unwinnable LBJ s popularity drops; 60% disapprove his handling of the war

44 Vietnam War Before Nixon

45 Tet Offensive

46 Days of Loss and Rage Johnson Withdraws Senator Eugene McCarthy runs for Democratic nomination as dove Senator Robert Kennedy enters race after LBJ s poor showing in NH LBJ announces will seek peace talks, will not run for reelection Violence and Protest Grip the Nation Riots rock over 100 cities after Martin Luther King, Jr. is killed Kennedy wins CA primary; is fatally shot for supporting Israel Major demonstrations on over 100 college campuses

47 A Turbulent Race for President Turmoil in Chicago Vice-president Hubert Humphrey wins Democratic nomination Over 10,000 demonstrators go to Chicago (1968 Democratic Convention) Mayor Richard J. Daley mobilizes police, National Guard Protesters try to march to convention; police beat them; rioting Delegates to convention bitterly debate antiwar plank

48 A Turbulent Race for President (cont.) Nixon Triumphs Nixon works for party for years, wins 1968 Republican nomination Campaign promises: restore law and order, end war in Vietnam Governor George Wallace is third-party candidate Champions segregation, states rights; attracts protestweary whites Nixon wins presidency

49 President Nixon and Vietnamization The Pullout Begins New president Richard Nixon finds negotiations not progressing National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger works on new plan Vietnamization U.S. troops withdraw, S. Vietnam troops take over Peace with Honor Nixon calls for peace with honor to maintain U.S. dignity Orders bombing of N. Vietnam, Vietcong hideouts in Laos, Cambodia

50 Vietnamization

51 The My Lai Massacre The My Lai massacre was a massacre by U.S. soldiers of hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians, mostly women and children, on March 16, Becoming a symbol of US-American war crimes in Vietnam, it prompted widespread outrage around the world and reduced public support for the war in the United States. Lt. William Calley, Jr., in command, is convicted, imprisoned

52 The My Lai Massacre (cont.) On the eve of the attack, Charlie Company was advised by military command that any genuine civilians at My Lai would have left their homes to go to market by 7 a.m. the following day. They were told that they could assume that all who remained behind were either VC or active VC sympathisers. They were instructed to destroy the village

53 The My Lai Massacre (cont.) The soldiers found no insurgents in the village on the morning of March 16, The soldiers, one platoon of which was led by Lt. William Calley, killed hundreds of civilians primarily old men, women, children, and babies. The precise number reported killed varies from source to source, with 347 and 504 being the most commonly cited figures

54 The My Lai Massacre (cont.) A US Army scout helicopter crew famously halted the massacre by landing between the American troops and the remaining Vietnamese hiding in a bunker. The 24-year-old pilot, Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr., confronted the leaders of the troops and told them he would open fire on them if they continued their attack on civilians. It was not until exactly thirty years later, following a television report concerning the incident, that the three were awarded the Soldier's Medal, the army's highest award for bravery not involving direct contact with the enemy.

55 The Invasion of Cambodia 1970, U.S. troops invade Cambodia to clear out enemy supply centers One of the most successful missions of the war; however, American people were not listening they believed he was escalating the war effort Escalation: military expansion or an increase in troop and/or equipment level 1.5 million protesting college students close down 1,200 campuses

56 Kent State Violence on Campus In protest of the Invasion of Cambodia, a massive student protest at Kent State led to the burning of the ROTC building In response to the growing unrest, the local mayor called in the National Guard On May, 4, 1970, the Guards fired live ammunition into a crowd of campus protesters who were hurling rocks at them The gunfire wounded nine people and killed four, including two who had not even participated in the rally

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58 Violence on Campus (Cont.) The Jackson State killings occurred on May 14-15, 1970, at Jackson State University in Jackson, Mississippi. A group of student protesters, provoked by racial tensions including the draft, were confronted by the police and National Guardsmen. The police opened fire killing two students and injuring twelve. In the weeks after Kent State, "hard hats" --- the slang for workers in construction and the building trades --- staged a series of demonstrations in support of Nixon. In one New York city demonstration, the "hardhats" attacked a group of antiwar demonstrators with "fists, boots, and hammers, chanting 'Love It or Leave It.' These blue collar workers, traditionally Democratic voters, were one of the groups Nixon hoped to attract with the politics of polarization.

59 Nixon s Secret War

60 Student Protests

61 The End

62 The Pentagon Papers Nixon invades Cambodia; Congress repeals Tonkin Gulf Resolution Pentagon Papers show plans to enter war under LBJ and no plan to end the war as long as the North Vietnamese persisted Confirm belief of many that government not honest about intentions

63 America s Longest War Ends Peace is at Hand 1971, 60% think U.S. should withdraw from Vietnam by end of year 1972 N. Vietnamese attack; U.S. bombs cities, mines Haiphong harbor Kissinger agrees to complete withdrawal of U.S.: Peace is at hand The Final Push S. Vietnam rejects Kissinger plan; talks break off; bombing resumes Congress calls for end to war; peace signed January 1973 The Fall of Saigon Cease-fire breaks down; South surrenders after North invades 1975

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66 American Veterans Return Home American Veterans Cope Back Home 58,000 Americans, over 2 million North, South Vietnamese die in war Returning veterans face indifference, hostility at home About 15% develop post-traumatic stress disorder

67 A Nation Recognizing and Healing On November 13, 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., was unvieled Vietnam Veteran added to the tomb of the unkown soldier On May 7, 1985, the "Welcome Home" parade was given to Vietnam Veterans. It was the largest tickertape parade in New York City history to that point and gave veterans the acknowledgment they had been seeking for years.

68 Adding Vietnam to Tomb of Unknown Soldier

69 Vietnam Memorial: The Wall The Memorial Wall is made up of two black granite walls 246 feet 9 inches (75 metres) long, designed by Maya Ying Lin. The walls are sunk into the ground, with the top flush with the earth behind them. At the highest point (the apex where they meet), they are 10.1 feet (3 m) high, and they taper to a height of eight inches (20cm) at their extremities. Granite for the wall was deliberately choosen because of its reflective quality. The concept is that, while a visitor looks upon the names, their reflection can be seen at the same time thereby bringing the past and present together. One wall points toward the Washington Monument, the other in the direction of the Lincoln Memorial, meeting at an angle of Each wall has 72 panels, 70 listing names (numbered 1E through 70E and 70W through 1W) and 2 very small blank panels at the extremities. Inscribed on the wall are the names of those who died in chronological order, starting at the apex on panel 1E in 1959 (although it was later discovered that the first casualties were military advisors who were killed by artillery fire in 1957), moving day by day to the end of the eastern wall at panel 70E, which ends on May 25, 1968, starting again at panel 70W at the end of the western wall which completes the list for May 25, 1968, and returning to the apex at panel 1W in Symbolically, this is described as " wound that is closed and healing." Information about rank, unit, and decorations are not given. The wall listed 58,159 names when it was completed in 1993; as of 2005, when four names were added, there are 58,249 names, including 8 women. Approximately 1,200 of these are listed as missing (MIAs, POWs, and others), denoted with a cross; the confirmed dead are marked with a diamond. If the missing return alive, the cross is circumscribed by a circle, (although this has never occurred as of August 2005); if their death is confirmed, a diamond is superimposed over the cross.

70 Vietnam Memorial: The Wall (Cont.)

71 Vietnam Memorial: The Three A short distance away from the wall is another part of the memorial, a bronze statue known as The Three Soldiers (or The Three Servicemen). It was designed to complement the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, by adding a more traditional component. The soldiers are purposefully identifiable as Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic. The statue and the Wall appear to interact with each other, with the soldiers looking on in solemn tribute at the names of their dead comrades. Soldiers

72 Vietnam Memorial: Women's The Vietnam Women's Memorial is a memorial dedicated to the women of the United States who served in the Vietnam War, most of whom were nurses. It is part of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Memorial

73 War Leaves a Painful Legacy The Legacy of Vietnam Government abolishes military draft 1973 Congress passes War Powers Act: president must inform Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops 90 day maximum deployment without Congressional approval War contributes to cynicism about government, political leaders

74 US Combat Deaths = 46,000 1,200 Airplane crash 3,000 Helicopter crash 18,000 Gunshot 4,900 Mortar 18,300 Grenades, land mines, booby traps also: 10,000 dead from accidents also: 153,000 hospitalized & survive

75 Weariness of Land Mines You do some thinking. You hallucinate. You look ahead a few paces and wonder what your legs will resemble if there is more to the earth in that spot than silicates and nitrogen. Will the pain be unbearable? Will you scream and fall silent? Will you be afraid to look at your own body, afraid of the sight of your won red flesh and white bone? It is not easy to fight this sort of self-defeating fear, but you try. You decide to be ultra-careful the hard-nosed realistic approach. You try to second guess the mine. Should you put your foot to that flat rock or the clump of weeds to its rear? Paddy dike or water? You wish you were Tarzan, able to swing on the vines. You trace the footprints of the men to front. You give up when he curses you for following to closely; better one man dead than two Tim O Brien quoted in A Life in a Year: The American Infantryman in Vietnam

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