A Report Card on Gender Equality in Turkey By ATAA Summer Interns Niki Iskarpatyoti and Yarden Hodes

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1 A Report Card on Gender Equality in Turkey By ATAA Summer Interns Niki Iskarpatyoti and Yarden Hodes In the last decade Turkey s per capita income more than doubled and the country has ed among the top 20 economies in the world. Yet Turkey currently s close to the bottom of the 135 countries evaluated by the World Economic Forum on gender gap. As Turkey aspires to become the world s 10th largest economy by 2023, the country has an opportunity to achieve this goal by improving its gender equality. Gender equality is widely recognized as a key driver of socio-economic progress, as there is a strong correlation between those countries that are most successful at closing the gender gap and those that are the most economically competitive. Saadia Zahidi, Senior Director of the World Economic Forum s Women Leaders and Gender Parity Programme, states that six of the top ten performing countries in this year s Global Competitiveness Index also feature in the top twenty of the Global Gender Gap Index this shows the imperative for countries that have already invested in the health and education of women to address the economic and political realms, and for those that have not to do so before their economies fall further behind. This means that investing in women is not only about equality but it is also about investing in a country s future economic success in an increasingly more competitive world. According to The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 published by the World Economic Forum, Turkey s 124 out of 135 countries in gender equality based on data from Its overall in gender gap was.6 on a scale where 1.0 represents total equality. Turkey actually fell back two spots from its of 122 in the previous year. More importantly, Turkey s ings have consistently been in the range since its highest ing of 105 in 2006, when the ings were first published. This does not mean that Turkey has not made improvements in the last 6 years. 2 Yet, it means that other countries are closing the gender gap faster than Turkey and that Turkey s progress in this area has not kept pace with its outstanding economic achievement. This report will focus on Turkey s gender equality in the four areas included in the Global Gender Gap Index: education, health and survival, economic opportunity, and political participation. It will also focus on an important fifth dimension not included in the index: domestic violence. Gender Equality on Education The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 ed Turkey 108 out of 135 countries for educational attainment. 3 Educational attainment is measured on the basis of four variables: 1. Ratio: female literacy rate over male value 2. Ratio: female net primary level enrolment over male value 3. Ratio: female net secondary level enrolment over male value 4. Ratio: female gross tertiary level enrolment over male value Although Turkey s overall of.929 for educational attainment seems high, the country still s low because the vast majority of countries have already achieved greater gender equality in education. These countries have an advantage over Turkey because as research shows: investment in girls education has significant multiplier effects: it reduces high fertility rates, lowers infant and child mortality rates, lowers maternal mortality rates, increases women s labor force participation rates and earnings and fosters educational investment in children. 4 Thus, Turkey s ing at 108 despite its considerable is at least partly attributable to the relatively low level of investment in girls education in Turkey in the past years. 1 Hausmann, Ricardo, Laura D. Tyson, and Saadia Zahidi. The Global Gender Gap Report Rep. Geneva: World Economic Forum, Print. 2 Hausmann 2012, Hausmann 2012, Hausmann, 30.

2 Nevertheless, Turkey has taken concrete steps to neutralize the gender gap through a number of education reform bills. 5 Prior to the education reform movement, women in rural areas were often discouraged from attending school. 6 Three bills in particular have helped to overcome this problem: the 1997 education bill, which extended compulsory education to 8 years; the 2008 Conditional Cash Transfer Program, which highly impacted girls secondary school enrollment by giving more money to females over males; and lastly, nation-wide campaigns launched by both the Turkish government and non-governmental entities, advertising schooling for girls primarily living in low socio-economic regions. 7 The Turkish educational system mandates both females and males to attend the primary and secondary school level. Families have the option of homeschooling their child s final four years of education, but the Turkish government has the right to strictly monitor such a curriculum to ensure it meets the requirements of the system. 8 While most urban areas have made considerable progress in closing the gender gap in education, the more poverty struck rural areas are slower in moving towards a reduced gender gap. Greater focus and further efforts are needed for Turkey to catch up to its peers in this area. Gender Equality on Health and Survival Turkey s overall for health and survival was.975, and the country ed 62 of the 135 countries. 9 The World Economic Forum has regarded Turkey s health and survival rates as being progressively gender neutral. This is the only subindex that Turkey performed above average in. 10 Health and survival is measured on the basis of two variables: 1. Ratio: Gender at birth (converted to female-over-male ratio), 2. Ratio: Female healthy life expectancy over male. Health benefits, mortality rates, and vaccinations are becoming less of a gender concern in Turkey. According to the World Bank, maternal mortality has been reduced from 61 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2000 to 16.4 deaths per 100,000 live births in. 11 These improvements in the Turkish health sector can be linked to the Health Transformation Program (2003), the Universal Health Insurance Program, and the Conditional Cash Transfer Program introduced in Gender Equality on Economic Opportunity Turkey s most crippling s were in the Economic Participation and Opportunity subindex: Turkey s overall in this area was.413, ing 129 of 135 countries. 13 Among the countries measured in Europe and the Central Asia region, Turkey ed lowest in economic participation. 14 The index is based on five variables: 1. Ratio: female labor force participation over male value 2. Wage equality between women and men for similar work (converted to female-over-male ratio) 3. Ratio: estimated female earned income over male value 4. Ratio: female legislators, senior officials and managers over male value 5. Ratio: female professional and technical workers over male value 5 Hausmann, Ayyildiz, Judy. "The Contribution of Turkish Women to the Modernization of Turkey." Ataturk Society of America.. Available at: 7 World Bank, Towards gender equality in Turkey: a summary assessment. (November 20, 2012). Washington DC. Available at: 8 World Bank, 5. 9 Hsusmann, Hausmann, World Bank, World Bank, Hausmann, Hausmann, 24.

3 Turkish women are greatly underrepresented in the work force, making up only 29%. 15 Compared to the 34 OECD countries, Turkey is ed the lowest in the category for women inclusion (Country Statistical Profiles: Key Tables from OECD). Instead of improving, women employment rates have actually dropped since The ratio of female to male working-age population (ages 15 64) was at.423 in 1990 but it had dropped to.394 in The 19% drop in the workforce is due to a variety of reasons, including urbanization. In the past, women contributed more because they helped work the family land. The rural lifestyle is more accommodating to a woman's needs in multiple ways. Whereas in urban areas competition for jobs require educated workers, women in rural areas only need basic knowledge to work the farm. The need for childcare facilities is also a critical issue preventing women from working in urban areas. 17 Working on a farm provides flexibility of hours. The lack of childcare facilities in urban areas is a strong deterrent for women entering the labor market. Another factor that has an effect on gender equality in terms of employment is a societal approach to women s employment: In her recent article Gender and Modernization in Turkey, Tulin Tuna characterized women s employment conditions as follows: Employment of women is considered as an additional income activity to the employment of men in economic terms and the activities of women in the house are not regarded as a productive effort. 18 Similarly, cultural and religious factors reinforcing the traditional role of women as stay at home caretakers are also an important part of the problem. Both the government and individuals have taken some steps to stop the downward trend of women entering the workforce. The Turkish government has identified four specific legislative measures it hopes to implement by According to the World Bank, these legislative measures include: [1] enhancing the link between education and employment, [2] providing greater flexibility and security in the labor market, [3] promoting employment of vulnerable groups through specific policies (women, youth and other disadvantaged groups), and [4] enhancing the relationship between employment and social protection. 19 These proposed measures are good steps toward gender equality in the workforce, but a comprehensive labor market reform bill has not yet been implemented and is still pending approval. It is uncertain whether the bill will be adopted or not. Other efforts by The Industry Development Organization (KOSGEB) and The Turkish Employment Agency (ISKUR) are not gender specific, but have been successful in expanding women s role in the workforce. 20 To maintain its competitive edge against other developed and developing nations, Turkey needs to step-up its efforts significantly. This starts with a comprehensive plan that is well thought out, carefully planned and widely communicated, including specific short-term and long-term targets and metrics for measuring results. If Turkey wants to become the 10th largest economy by 2023, closing its gender gap in the workforce should be a key focus of its economic development plans. Gender Equality on Political Empowerment Turkey also s well below the average country in political empowerment. The 2012 Global Gender Gap Report d Turkey.086 on this subindex, which resulted in a of 98 out of Political empowerment is measured on three variables: 1. Ratio: females with seats in parliament over male value 15 World Bank, ILO (2012). ["Key Indicators on the Labour Market: 7th edition". Geneva: ILO.]. en/wcms_ Accessed March World Bank, Tuna, Tulin. "Gender and Modernization in Turkey." International Journal of Learning & Development, 2012th ser., 2, no. 5 (October 20, 2012): Available at: 19 World Bank, World Bank, Hausmann, 16.

4 2. Ratio: females at ministerial level over male value 3. Ratio: number of years of a female head of state or government (last 50 years) over male value Until 2007, the percentage of women in government did not rise above 4.5%. Turkey s 2007 parliamentary election was the first time that the percentage increased to 9.1%. 22 In 2009, the Parliamentary Committee for Equality of Opportunity between Women and Men ( Committee for Equality ) was established and by, women made up 14.4% of the Parliament in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. 23 In, 27 of the 2,948 mayoral positions and 12% of the ambassadors were female. This brought Turkey closer to the 19% average for representation of women in parliaments around the world. 24 The Committee for Equality and the Ministry of Family and Social Policies lead Turkey s legislative and executive efforts, respectively. Other important agencies influencing gender equality include the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, and the Turkish Employment Agency ISKUR. Despite the government's efforts to encourage women s civic participation, traditional gender roles and violence against women stand in the way of progress. 25 Gender Equality and Violence While violence against women is not included as part of the WEF s Global Gender Gap Index, it is a critical area impacting gender equality in Turkey. Freedom House released a March 2012 report that indicated 42% of Turkish females have been subject to some form of gender related abuse. 26 Statistics from the 2012 Turkish Parliamentary Human Rights Commissions reported an increase of domestic abuse and violence against women from 48,264 cases in 2008 to 80,398 in. 27 Whether this is a result of increased reporting or actual increased violence is up for dispute. In an attempt to address the issue, the Turkish Government set forth an official National Action Plan on Violence against Women for The plan includes actions to reduce both domestic violence as well as general abuse against women. 29 Unfortunately, the legislation s effectiveness is trifled by the lack of implementation. Research suggests that statistics on gender violence in Turkey continue to go unreported and underestimated. Many attribute societal acceptance of domestic abuse to the underreporting. An example of how traditional practices impact 21 st century gender equality is the prevalence of child marriages. A recent study by the International Strategic Research Agency (USAK) found that 14% of all Turkish marriages are child marriages. This is the second highest prevalence of early marriage among European countries. 30 As Becoming mothers at such a young age without formal education forces girls to stay home and takeover basic household chores. With daughters living in the shadows, sons are raised looking up to authoritative male figures, and grow up believing the females surrounding them are people of insignificance. Fortunately, the official National Action Plan on Violence against Women for is not the sole action taken by the Turkish Government. In 2012 the Protection of the Family and Prevention of Violence against Women expanded its assistance to all women regardless of marital status. Services 22 Inter-Parliamentary Union. Women in National Parliaments. Situation, available from IPU website. 23 Turkish Grand National Assembly: 24 United Nations Economic Commission to Europe (UNECE) Statistical Database, available at: PublicAnddecision/&lang=1&ti=Ambassadors+by+se 25 World Bank, "Turkey." Freedomhouse.org. Freedom House, Web Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Turkey: Domestic violence, including legislation, state protection and support services, 28 May 2012, TUR E, available at: [accessed 25 June 2013] 28 Turkey. REPUBLIC OF TÜRKİYE PRIME MINISTRY. Directorate General on the Status of Women. Combating Domestic Violence Against Women National Action Plan. N.p., Web. 29 World Bank, World Bank, 9.

5 previously given only to married women are now extended to those who are divorced or in common law relationships. The law has increased government services to victims of domestic violence by providing things such as shelters, legal guidance and financial aid. 31 Economic, legal and social assistance facilities have been established and a recent law now requires all cities with a population of 50,000 or more to have at least one woman s shelter. Although the Institution for Social Services and Orphanages did open 18 shelters within the year, many cities remain shelterless. It is difficult to measure the extent of violence against women and how the role of women in Turkey has evolved in the past few decades. In some instances legislative measures have been taken, yet are poorly implemented. In other instances, the administration under Prime Minister Erdoğan s rule has sent conflicting messages on the subject. Erdoğan s most recent campaigns include a ban on abortion and encouragement of at least three children to every home. Critics question whether these proposals are a step in the right direction. With its strong economy, social reform movements, and leading role in the Middle East, Turkey has every reason to be a global powerhouse by 2023, yet its position on gender equality lags behind other countries. Unless Turkey makes gender equality a top priority, it will be deprived of the contributions of half the society and its future success in a competitive global world will be in jeopardy. Having achieved significant economic success in spite of its gender gap in the past, Turkey must now focus on gender equality as a critical area of opportunity for further development in the future. 31 Meline, Katie. "Violence Against Women in Turkey." Stop Violence Against Women. January.

6 Insight Report The Global Gender Gap Report 2012: Rankings and Scores Ricardo Hausmann, Harvard University Laura D. Tyson, University of California, Berkeley Saadia Zahidi, World Economic Forum

7 Table 3a: The Global Gender Gap Index 2012 ings: comparisons with, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007 and 2006 Country among countries Iceland Finland Norway Sweden Ireland New Zealand Denmark Philippines Nicaragua Switzerland Netherlands Belgium Germany Lesotho Latvia South Africa Luxembourg United Kingdom Cuba Austria Canada United States Mozambique Burundi Australia Spain Barbados Uganda Costa Rica Bolivia Kazakhstan Argentina Ecuador Lithuania Cape Verde* Malawi Bahamas Slovenia Sri Lanka Panama Namibia Guyana Trinidad and Tobago Mongolia Moldova Tanzania Portugal Venezuela Croatia Serbia* Jamaica Bulgaria Poland Kyrgyz Republic Singapore Israel France Madagascar Russian Federation Estonia Macedonia, FYR Brazil Colombia Ukraine Thailand Vietnam Romania Timor-Leste* The Global Gender Gap Report 2012

8 Table 3a: The Global Gender Gap Index 2012 ings: comparisons with, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007 and 2006 (cont d.) Country among countries China Slovak Republic Ghana Kenya Czech Republic Honduras Brunei Darussalam Uruguay Botswana Peru Cyprus Italy Hungary Greece Paraguay Mexico Georgia Bangladesh Chile Malta Dominican Republic Senegal Albania Armenia Gambia, The El Salvador Maldives Tajikistan Indonesia Mauritius Azerbaijan Malaysia Japan Belize Cambodia Burkina Faso India Suriname United Arab Emirates Korea, Rep Kuwait Nigeria Bahrain Cameroon Fiji Zambia Qatar Guatemala Benin Ethiopia Mauritania Algeria Jordan Lebanon Nepal Turkey

9 Oman Egypt Iran, Islamic Rep Mali Morocco Côte d'ivoire Saudi Arabia Syria Chad Pakistan Yemen * New country 2012