Industrial Applications of Electron Accelerators
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1 Industrial Applications of Electron Accelerators Marshall R. Cleland Ion Beam Applications IBA Technology Group 151 Heartland Boulevard Edgewood, New York Presented at the CERN Accelerator School Small Accelerator Course Zeegse, Netherlands 24 May to 2 June,
2 Presentation Outline Introduction Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Applications of Radiation Processing Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Industrial Electron Accelerators Conclusion 2
3 Introduction Definition of Radiation Processing The treatment of products and materials with radiation or ionizing energy to change their physical, chemical or biological characteristics, to increase their usefulness and value or to reduce their impact on the environment. 3
4 Introduction Ionizing Energy Sources Electrons from Particle Accelerators. X-Rays from Accelerated Electrons. Gamma Rays from Radioactive Nuclides. In absorbing materials, electrons, X-rays and gamma rays transfer their energies by ejecting atomic electrons, which can then ionize other atoms. These radiations produce similar effects. 4
5 Introduction Ionizing Energy Sources Electrons from Particle Accelerators. X-Rays from Accelerated Electrons. Gamma Rays from Radioactive Nuclides. The choice of a radiation source depends on the practical aspects of the treatment process, such as absorbed dose, material thickness, processing rate, capital and operating costs. 5
6 Introduction Radiation processing was introduced fifty years ago. Many practical applications have been discovered. The most important commercial applications are: Modification of plastic and rubber materials. Sterilization of medical devices and consumer items. Pasteurization and preservation of foods. Reduction of environmental pollution. 6
7 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose Definition Temperature Rise vs Absorbed Dose Absorbed Dose Requirements Absorbed Dose vs M W and G Value 7
8 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose Definition Absorbed dose is proportional to the ionizing energy delivered per unit mass of material. Dose is the most important specification for any irradiation process. The quantitative effects of the process are related to the absorbed dose. 8
9 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose Definition Energy Absorbed Per Unit Mass International Unit Is The Gray 1 Gy = 1 J/kg 1 Gy = 1 W s/kg 1 kgy = 1 kj/kg 1 kgy = 1 kw s/kg 1 kgy = (1/3600) kw h/kg 9
10 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose Definition Energy Absorbed Per Unit Mass Obsolete Unit Is The Rad 1 Gy = 100 rad 10 Gy = 1 krad 100 Gy = 10 krad 1 kgy = 100 krad 10 kgy = 1 Mrad 100 kgy = 10 Mrad 10
11 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Temperature Rise vs Absorbed Dose Temperature rise is proportional to the thermal energy absorbed per unit mass of heated material. Also, temperature rise is proportional to the absorbed dose in irradiated material (in same units). Calorimetry is the primary method for measuring absorbed dose and calibrating secondary dosimeters. 11
12 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Temperature Rise vs Absorbed Dose ΔT = H / c ΔT = D / c ΔT = Temperature Rise in C H = Heat per Unit Mass in J/g c = Heat Capacity in J/g C D = Absorbed Dose in kgy 12
13 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Examples Temp. Rise per kgy Material Thermal Cap. Temp. Rise Water Polyethylene Teflon Aluminum Iron Copper
14 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Temperature Rise for EB Processing Industrial EB processes need less energy than most thermal treatment processes. Absorbed dose requirements for various industrial processes cover a very wide range from 0.1 kgy to 1000 kgy. Most of these processes need less than 100 kgy, many need less than 10 kgy, and some need less than 1 kgy. 14
15 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose Requirements Sprout Inhibiting Insect Disinfesting Parasite Control Delay of Ripening Fungi Control Bacteria Control kgy kgy kgy kgy kgy kgy 15
16 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose Requirements Sterilizing Polymerizing Grafting Crosslinking Degrading Gemstone Coloring kgy kgy kgy kgy kgy > > 1500 kgy 16
17 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose vs Molecular Weight M W and G Value D = N A (100 / G) e / M W joules / gram D = 9.65 x 10 6 / (G M W ) kgy N A = x molecules / mole e = x joules / electron volt G = number of chemical reactions / 100 ev 17
18 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose vs M W and G Value High molecular weight means acceptably low dose. If M W = 100,000 and G = 1, then D = 100 kgy. Low molecular weight means excessively high dose. If M W = 100 and G = 3, then D = 32,000 kgy. 18
19 Basic Concepts of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose vs M W and G Value Polymeric materials with high molecular weights are good candidates for radiation processing. Inorganic compounds with low molecular weights are poor candidates for radiation processing. Dilute solutions are exceptions. Ionizing a small fraction of the solvent will affect most of the solute. 19
20 Applications of Radiation Processing Modifying Polymeric Materials Curing Monomers and Oligomers Grafting Monomers onto Polymers Crosslinking Polymers Degrading Polymers Biological Applications Sterilizing Medical Products Disinfecting Consumer Products Pasteurizing and Preserving Foods 20
21 Applications of Radiation Processing Environmental Applications Reducing Acid Rain Treating Waste Materials Solid State Applications Modifying Semiconductors Coloring Gemstones 21
22 Applications of Radiation Processing Modifying polymeric materials Curing Grafting Crosslinking Degrading 22
23 Applications of Radiation Processing Curing Solvent-Free Coatings, Inks and Adhesives Oligomers Acrylated epoxies Acrylated polyethers Acrylated urethane polyesters Multifunctional monomers Trimethylolpropane triacrylate Dose = 10 to 30 kgy 23
24 Low-Energy EB Curing of Colored Coatings Salt Spray Resistance Laboratory Test Panels 24
25 Applications of Radiation Processing Curing Composite Materials for Spacecraft and Missiles Oligomers Modified epoxies with special properties Carbon fiber reinforcement Dose = 150 to 250 kgy 25
26 EB Curing of Carbon Fiber Composite Tank 26
27 EB Curing of Composite Missile Component 27
28 Applications of Radiation Processing Materials Suitable for Grafting A variety polymeric materials Polyethylene, Polypropylene Polyvinyl Chloride, Fluoropolymers Cellulose, Wool A variety of hydrophilic monomers Dose = 10 kgy 28
29 Applications of Radiation Processing Property Improvements by Grafting Addition of hydrophilic surfaces on hydrophobic polymers to make permselective membranes. Fuel cell and battery separator films. Improvement of surface adhesion properties. Biocompatible materials for medical applications. 29
30 Applications of Radiation Processing Typical Materials for Crosslinking Polyethylene Polyvinylchloride Polyvinylidene fluoride Ethylene-propylene rubber Ethylene vinylacetate Polyacrylates Dose = 50 to 200 kgy 30
31 Applications of Radiation Processing G value: yield in number of molecules per 100 ev G x = cross-linking, G s = chain scission G values at room temperature in the absence of O 2 Polymer G x G s Polymer G x G s Nat. Rubber PTFE Polyethylene Butyl Rubber < Polypropylene PMMA <
32 Applications of Radiation Processing Products Improved by Crosslinking Plastic Products in Finished Form Heat Shrinkable Tubing and Film Electrical Wire and Cable Jackets Tires for Automobiles and Trucks Plastic Foam Padding for Automobiles Bulk Plastic Materials Hydrogel Materials 32
33 Crosslinking Formed Plastic Products 33
34 Crosslinking Heat-Shrinkable Tubing Plastic Memory Effect 34
35 Irradiating Heat-Shrinkable Plastic Film 35
36 Crosslinking Electrical Wire Insulation Improved Flame Retardancy 36
37 Crosslinking Jackets on Multi-conductor Cables 37
38 Wire and Tubing Irradiation Method 38
39 Precuring Automobile Tire Components Improved Dimensional Stability 39
40 Irradiating Plastic Foam Cushions for Cars 40
41 Applications of Radiation Processing Degrading polymeric materials Polytetrafluoroethylene for powders Polypropylene to improve formability Cellulose to produce viscose for rayon 41
42 Degrading Scrap Polytetrafluoroethylene 42
43 Cellulose Degradation for Viscose and Rayon 43
44 Applications of Radiation Processing Biological Applications Sterilizing Medical Products Disinfecting Consumer Products Pasteurizing and Preserving Foods 44
45 Sterilizing Disposable Medical Products 45
46 Disinfecting Cosmetic Products 46
47 Disinfesting Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 47
48 Pasteurizing Uncooked Meats 48
49 Pasteurizing Natural Spices 49
50 Applications of Radiation Processing Environmental Applications Reducing Acid Rain by extracting sulfur and nitrogen oxides from smoke Treating Waste Materials by decomposing toxic substances from wastewater 50
51 Pomorzany Flue Gas EB Process Flow Diagram 51
52 Pomorzany Flue Gas EB Irradiation Vessel 52
53 NHV DC Electron Accelerator 700 kev 260 kw 53
54 Wastewater Treatment Plant 54
55 Miami Dade County EB Wastewater Treatment 55
56 Miami Dade County EB Wastewater Treatment 56
57 Applications of Radiation Processing Solid State Applications Modifying Semiconductors Coloring Gemstones 57
58 Modifying Semiconductors 58
59 Modifying Semiconductors 59
60 Coloring Gemstones 60
61 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Material Penetration vs Electron Energy Mass Throughput Rate vs Electron Beam Power Area Throughput Rate vs Electron Beam Current X-Ray Processing Characteristics 61
62 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Penetration vs Electron Energy Polymer Comparisons 5 MeV Electron Energy Deposition ( MeV sq cm / g ) Thickness x Density ( g / sq cm ) PE PS PVC PTFE 62
63 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Penetration vs Electron Energy Polymer Comparisons Hydrogen has more atomic electrons per unit mass than any other element. Polymers with more hydrogen have higher energy depositions per incident electron. Polymers with more hydrogen have lower electron ranges for the same incident electron energy. 63
64 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Penetration vs Electron Energy Polyethylene 6.0 Electron Energy Deposition ( MeV sq cm / g ) Thickness x Density ( g / sq cm ) 0.4 MeV 0.6 MeV 0.8 MeV 0.8 Charge 64
65 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Penetration vs Electron Energy Polyethylene Electron Energy Deposition ( MeV sq cm / g ) Thickness x Density ( g / sq cm ) 1.0 MeV 1.5 MeV 2.0 MeV 3.0 MeV 3.0 Charge 65
66 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Penetration vs Electron Energy Polyethylene Electron Energy Deposition ( MeV sq cm / g ) Thickness x Density ( g / sq cm ) 5.0 MeV 7.5 MeV 10 MeV 10 Charge 66
67 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Penetration vs Electron Energy Electrostatic Charge Deposition Electrostatic charges are deposited by incident electrons which come to rest in thick materials. The charge depositions are concentrated near the Ends of the electron ranges. The charge density decreases and the total energy deposition increases as the incident electron energy increases. 67
68 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Electron Range Definitions 68
69 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Electron Range Definitions R(opt) Exit Dose Equals Entrance Dose R(50) Exit Dose Equals Half Maximum Dose R(50e) Exit Dose Equals Half Entrance Dose R(p) Tangent Line Extends to Zero Dose 69
70 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Electron Range Values MeV R(opt) R(50) R(50e) R(p)
71 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Electron Range Graphs Electron Penetration in Polyethylene Electron Ranges ( g / sq cm ) Electron Energy ( MeV ) R(opt) R(50) R(50e) R(p) Linear (R(p)) Linear (R(50e)) Linear (R(50)) Linear (R(opt)) 71
72 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Linear Range vs Energy Equations R(opt) = E R(50) = E R(50e) = E R(p) = E
73 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Ranges in Other Materials Electron ranges in other materials can be estimated by multiplying the polyethylene range with the ratio of their CSDA ranges. R(material) = R(polyethylene) x CSDA(m) / CSDA(pe) CSDA ranges for many materials with a wide range of electron energies can be obtained from ICRU Report
74 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose vs Electron Beam Power 1 kgy = 1 kj/kg D(ave) = F(p) P T / M D(ave) = F(p) P / (M / T) D(ave) = average dose in kgy P = emitted power in kw T = treatment time in s M = mass in kg 74
75 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Mass Throughput Rate vs Electron Beam Power M / T = F(p) P / D(ave) F(p) = F(e) F(i) F(p) = fraction of emitted power absorbed F(e) = fraction of incident power absorbed F(i) = fraction of emitted current intercepted 75
76 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Mass Throughput Rate vs Electron Beam Power M / T = f(p) P / D(o) f(p) = f(e) F(i) D(o) = surface dose in kgy f(p) = surface dose value of F(p) f(e) = surface dose value of F(e) 76
77 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing 77
78 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Processing Parameters vs Incident Energy MeV D(e) K(o) f(e) F(e)
79 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Example Mass Throughput Rate E = 1.0 MeV P = 100 kw F(i) = 0.80 f(e) = D(o) = 100 kgy M / T = x 0.80 x 100 / 100 M / T = kg/s or 1783 kg/h 79
80 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose vs Electron Beam Current D (kgy) = P (kw) T (s) / M (kg) P (kw) = E (MeV) I (ma) E (MeV) = D(e) (MeV cm 2 /g) Z (g/cm 2 ) D(e) = energy deposition per electron Z = thickness x density (g/cm 2 ) Z = mass / area (g/cm 2 ) 80
81 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose vs Electron Beam Current D(kGy) = E(MeV) I(mA) T(s) / M(kg) D (kgy) = D(e) Z I (ma) T (s) / M (kg) D (kgy) = D(e) Z I (ma) T (s) / Z A (cm 2 ) 10-3 D (kgy) = D(e) I (ma) T (s) / 10 A (m 2 ) 81
82 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Absorbed Dose vs Electron Beam Current D(z) = K(z) F(i) I T / A D(z) = dose at the depth z in kgy K(z) = D(e, z) / 10 in kgy m 2 /ma s K(z) = Area Processing Coefficient evaluated at the depth where the dose is specified F(i) = fraction of emitted beam current intercepted I = emitted beam current in ma T = treatment time in s A = product area in m 2 82
83 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Area Throughput Rate vs Electron Beam Current A / T = K(z) F(i) I / D(z) A / T = area throughput rate in m 2 /s K = D(e) / 10 in kgy m 2 /ma s K = Area Processing Coefficient F(i) = fraction of beam current intercepted F(i) = product area / irradiated area I = emitted beam current in ma D(z) = dose in kgy where K(z) is evaluated 83
84 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Processing Parameters vs Incident Energy MeV D(e) K(o) f(e) F(e)
85 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Example Area Throughput Rate E = 1.0 MeV I = 100 ma F(i) = 0.80 K(o) = D(o) = 100 kgy A / T = x 0.80 x 100 / 100 A / T = m 2 /s or 734 m 2 /h 85
86 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing Example Mass Throughput from Area Throughput E = 1.0 MeV I = 100 ma F(i) = 0.80 R(opt) = g/cm 2 or 2.43 kg/m 2 A / T = 734 m 2 /h M / T = (A / T) x R(opt) M / T = 734 x 2.43 = 1785 kg/h 86
87 Physical Aspects of Radiation Processing X-Ray Processing Characteristics X-Ray Energy and Angular Distributions X-Ray Broad Beam Penetration in Water X-Ray Utilization vs Product Thickness X-Ray Emission Efficiency vs Electron Energy Palletron TM Rotational X-Ray Processing 87
88 X-Ray Photon Energy Spectrum 88
89 X-Ray Photon Angular Distribution 12 Photon Intensity (rel. units) MeV 7.5 MeV 5 MeV Polar Angle (deg) 89
90 Broad Beam X-Ray Penetration in Water Dose (rel. units) 10 MeV 7.5 MeV 5 MeV EnergyTenth Value Layer (cm) Present Work prev. (MeV) Calc. Exp. Calc N/A N/A Depth (cm)
91 Two-Sided X-Ray Process in Water D max /D min MeV 7.5 MeV 5 MeV Photon Power Utilization (rel. units) Optimum Thickness Energy 2/λ (MeV) (cm) Treated Thickness (g/cm²)
92 Two-Sided X-Rays vs Gamma Rays Electron X-Ray Tenth Value Layer Optimum Thickness Energy Efficiency Calculation Double Sided (MeV) (%) (cm water) (cm) Max/Min Co
93 Two-Sided X-Ray Irradiation 93
94 Sterigenics Dual-Beam X-ray Facility 94
95 IBA Palletron TM Rotational Method Accelerator X-ray Target Collimator Pallet Turntable Control System 95
96 IBA Palletron TM Rotational Method 96
97 IBA Palletron Dose Distribution Measurement Verification of Monte Carlo Simulation 97
98 ALLETRON IBA Palletron ROTATIONAL TM Rotational Method METHOD Cylinder Irradiation with X-Rays D= 80 cm / ρ= 0.8 A/D = 1 A/D << 1 DUR versus A/D Optimal A/D =
99 IBA Palletron TM Performance Figures r 0.4: constant rotation speed collimators widely open r > 0.4: variable rotation speed aperture tuned to product density Significant gain at 7.5 MeV: Better conversion efficiency More energetic X-Rays X-rays peaked forward 99
100 IBA Palletron TM Processing Capacities Throughputs calculated with the following assumptions: Beam = 5 MeV/300 kw or 7.5 MeV/300 kw Minimal dose = 2 kgy Transfer time between pallets = 20 seconds Operating time = 8000 hours/year 110 ktons/year at 5 MeV for product density of 0.5 g/cm 3 100
101 Industrial Electron Accelerators Direct Current Accelerators Single Gap Extended Beam Multiple Gap Scanned Beam Microwave Linear Accelerators S-Band Systems L-Band Systems Radio Frequency Accelerators Single Cavity Single Pass Single Cavity Multiple Pass 101
102 Industrial Electron Accelerators Direct Current Accelerators Single Gap Extended Beam Electron Energy 80 kev to 300 kev Electron Beam Power up to 300 kw Electron Beam Width up to 3 m 102
103 RPC BroadBeam Electron Beam Processor 103
104 AEB Modular EB Emitter 120 kev - 40 ma 104
105 AEB Modular Two-Emitter Assembly 105
106 Industrial Electron Accelerators Direct Current Accelerators Multiple Gap Scanned Beam Electron Energy 300 kev to 5 MeV Electron Beam Power up to 300 kw Electron Beam Width up to 3 m 106
107 Industrial Electron Accelerators Multiple Gap Scanned Beam DC Accelerator 107
108 Industrial Electron Accelerators Parallel-Coupled Capacitive Cascade Circuit 108
109 Industrial Electron Accelerators Parallel-Coupled Capacitive Cascade Circuit 109
110 RDI Dynamitron Assembly Drawing Heat Exchanger RF Electrodes Rectifier Modules Electron Gun Acceleration Tube Scan Horn RF Transformer Beam Window Vacuum Pump
111 RDI Dynamitron Assembly 5 MeV 300 kw 111
112 RDI Dynamitron Rectifier Column 5 MeV 112
113 RDI Dynamitron EB Processing Facility 113
114 Industrial Electron Accelerators Microwave Linear Accelerators S-Band Systems Microwave Frequency 3 GHz Electron Energy 2 MeV to 20 MeV Electron Beam Power up to 20 kw Electron Beam Width up to 1 m 114
115 SureBeam Dual S-Band Linac EB Facility 115
116 Industrial Electron Accelerators Microwave Linear Accelerators L-Band Systems Microwave Frequency 1.3 GHz Electron Energy 5 MeV to 10 MeV Electron Beam Power up to 80 kw Electron Beam Width up to 1.5 m 116
117 SureBeam L-Band Linac 5 MeV 80 kw 117
118 SureBeam Dual L-Band Linac X-Ray Facility 118
119 AECL Impela L-Band Linac 10 MeV 60 kw 119
120 Iotron Impela L-Band Linac EB Facility 120
121 Industrial Electron Accelerators Radio Frequency Accelerators Single Cavity Single Pass Systems Radio Frequency 100 to 200 MHz Electron Energy 0.5 MeV to 4 MeV Electron Beam Power up to 50 kw Electron Beam Width up to 1 m 121
122 Industrial Electron Accelerators Radio Frequency Accelerators Single Cavity Multiple Pass Systems Radio Frequency 107 to 215 MHz Electron Energy 5 MeV to 10 MeV Electron Beam Power up to 700 kw Electron Beam Width up to 2 m 122
123 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Operating Principle (1) Inward Acceleration D E E G
124 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Operating Principle (2) RF Field Reversal D G
125 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Operating Principle (3) Outward Acceleration D E E G
126 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Operating Principle (4) RF Field Reversal D E E G Beam Deflection
127 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Operating Principle (5) D G External Beam Transport
128 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator E B Electric (E) and magnetic (B) fields in a Rhodotron coaxial cavity
129 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Copper Plated Steel Cavity 129
130 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Assembly of Beam Reversing Magnets 130
131 IBA Rhodotron RF Electron Accelerator Model TT MeV 100 ma 700 kw 131
132 IBA Rhodotron Specifications TT100 TT200 TT300 TT1000 Energy (MeV) Power range at 10 MeV (kw) NA at 5 MeV (kw) at 7 MeV (kw) Design Value (kw) > 200 > 800 Full (cavity) diameter (m) 1.60 (1.05) 3.00 (2.00) 3.00 (2.00) 3.00 (2.00) Full (cavity) height (m) 1.75 (0.75) 2.40 (1.80) 2.40 (1.80) 3.40 (1.80) Weight (T) MeV/pass Number of passes Stand-by kw used < 15 < 15 < 15 <25 Full beam kw used < 21 < 260 < 370 kw kw
133 IBA Rhodotron EB Processing Facility 133
134 Industrial Applications of Electron Accelerators Conclusion Ideas about how to accelerate atomic particles to high energies originated about 75 years ago. The motivation then was to investigate the structure of atomic nuclei. Those early concepts have evolved into very complex accelerator technologies, which have many practical applications outside the field of nuclear physics. 134
135 Industrial Applications of Electron Accelerators Conclusion Radiation processing of materials and commercial products is one of those offshoots. It is a diverse field that has justified constructing over 1000 industrial electron beam irradiation facilities. Some of the emerging applications, such as food irradiation and reduction of environmental pollution, offer the prospects of significant benefits to human health and wellfare. 135
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