XII. 3.2 Determining Bulk Material Properties Determining the Properties of Fluids 42

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2 Table of Contents Nomenclature (Selection) Terminology Symbols and Abbreviated Terms XXI XXIX XXXIII 1 Introduction The Genesis of Polymer Testing as a Science Factors Influencing Data Acquisition Classification of Polymer Testing Methods Standards and Regulatory Codes for Polymer Testing Compilation of Standards References by Area of Specialization 11 2 Preparation of Specimens Introduction Testing Molding Materials Specimen Preparation General Remarks Specimen Preparation by Direct Shaping Production of Specimens from Thermoplastic Molding Materials Production of Specimens from Thermosetting Molding Materials Production of Specimens from Elastomeric Materials Specimen Preparation by Indirect Shaping Characterization of Specimen State Specimen Preparation and Conditioning Compilation of Standards References 38 3 Determining Process-Related Properties Molding Materials 39

3 XII Table of Contents 3.2 Determining Bulk Material Properties Bulk Density, Compacted Apparent Density, Fill Factor Pourability, Angle of Repose, Slide Angle Determining the Properties of Fluids Rheological Fundamentals Viscosity of Newtonian and non-newtonian Fluids Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Viscosity Molecular Mass Influence on Viscosity Volume Properties Measuring Rheological Properties Rheometry/Viscometry Rotational Rheometers Capillary Rheometers Extensional Rheometers Selecting Measurement Methods for Characterizing Polymer Materials Compilation of Standards References 70 4 Mechanical Properties of Polymers Fundamental Principles of Mechanical Behavior Mechanical Loading Parameters Stress Strain Material Behavior and Constitutive Equations Elastic Behavior Viscous Behavior Viscoelastic Behavior Plastic Behavior Mechanical Spectroscopy Experimental Determination of Time Dependent Mechanical Properties Static Testing Methods Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) Time and Temperature Dependence of Viscoelastic Properties Structural Factors Influencing Viscoelastic Properties Quasi-Static Test Methods Deformation Behavior of Polymers 104

4 Table of Contents XIII Tensile Tests on Polymers Theoretical Basis of the Tensile Test Conventional Tensile Tests Enhanced Information of Tensile Tests Tear Test Compression Test on Polymers Theoretical Basis of the Compression Test Performance and Evaluation of Compression Tests Bend Tests on Polymers Theoretical Basis of the Bend Test The Standardized Bend Test Impact Loading Introduction Charpy Impact Test and Charpy Notched Impact Test Tensile-Impact and Notched Tensile-Impact Tests Free-falling Dart Test and Puncture Impact Test Fatigue Behavior Fundamentals Experimental Determination of Fatigue Behavior Planning and Evaluating Fatigue Tests Factors Influencing the Fatigue Behavior and Service-Life Prediction of Service Life for Polymers Long-Term Static Behavior Fundamentals Tensile Creep Test Flexural Creep Test Creep Compression Test Hardness Test Methods Principles of Hardness Testing Conventional Hardness Testing Methods Test Methods for Determining Hardness Values after Unloading Test Methods for Determining Hardness Values under Load Special Testing Methods Comparability of Hardness Values Instrumented Hardness Test Fundamentals of Measurement Methodology 193

5 XIV Table of Contents Material Parameters Derived from Instrumented Hardness Tests Examples of Applications Correlating Microhardness with Yield Stress and Fracture Toughness Friction and Wear Introduction Fundamentals of Friction and Wear Frictional Forces Temperature Increase Resulting from Friction Wear as a System Characteristic Wear Mechanisms and Formation of Transfer Film Wear Tests and Wear Characteristics Selected Model Wear Tests Wear Parameters and Their Determination Wear Parameters and Their Presentation Selected Experimental Results Counterbody Influence Influencing of Fillers Influence of Loading Parameters Predicting Properties Via Artificial Neural Networks Summary Compilation of Standards References Fracture Toughness Measurements in Engineering Plastics Introduction Current State and Development Trends Fundamental Concepts of Fracture Mechanics Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) Crack-Tip-Opening Displacement (CTOD) Concept J-Integral Concept Crack Resistance (R-) Curve Concept Experimental Determination of Fracture Mechanical Parameters Quasi-static Loading Instrumented Charpy Impact Test Test Configuration Maintenance of Experimental Conditions 252

6 Table of Contents XV Types of Load Deflection Diagrams Optimization of Diagram Shape Special Approximation Methods for Estimating J Values Requirements for Specimen Geometry Instrumented Free-Falling Dart Test Applications for Material Development Fracture Mechanical Toughness Evaluation on Modified Polymers Particle Filled Thermoplastics Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastics Blends and Copolymers Instrumented Tensile-Impact Testing for Product Evaluation Consideration of Fracture Behavior for Material Selection and Dimensioning Compilation of Standards References Testing of Physical Properties Thermal Properties Introduction Determining Heat Conductivity Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA) Optical Properties Introduction Reflection and Diffraction Directed and Diffuse Reflection Refractive Index Determination Dispersion Polarization Optical Activity Polarization of Optical Components Polarization-Optical Testing Methods Transmission, Absorption and Reflection Gloss, Intrinsic Diffuse Reflectance and Haze Color 325

7 XVI Table of Contents Transparency and Translucency Infrared Spectroscopy Laser Technology Testing the Stability of Optical Values Electrical and Dielectrical Properties Introduction Physical Fundamentals Electrical Conductivity and Resistance Volume Resistivity Surface Resistivity Insulation Resistance Measuring Procedures Contacting and Specimen Preparation Dielectrical Properties and Dielectrical Spectroscopy Relaxation Processes Alternating Current Conductivity (AC Conductivity) Broadband Dielectric Measurement Techniques Special Technical Testing Methods Electrostatic Charge Electric Strength Creep Resistance and Arc Resistance Compilation of Standards References Evaluating Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance General Remarks on the Failure of Polymers in Aggressive Fluids Testing Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance Test Methods for Determining Environmental Stress Crack Formation Examples for Evaluating Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance with Standardized Test Methods Fracture Mechanics Test Methods Modeling Plastics Failure in Fluids Caused by Stress Cracking Factors Influencing Stress Cracking Behavior Crosslinking Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution Branching Crystalline Regions 408

8 Table of Contents XVII Molecular Orientation Physical-Chemical Interaction Processes Viscosity of the Immersion Fluid Influence of Test Specimen Thickness Temperature Influence Compilation of Standards References Non-Destructive Polymer Testing Introduction Non-Destructive Testing by Electromagnetic Waves X-Ray Radiation Projection Methods by Means of Absorption Compton Backscatter X-Ray Refractometry Spectral Range of Visible Light Measuring Thickness of Transparent Components Photoelastic Imaging of Transparent Components Confocal Laser Scan Microscopes Line Projection for Detecting Contour Interferometric Methods Thermography Microwaves Dielectric Spectroscopy Eddy Current Non-Destructive Testing with Elastic Waves Elastic Waves under Linear Material Behavior Ultrasound Mechanical Vibrometry Elastic Waves with Non-linear Material Behavior Fundamentals on Elastic Waves in Non-Linear Materials Non-Linear Air-Ultrasound Non-Linear Vibrometry Non-Destructive Testing by Dynamic Heat Transport External Excitation Heat-Flux Thermography by Non-Periodical Heat Transport 478

9 XVIII Table of Contents Thermography with Periodical Heat Transport Internal Excitation Thermography with Excitation by Elastic Waves Thermography with Other Types of Internal Excitation Outlook References Hybrid Methods of Polymer Diagnostics Objectives Tensile Test, Acoustic Emission Test and Video Thermography Tensile Test and Laser Extensometry Fracture Mechanics and Non-Destructive Testing References Testing of Composite Materials Introduction Theoretical Background Anisotropy Elastic Properties of Laminates Influence from Moisture and Temperature Laminate Theory and St. Venant s Principle Applying Fracture Mechanical Concepts to Fiber Composites Specimen Preparation Manufacture of Laminates Preparing Specimens for Unidirectional Loading Determining Fiber Volume Content Mechanical Test Methods Tensile Tests Compression Tests Flexural Tests Interlaminar Shear Strength Shear Tests Off-Axis Tensile Test Off-Axis Tensile Test Two- and Three-Rail Shear Test Iosipescu Shear Test Plate-Twist Shear Test Torsional Loading on Thin-Walled Tubes 542

10 Table of Contents XIX 10.6 Fracture Mechanical Test Methods Experimental Tests on Fiber Composite Materials Special Specimen Configuration Specimens for Mode I Loading Specimen for Mode II Loading Mixed-Mode Specimens Fracture Mechanical Values of Fiber Composite Materials Dedicated Test Methods Edge Delamination Test (EDT) Boeing Open-Hole Compression Test Peel Strength of Flexible Laminates Impact Loading and Damage Tolerance Compilation of Standards and Guidelines References Technological Testing Methods Heat Distortion Resistance Fundamentals and Definitions Determining Heat Distortion Resistance Temperature HDT and Vicat Softening Temperature Practical Examples for the Informational Value of the Vicat and HDT Test Fire Behavior Introduction Stages of a Fire and Fire-Determining Parameters Fire Tests Smoldering Fire Ignitability Flame Spread Heat Release Fire Resistance Ease of Extinguishment Utilization of a Cone Calorimeter to Characterize Fire Behavior Component Testing Introduction Basic Testing Methods General Remarks Testing Visible Features 597

11 XX Table of Contents Testing Materials Properties Testing Serviceability Testing Plastic Piping Quality Assurance for Plastic Piping Testing Hydrostatic Rupture Strength for Plastic Pipes Testing Plastics Components for Application in Vehicle Design Test Requirements Mechanical Tests Permeation and Emission Tests Testing Plastics Components for Application in Building Construction Introduction Testing Sandwich Panels Testing Plastic Casing Pipes Implant Testing Introduction Push-out Tests for Implants Testing the Application Behavior of Pharyngotracheal Voice Prostheses Determining the Mechanical Properties of Human Cartilage Compilation of Standards References Testing of Microcomponents Introduction Microspecimen Testing Micro-Tensile Tests Fracture Mechanics Investigations Using Mini Compact Tension (CT) Specimens Nanoindentation Testing Testing Methods on Their Way to the Nanoworld Non-Contacting Displacement Field Analysis Using Digital Image Correlation (Gray-Value Correlation Analysis) In-Situ Deformation Measurement with Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) References 655 Subject Index 659