Incidental!learning!of!vocabulary! through!subtitled!authentic!videos!

Transcription

1 March 2012 Incidentallearningofvocabulary throughsubtitledauthenticvideos PaulRaine# Thisresearchinvestigatestheeffectivenessofsubtitledauthenticvideosastoolsforincreasingdepthof vocabularyknowledge.lowcintermediateleveljapaneselearnersofenglishwereshownanauthenticvideo subtitledinfourdifferentmodes(intralingual,interlingual,dualandnosubtitles)toseeiftheywereableto incidentallylearnthemeaningsofsixtargetwordsappearinginthevideo.aquestionnairewasalso administeredtodeterminewhetherthestudentsfelttheywereabletoimprovetheirknowledgeofenglish vocabularyfromwatchingthevideo,whetherthecontentofthevideowasinteresting,andwhetherthe subtitleswereeasytoread.althoughthemajorityofstudentswerenotabletolearnthemeaningsofthe targetwordsfromwatchingthevideo,twoexceptionalcasesshowedthatdoingsowasnotimpossible. Additionally,membersoftheinterlingualgroupfeltmostabletolearnvocabularyfromwatchingthevideo, andalsofoundthesubtitleseasiertoreadthananyothergroup.theintralingualsubtitlegroupwastheonly groupnottofindthecontentofthevideointeresting.inthecurrentpaper,thisresearchisdiscussed,and implicationsforteachingpracticearesuggested. DissertationforUniversityofBirminghamMATEFL/TESL

2 Acknowledgements. Iwouldliketothankmymotherandfatherfortheirconsistentmoraland financialsupportthroughoutmyacademiccareer,withoutwhomnoneofit wouldhavebeenpossible. Iamalsoincrediblygratefultomygrandfather,andlategrandmother,whose generosityallowedmetocompletethecelta,cometojapan,andcontinuemy professionaldevelopmentbyembarkingonthebirminghamm.a. Iwouldliketothankmygirlfriend,Koyuki,forprovidingaconsistentsupplyof moralsupportandphysicalnourishment. ThankyoualsotoColinSkeatesandPhilBrownforalwaysgoingtheextramile tohelpmewithmym.a.studiesandmycareerdevelopment. I dliketothankmytutor,daxthomas,andmysupervisor,tillyharrison,for theircommentsandguidancerelatingtomym.a.assignmentsanddissertation. ThankyoualsotoWakakoItoforherhelpwithtranslatingtheresearch instruments,andthankstojeannettelittlemore,neilmillar,nickgroomand OliverMasonfortheinspirationandadvicetheyprovidedduringtheJapan summerseminars. I malsoincrediblygratefultogeovannisimonandechoevanofffortheir assistancewithadministeringtheresearch. Finally,I dliketothankthestaffoftokyojogakkancollegefortheirhelp,andthe studentsforparticipatingintheresearchforthisdissertation.

3 Chapter1: Introduction Background Why&vocabulary?&...& Why&subtitled&videos?&...&5 1.2 Aimsofthecurrentresearch Organizationofthepaper...6 Chapter2: LiteratureReview Defining'vocabulary' Whatitmeansto'know'aword Defining'authenticvideo' Defining'subtitles' Interlingual&subtitles&...& Intralingual&subtitles&...& Dual&subtitles&...& Theoreticalbasesforlearningvocabularythroughsubtitledvideos The&Comprehensible&Input&Hypothesis&...& CriticismoftheComprehensibleInputHypothesis The&Affective&Filter&Hypothesis&...& CriticismoftheAffectiveFilterHypothesis Dual&Coding&Theory&...& CriticismofDualCodingTheory Incidental&learning&...& Criticismofincidentallearning Reviewofexistingresearchintovocabularylearningthroughsubtitledvideos Interlingual&subtitle&videos&...& Intralingual&subtitle&videos&...& Dual&subtitle&videos&...& Summary&...&20 Chapter3: Methodology Participants Materials Jessi&Arrington's&"Wearing&Nothing&New"&TED&talk&...& The&Vocabulary&Knowledge&Scale&...& Thetargetvocabulary MultipleUchoice&opinion&survey&...& Datacollectionprocedure Codingschemes Vocabulary&Knowledge&Scale&...& Opinion&survey&...&28 Chapter4: Results TheVKStest Theopinionsurvey English&language&video&viewing&habits&...& Subtitling&preferences&...& Effect&of&the&treatment&video&on&vocabulary&learning&...& Interest&in&the&content&of&the&treatment&video&...&36 Chapter5: Discussion TheVKStest General&failure&to&increase&knowledge&of&target&vocabulary&...& Increasing&knowledge&of&target&vocabulary&not&impossible&...& Students'&confidence&in&level&of&word&knowledge&may&decrease&...& Students&may&fail&to&notice&target&words&...&40 2

4 5.1.5 Students&may&forget&they&have&seen&words&...& Theopinionsurvey The&participants&watch&videos&both&for&enjoyment&and&vocabulary&learning&...& Interlingual&subtitles&are&preferred&for&enjoyment&...& Dual&subtitles&are&preferred&for&vocabulary&learning&...& Interlingual&and&dual&subtitles&are&felt&to&be&effective&for&vocabulary&learning&..& Videos&with&intralingual&subtitles&may&be&less&interesting&...& Interlingual&subtitles&are&the&easiest&to&read&...& Issueswiththecurrentresearch Conservative&estimates&of&ability&...& NonUhomogeneity&of&groups&...& LongUterm&memory&versus&'learning'&...& Extraneous&exposures&to&target&words&...& Confusion&with&the&concept&of&'dual&subtitles'&...& Ability&of&students&to&guess&the&meanings&of&unknown&words&...& Small,&nonUrepresentative&sample&...&46 Chapter6: Conclusion Summaryoffindings Implicationsforteachingpractice Avenuesforfurtherresearch...49 Bibliog

5 Chapter1: Introduction 1.1 Background AsanEnglishteacherinJapan,Iamfortunatetohaveaccesstomultimedia technologyonadailybasis,bothathome,andinallofmyteachingcontexts.in recentyears,leapsandboundshavebeenmadeinthetechnologicalcomplexity ofthematerialsutilizedbyenglishteachers.ihaveendeavoredtostayabreastof thesedevelopments,andusetechnologytocreateandexploitlearning opportunitiesformystudents. Videomediaisaparticularinterestandpassionofmine,andIhavecreated'nonY authentic'andutilized'authentic'videos(see2.3,below)forenglishteaching purposes. Itisthelatterofthesetwotypesofvideomediathathascapturedmyinterest withthecurrentresearch.inparticular,ihaveexperimentedwithand endeavoredtounderstandtheeffectthataddingdifferentkindsofsubtitlesto authenticenglishlanguagevideoshasonanenglishlearner'sabilitytoincrease theirenglishvocabularyknowledgefromviewingsuchvideos Whyvocabulary? Learningvocabularyisamajorpartoflearningaforeignlanguage.Without knowledgeofwordsandtheirmeanings,itisimpossibletodoanythingina foreignlanguage.conversely,quitealotcanbeachievedinaforeignlanguage withsinglewordsalone.ascarter(1998,p.5)pointsout,wordssuchas'shoot', 'goal','yes','there','up',and'taxi'caneachstandontheirownandconvey meaningwithouttheneedforgrammaticalstructuringofanykind. Wordsarethe'minimummeaningfulunits'oflanguage(Carter,1998).Because theabilitytoconveymeaningisfarmoreimportantforcommunicative 4

6 competencethantheabilitytoproducegrammaticallyflawlessutterances,the studyofwordsandthelearningofvocabularyshouldbegivenpriority Whysubtitledvideos? Recenttechnologicaladvancementsaremakingtheprocessofsubtitlingvideos mucheasierforeducatorsandmaterialsproducersalike.websitessuchas dotsub( transcribingvideosonline,andyoutubenowhasfunctiontoautomatically synchronizetranscriptionstovideos. Websitesfeaturingsubtitledauthenticvideos,suchasEnglish&Central ( withjapaneselearnersofenglish.thereisalsoavastarrayofreadyysubtitled authenticvideosavailable,eitherindvdformat,orontheinternetatsitessuch asyoutube,ted( Thismultitudeofsourcesofsubtitledvideosmakesthemhighlyaccessiblefor bothlanguageteachers,andlearners.ultimately,however,itisthelearners themselveswhomusttakethestudyofenglishvocabularyintotheirownhands. Itistheteacher'sjobto"putstudentsinthepositionwheretheyarecapableof derivingandproducingmeaningsfromlexicalitemsbothforthemselvesandout oftheclassroom"(carter,1998,p.186) Byencouragingstudents'interestinsubtitledauthenticvideos,andbuilding theirconfidenceintheirabilitytousesuchvideosaslearningtools,weare puttingtheminapositionwheretheycancontinuetoincreasetheirknowledge ofenglishvocabularyindependentlyoftheteacher. Inordertodeterminewhethersubtitledauthenticvideoscouldbeeffective vocabularylearningtoolsforstudentsinmyparticularteachingcontexts,i decidedtoundertakethecurrentinvestigationinonesuchcontext. 1.2 Aimsofthecurrentresearch Theaimsofthecurrentresearchwereasfollows: 5

7 1. touncovertheparticipants generalenglishlanguagevideoviewing habits; 2. todeterminewhatkindofsubtitlestheparticipantsgenerallypreferred whenwatchingenglishlanguagevideosforenjoymentorvocabulary learningpurposes; 3. toobjectivelyassesswhethertheparticipantswereabletoincreasetheir depthofknowledgeofsixtargetwordsappearinginthetreatmentvideo; 4. todeterminewhethertheparticipantsfeltthatwatchingthetreatment videohelpedthemtoincreasetheirknowledgeofenglishvocabulary; 5. todeterminewhethertheparticipantsfeltthatthecontentofthe treatmentvideowasinteresting,and; 6. todeterminewhethertheparticipantsfeltthatthesubtitles accompanyingthetreatmentvideowereeasytoread. 1.3 Organizationofthepaper Chapter2ofthispapercontainstheliteraturereview,whichprovidesa definitionoftheconceptof'vocabulary'(2.1),andadiscussionofwhatitmeans to'know'aword(2.2),followedbyadefinitionoftheconceptof authenticvideo (2.3). Nextisadiscussionofthethreedifferentkindsofsubtitlesthatarethesubjectof investigationinthecurrentlineofinquiry,i.e.interlingualsubtitles(2.4.1), intralingualsubtitles(2.4.2)anddualsubtitles(2.4.3). Followingthisisanevaluationoffourtheoreticalbasesforvocabularylearning throughsubtitledvideos,namely:thecomprehensibleinputhypothesis(2.5.1); theaffectivefilterhypothesis(2.5.2);dualcodingtheory(2.5.3),and; incidentallearning(2.5.4). Afterthiscomesareviewofexistingevidencefortheeffectivenessofthe differentkindsofsubtitledvideosastoolsforincreasingviewers'english vocabularyknowledge(2.6). 6

8 Chapter3containsthemethodologyofthecurrentresearchproject,including detailsoftheparticipants(3.1),materials(3.2),datacollectionprocedure(3.3) andcodingschemes(3.4). TheresultsoftheresearcharepresentedinChapter4.Thisisfollowedin Chapter5byadiscussionofthefindings,andasummaryofsomeoftheissues encounteredinthecurrentresearch.finally,inchapter6,aconclusionisoffered, alongwithsomesuggestedroutesforfurtherresearch. 7

9 Chapter2: LiteratureReview 2.1 Defining'vocabulary' Simplyput,vocabularyisthewordsofalanguage.Butwhatisaword?Although itseemslikelythat"everyoneknowswhatawordis"(carter&mccarthy,1988, p.4),foracademicresearchpurposes,atleast,sometimesthemeaningisnotso clear. Wordsarerealizationsoflexemes(Carter,1998).Alexemeisthebasicformofa wordthatislistedinthedictionary,andistherootofallthevariationsofthat word.thelexemego,forexample,comprisesallofthegrammatical conjugationsofthatverbintermsofperson('goes','go')andtense('go','going', 'went','gone').lexemescanalsobe'prefabricatedchunks'oflanguage,i.e.multiy worditemsthatarestoredandrecalledinagrammaticallyunanalyzedform (Schmitt&McCarthy,1997). Inthecurrentpaper,whentalkingof'increasestoEnglishvocabulary knowledge',by'vocabulary'imean'words',andby'words',imeanthe realizationsoflexemes.thefocusofthecurrentresearchisonsinglewords(as opposedto'prefabricatedchunks')inthissense. 2.2 Whatitmeansto'know'aword Knowingawordrequiresmorethanjust familiaritywithitsmeaningandform (Schmitt&McCarthy,1997).Richard's(1976)specificationofwordknowledge includessevencriteriaaboutwhatitmeanstoknowaword,namely:knowing thedegreeofprobabilityofencounteringit;knowingitslimitationsofuse accordingtofunctionandsituation;knowingitssyntacticbehavior;knowingits underlyingformsandderivations;knowingitsplaceinanetworkof associations;knowingitssemanticvalue;andknowingitsdifferentmeanings (Carter&McCarthy,1988). 8

10 Notallofthesetypesofwordknowledgeareexaminedhere.Theresearch conductedforthispaperfocusesmainlyonrespondents'knowledgeofthe syntacticbehaviorofwords,i.e."thetypesofgrammaticalrelationswordsmay enterinto"(richards,1976,p.80),andrespondents'knowledgeofthemeanings ofwords,i.e."themostfrequentwaysinwhichawordrealizesaparticular concept"(richards,1976,p.83). Ellis(1997,p.133)suggeststhat"theacquisitionofL2wordsusuallyinvolvesa mappingofthenewwordformontopreyexistingconceptualmeaningsoronto L1translationequivalentsasapproximations andthatthisistrueevenfor advancedadultesllearners. Themainwaysinwhichthispaperassesseswordknowledge,then,arethrough respondents'knowledgeofthel1equivalentsofl2words,andtheirabilityto usel1wordsingrammaticallycorrectsentences. AVKStest(Wesche&Paribakht,1996)wasadministeredtotheparticipants bothimmediatelypriorto,andimmediateafter,viewingthevideo.anopinion surveywasalsoadministeredaftertheparticipantshadviewedthevideo.both methodsofassessingtherespondents'increasestovocabularyknowledgeare discussedinmoredetailinthemethodologysection(chapter3),below. Theresearchconductedforthecurrentpaperfocusesonincidentalvocabulary learning,and withexceptionofthepreyandpostytestsandtheopinionsurvey noadditionalmaterialsoractivitieswereadministeredtotheparticipantsofthe research. 2.3 Defining'authenticvideo' Authenticvideosinclude featurefilms,documentaries,commercials,game shows (Sherman,2003)andmanyotherkindsofvideosthathavenotbeen madespecificallyforlearnersofenglish.authenticvideosarethosethathave beenmadefortheenjoymentoreducationofnativespeakersofthelanguagein whichthevideoswereproduced.assuch,theytendtofeaturedenseand 9

11 ungradedlanguage,andmayrelatetotopicsthatdonotspecificallycatertothe interestsoflearnersofenglishasaforeignlanguage(stempleski,1992). Authenticvideosaresaidtopresent real language,notinthesensethatitis unscripted,butinthesensethatitismeantfornativespeakersofthelanguage (Stempleski,1992).Somegofurtherandsuggestthatauthenticvideosprovide slicesoflivinglanguage inthesensethattheamountofrealismencodedin videomediaisgreaterthanthattobefoundineitherwrittenoraudiomedia (Allan,1985). NonYauthenticvideos,ontheotherhand,suchasthewellYknownFamily&Album& USA(Kelty,Cooperman,&Lefferts,1991)tendtofeaturegradedlanguage,anda slowerthanaveragespeedofspeech.theyoftenfocusoneducatingtheviewer aboutaspectsofthetargetculture,suchaslifeinamerica. ThedistinctionbetweenauthenticandnonYauthenticvideoshasbeendisputed, however.hambrook(1992)arguesthateven authentic videosexertcontrol overrealityintermsofeditingsoundandvideofootage, settingup events artificiallyinordertorecordthem,orotherwiseintrudingon reallife eventsin ordertodocumentthem(hambrook,1992,p.164).additionally,bothauthentic andnonyauthenticvideostendtobe artificially supportedbyotherteaching materialsandactivitieswhenusedintheclassroom(hambrook,1992). 2.4 Defining'subtitles' Abasicdefinitionoftheterm'subtitles'is"captionsdisplayedatthebottomofa cinemaortelevisionscreenthattranslateortranscribethedialogueor narrative"(oed,2010).onamoretechnicallevel,theterm'subtitles'isusually associatedwiththetextualdisplayofthetranslatedaudiotrack,or,inthispaper, 'interlingualsubtitles'.theterm captions isusuallyassociatedwithatextual displayoftheoriginalaudio herereferredtoas'intralingualsubtitles'.these kindsofsubtitles,andonefurtherkind,dualsubtitles,aredefinedanddiscussed inmoredetailbelow. 10

12 2.4.1 Interlingualsubtitles Interlingualsubtitles,alsoknownas'standardsubtitles'(Zanon,2006)or'L1 subtitles',areaformofsubtitlesinwhichtheaudiotrackisintheoriginal languageofthevideo(e.g.english)andthetextconstitutesatranslationofthe audiotrackintotheviewer sl1(e.g.japanese). Theprocessofcreatinginterlingualsubtitleshasbeenviewedasmoreofanart thanascience,duetothe skill,imaginationandcreativetalent requiredto producethem(ivarsson&carroll,1998,p.v). AccordingtotheCode&of&Good&Subtitling&Practice(Titelbild),goodinterlingual subtitlesshould: begrammaticallyandlexicallyaccurate; havearegardfortheidiomaticandculturalnuancesofthesource; adoptanappropriateregisteroflanguage; bewrittenineasilydigestiblegrammaticalunits. Interlingualsubtitlesare,however,nearlyalwaysreductive,thatis,they condensethesourcematerial(l2audio)byremovinghedges,hesitations,and otherredundancies,andsimplifyinggrammarwheremeaningisapparentfrom onyscreenvisuals(millanyvarela,2010) Intralingualsubtitles Intralingualsubtitles,alsoknownas'bimodalsubtitles'(Zanon,2006),or'L2 subtitles',areatranscriptionoftheaudiotrackofavideointocaptionsofthe samelanguage.intralingualsubtitlesareknownas closedcaptions when providedforthebenefitofhearingyimpairedviewers. Intralingualsubtitlesarereductiveor'nonYverbatim'inthesensethathedges, hesitations,falsestarts,andrepetitionsarenotusuallytranscribed.conversely, nonyverbalaudiocues,suchasapplause,music,andsoundeffects,maybe denotedforthebenefitofhearingyimpairedviewers. 11

13 2.4.3 Dualsubtitles Dualsubtitlesarethecombinationofbothinterlingualandintralingualsubtitles displayedonthescreensimultaneously.chang(2003)purportstohavecoined theterm dualsubtitles inherstudyrelatingtotheinteractionbetweensubtitles and schemata (i.e. priorknowledge ). Mostconventionalmediadoesnotcomewiththefacilitytodisplaytwodifferent kindsofsubtitlessimultaneously.dvds,forexample,usuallyonlyprovidethe optionforonelanguageofsubtitlestobedisplayedatonetime.dualsubtitles arethereforeusuallyonlyavailableinnonyauthentic'madeforesl'videos,or speciallyeditedauthentic'madefornativespeaker'videos. 2.5 Theoreticalbasesforlearningvocabularythroughsubtitledvideos TheComprehensibleInputHypothesis The'ComprehensibleInputHypothesis'hasbeenpropoundedbyKrashen (1991)aspartofhiswidertheoryofforeignlanguageacquisition.Krashen (1991)arguesthatforeignlanguagesareacquiredwhenlearnersareexposedto comprehensibleinput.theinputcanbeintheformofeitheroralorwritten language. Inordertobeeffective,however,inputmustbeatalevelof i+1,where i isthe learner scurrentlevelofabilityinthetargetlanguage.inotherwords,theinput materialmustbeataslightlyhigherlevelthanthelearner scurrentlevel. Krashen(1991)arguesthatexposuretocomprehensibleinputofthetarget languageat i+1 isbothnecessaryandsufficienttocauseacquisitionofthe language. Addingsubtitles(eitherinterlingual,intralingual,ordual)toavideomeantfor nativeenglishspeakerswouldappeartoincreasethechancesthatnonynative Englishspeakerswillbeabletocomprehendthecontentofthevideo,thus makingthevideoasourceofcomprehensibleinput,andleadingtoforeign languageacquisition. 12

14 NeumanandKoskinen(1992)havesuggestedthatcaptioned(intralingually subtitled)televisionisavalidformofcomprehensibleinput,andincreasesthe secondlanguagevocabularyknowledgeofitsviewersmoreeffectivelythannony captionedtelevision Criticism,of,the,Comprehensible,Input,Hypothesis, Krashen'sComprehensibleInputHypothesishasbeencriticizedonthebasisthat itoverlooksotherimportantfactors,amongthemtherolesofuniversalgrammar, andoutput(scarcella&perkins,1987). Inrelationtouniversalgrammar,criticspointoutthatbecausethegrammarof languagelearnersgoesbeyondtheinputtheyhavereceived,theremustbeother factorsatworkbesidesinput(chaudron,1985). Inrelationtooutput,Swain&Lapkin(1995)suggestthatanimportantprocess oflanguagelearningoccurswhen,forexample,languagelearnerstesttheirown hypothesesaboutthegrammarofthetargetlanguage,andreceivefeedbackfrom interlocutorsinrelationtothosehypotheses(the'hypothesistestingfunction'). Thesecriticismsseemvalid,but,intheresearcher'sopinion,donotgofar enoughtounderminethecentralimportanceofcomprehensibleinput,especially inrelationtolearningnewvocabulary TheAffectiveFilterHypothesis The'AffectiveFilterHypothesis'wasdevelopedbyKrashen(1982)in conjunctionwith'comprehensibleinputhypothesis',alreadydiscussedabove (2.5.1).AccordingtoKrashen(1982),theaffectivefilteractsasabarrierbetween 'input',i.e.thelanguagealearnerisexposedto,and'acquisition',i.e.theabilityto processandpermanentlystorethelanguageforlaterreceptiveorproductiveuse. Thethreemainfactorsthatcontributetotheaffectivefilteraremotivation,selfY confidence,andanxiety.astudentwithhighmotivation,highselfyconfidenceand lowanxietywillhavealowaffectivefilter,andwillbeabletotakefulladvantage oftheinputtheyareexposedto,aswellasproactivelyseekingoutadditional 13

15 inputopportunities.astudentwithlowmotivation,lowselfyconfidenceandhigh anxietywillhaveahighaffectivefilter,andwillnotbeabletoeffectivelyprocess theinputtheyareexposedto,evenifitis'comprehensible'.krashen(1982) thereforearguesthatlanguageteachersshouldaimtofosterlearningsituations thatencouragealowyaffectivefilter. Authenticvideoshavebeensuggestedtobestronglymotivationalforlearnersof English(Sherman,2003;Stempleski,1992),andtolowertheaffectivefilterof foreignlanguagelearners(neuman&koskinen,1992) Criticism,of,the,Affective,Filter,Hypothesis, TheAffectiveFilterHypothesishasalsobeenthesubjectofcriticism,most noticeably,perhaps,atthehandsofgregg(1984).whileheacknowledgesthe importanceofaffectivevariables,hetakesissuewiththepositingofanaffective Filterper&se.Hisobjectionsincludethefactthat:a)childrendonotseemtobe affectedbytheaffectivefilterintheacquisitionoftheirfirstlanguages,and;b) certainhighlymotivatedadultlearnersstillhavedifficultyacquiringcertain linguisticstructures,despitethefilterbeingpresumablyverylowforsuch individuals. Gregg(1984,p.94)doeshoweveraccepttheclaimthat "anunmotivatedlearnerwillacquirelessthanamotivatedone,anervous learnerlessthanarelaxedone,aselfyhatinglearnerlessthanaselfy respectingone" Theseclaimsarealsoacceptedinthecurrentpaper,and,notwithstanding Gregg's(1984)specificcriticisms,theAffectiveFilterHypothesisisdeemedtobe relevantandofvaluewithrespecttothecurrentresearch DualCodingTheory Dualcodingtheory(hereafterDCT),aspropoundedbyPavio(1971b),suggests thatverbalandnonyverbalinformationisprocessedandstoredseparatelybythe 14

16 brain.inrecenttimes,functionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fmri)has confirmedtheveracityofthetheory(metirigroup,2008). Verbalinformationincludesspokenandwrittenwords,whilenonYverbal informationincludesimages,actionsandsensations.(clark&paivio,1991).the verbalandnonyverbalsystemsareconnectedby referentialconnections which linkthetwosystemsintoa complexassociativenetwork (Clark&Paivio,1991, p.153). AccordingtoDCT,learningaforeignlanguageentails successiveverbaland nonverbalrepresentations[being]activatedduringinitialstudyof[l1andl2] wordpairsandduringlatereffortstoretrievethetranslations (Clark&Paivio, 1991). DCTsuggeststhatthecombinationofbothverbalandnonYverbalcodesis superiortoverbalcodesalone,especiallywhenitcomestomemorizationand recall(paivio,1975).thiswasconfirmedinastudybylevinandberry(1980), inwhichschoolchildrenwholistenedtonewsstorieswhileviewingrelevant pictureswereabletorecallmoreinformationthanthosewhoonlylistenedtothe stories. Subtitledauthenticvideosprovidetwochannelsofverbalinformation(theaudio trackandthesubtitles)inadditiontoonechannelofnonyverbalinformation (movingpictures).therefore,theyseemtobeaverysuitableformofmediafor activatingdualycodingsystemswithinviewers'brains Criticism,of,Dual,Coding,Theory, DualCodingTheoryhasbeencriticizedbythelikesofKieras(1978),whostates: "UnlikethedualYcodeposition,thereisnofundamentaldifferenceinhow perceptuallybasedandverballybasedinformationisrepresentedin memory"(kieras,1978) However,inPaivo's(1991)rebuttalofsuchcriticisms,henoteshowsuch'singleY code'approacheseventuallylosttractionbecausetheavailabledataaboutthe brainwascompatiblewitheithersinglecodeordualcodemodels. 15

17 Asnotedabove(2.5.3),morerecentresearchutilizingfMRItoobservebrain functionaddsweighttopaivio's(1971b)ideas,anddualcodingtheory,farfrom beingdisproved,hasbecomestrongerinthelightofsuchfindings.itis consideredinthecurrentpapertobeapertinentandvalidtheory Incidentallearning Incidentallearningistheprocessbywhichsomething inthiscase,foreign languagevocabulary islearntwithouttheindividualconcerneddirectingtheir attentionspecificallytowardtheactoflearningit.incidentallearningis synonymouswith'implicit'learning,andtheantithesisof'explicit'or 'intentional'learning. Brown(2007)suggeststhattherealquestionisnotwhichoftheseprocessesis betterthantheother,but"underwhatconditions,andforwhichlearners,and forwhatlinguisticelementsisoneapproach,asopposedtotheother, advantageousfor[secondlanguageacquisition]?"(brown,2007,p.292) The'linguisticelement'underinvestigationinthecurrentresearchisvocabulary, andthe'condition'isviewingasubtitledauthenticenglishlanguagevideo. Existingresearchsupportsthepropositionthatthelearningofvocabularycan occurincidentallythroughexposuretosubtitledl2videos. InNeumanandKoskinen's(1992)studyforexample,itwasfoundthatyoung learnersofenglishwereabletoincidentallylearnvocabularyfromwatching captionedenglishlanguagevideos.similarly,ind'ydewalle&vandepoel's (1999)study,younglearnersofFrenchandDanishwereabletolearnvocabulary fromsubtitledvideoswherenoattentionwasdrawntothelanguagebeforeor duringthevideoviewing.inastudyconductedbykoolstra&beentjes(1999), childrentoldto justwatch authenticvideoswerestillabletoacquirenew foreignlanguagevocabulary,evenwhenthevideosdidnothavesubtitles Criticism,of,incidental,learning, Notallexpertsagreethatvideomediaiscompatiblewithincidentallearning, 16

18 however.froehlich(1988)arguesthatstudentswillnot magicallyorbyosmosis learnaforeignlanguagebyjustwatchingauthenticvideos. LadauYHarjulin(1992)similarlystatesthatthe multidimensionalinformation thatvideosconvey isreceivedpassivelyasvagueimpressionsorpure entertainmentunlessitiscapturedinsomeway.inordertobecomeauseful meansoflanguageacquisition,ithasbeensuggestedthatvideoviewingmustbe active asopposedto passive (Allan,1985;Stempleski,1992). Despitetheseobjections,theexperimentalresearchcitedabove(2.5.4)suggests thatvocabularycanindeedbelearntincidentallyfromwatchingsubtitledvideos. Thecurrentresearchthereforeadoptsanincidentallearningapproachinthe treatmentphaseasameansoftestingwhetherincidentallearningissuitablefor thestudentsoftheresearcher'steachingcontext. 2.6 Reviewofexistingresearchintovocabularylearningthroughsubtitled videos Inexistingresearchwhichhasexaminedtheeffectofsubtitledvideoson vocabularylearning,gainsinvocabularyhavegenerallybeenassessedbyselfy report(e.g.katchen,1997;tsai,2009),orbyrequiringparticipantstoselector produceanl1equivalentfortargetwords(e.g.koolstra&beentjes,1999; Yuksel&Tanriverdi,2009).Bothofthesemethodshavebeenutilizedinthe currentresearch.thesestudies,andnumerousotherspertinenttothecurrent research,arediscussedbelow.thestudiesarearrangedaccordingtothekindof subtitledvideostheyfocusedon,namely,interlingual,intralingualanddual subtitlevideos Interlingualsubtitlevideos InKatchen s(1997)studyofadvancedchineselearnersofenglish,the respondentsreportedthattheywereabletolearnalotofnewvocabulary throughtheinterlingualsubtitlesprojectedonepisodesof TheXYFiles.The authorofthestudysurmisedthatit wouldhavebeenimpossiblefor[the 17

19 students]tolearnthesewords withouttheaidofchinesesubtitles (Katchen, 1997,p.3),althoughsheofferednoobjectiveevidencetosupportthisassertion. Similarly,inaninvestigationintoTaiwaneseuniversitystudents'perspectiveson watchingmovieswithinterlingualorintralingualsubtitles,therespondents reportedthattheycould learnmorewordsfromwhat[they]hear[d]inenglish andwhat[they]readinchinese (Tsai,2009,p.8). Koolstraetal(2002)suggestthatinterlingualsubtitlesallowviewerstopickup someforeignwordswhentheyreadthel1translationatthesametimeas listeningtothel2audio.researchconductedbydebock(1977),andvinje (1994)addssomeweighttothisclaim,althoughthefindingsarederivedfrom selfyreports,andareassuchnotverifiable. IntheirstudyoftheEnglishlanguageacquisitionofDutchchildrenexposedto subtitledvideosinanonyeducationalenvironment,koolstra&beentjes(1999) offeredpersuasiveevidencetosuggestthatexposuretointerlingualsubtitled videoshelpedtheparticipantsbothtoacquirenewenglishvocabularyand improvetheirwordrecognition.participantsexposedtononysubtitledversions ofthesamevideosalsomadegainstotheirvocabulary,butthegainswereless significantthanthosemadebythegroupexposedtothesubtitledvideos (Koolstra&Beentjes,1999) Intralingualsubtitlevideos AstudyconductedbyZarei(2009),involvingcollegeYlevelIranianstudents, aimedtomeasuretheeffectonvocabularyrecognitionandvocabularyrecallof authenticvideosubtitledinthreedifferentmodes:interlingual,intralingualand reversedsubtitling,i.e.thesubtitlingofavideointheviewersl2(english)with theaudiointheviewer sl1(persian). Hefoundthatthedifferencesinvocabularyrecognitionbetweentheintralingual andinterlingualsubtitlegroupswerestatisticallyinsignificant,butthe participantsofbothgroupsperformedbetterthantheparticipantsofthe reversedsubtitle group.additionally,participantsofthe intralingualsubtitle 18

20 groupperformedsignificantlybetteratvocabularyrecalltasksthanparticipants ofthe interlingualsubtitle group,whichinturnperformedbetterthanthe reversedsubtitle group.(zarei,2009) Furtherresearchbythesameauthor(Zarei,2011)suggeststhesuperiorityof intralingualsubtitlestointerlingualsubtitlesingainstovocabularyproduction, butfailstoshowastatisticallysignificantdifferenceingainstovocabulary comprehensionbetweenthesamegroups. Inanotherstudy,respondentsclaimedtobeabletolearnnewvocabularyfrom watchingintralingualsubtitledvideosastheywere abletobothhearthewords andseethemwritten (Stewart&Pertusa,2004),althoughinthisstudyactual gainsinthevocabularyrecognitionofparticipantswhowatchedintralingual subtitledvideoscomparedtothosewhowatchedinterlingualsubtitledvideos werestatisticallyinsignificant. GainstovocabularywerealsoshowntobegreaterforIraniancollegestudents whowereexposedtoanintralingualsubtitledvideothanthosewhowere exposedtoanonysubtitledversionofthesamevideo(harji,woods,&alavi, 2010) Dualsubtitlevideos Noexistingstudiesthatprovideevidencefortheeffectivenessofdualsubtitlesas adirectaidtovocabularyacquisitionwereabletobelocated.chang's(2003) researchwastheonlyresearchfoundthatdealswiththeeffectofdualsubtitles onforeignlanguagelearning,andherresearchfocusedmainlyontheeffectof dualsubtitlesongeneralcomprehension. TheresultsofChang s(2003)study,whichexposedchinesecollegestudentsto bothfamiliarandunfamiliarvideosinthreeconditions(eitherinterlingual subtitles,intralingualsubtitlesordualsubtitles),suggestedthattheparticipants inthe dualsubtitles conditionwerebetterabletounderstandthecontentofthe videosthanparticipantsintheothertwoconditions.theparticipantswere foundnottohavebeen"overwhelmedbythetriymodalinput"(vanderplank, 19

21 2010),despitepreviouslyhypothesized"limitsofhumanattention"(Neuman& Koskinen,1992). DespitetheinnovativenatureofChang s(2003)research,andthesomewhat groundbreakingnatureofherresults,nostudiesthateitherreplicateorfollow onfromherresearchhavebeenlocated.thisisprobablyduetothelackof generalavailabilityofvideoswithdualsubtitles.untilthepresentstudy, therefore,thequestionofwhetherdualsubtitlesmightbeamoreeffectiveaidto vocabularylearningthaneitherinterlingualorintralingualsubtitleshasnotbeen addressedorinvestigated Summary Gainstovocabularyhavebeenprocuredbybothintralingual(e.g.Harji,Woods, &Alavi,2010)andinterlingual(e.g.Koolstra&Beentjes,1999)subtitles. Gainstovocabularyprocuredbyintralingualsubtitlesmightbeexplainedbythe factthatthemeaningofvocabularycanoftenbededucedfromonyscreenvisuals providedatthesametimeasthevocabulary(koolstra&beentjes,1999).the simultaneouspresentationofthewrittenformofthewordsbeingspokenwillbe ofassistanceindeterminingexactlywhichwordsarebeingspoken(mitterer& McQueen,2009). Gainstovocabularyprocuredbyinterlingualsubtitlesmightbeexplainedbythe factthatthemeaningofvocabularycanbeobtainedfromthewrittenl1gloss presentedatthesametimeasthel2audio(e.g.tsai,2009).thevideofootage beingpresentedsimultaneouslywillbeanadditionalaidtounderstanding. 20

22 Chapter3: Methodology 3.1 Participants ThirtyYninefemaleJapanesecollegestudentsparticipatedinthisstudy.The participantswerefirstandsecondyearuniversitystudents,withaprey intermediatelevelofenglish.thestudentswereallenrolledinavarietyofnony Englishmajors,andweretakingEnglishlessonsinthefourmainskillsof speaking,listening,readingandwriting,inadditiontotheirmainsubjects. BeforebeginningtheirEnglishstudies,allstudentswerestreamedintooneofsix abilitygroups(h,a,b,c,dore),basedontheresultsofatoeicbridgetest (EducationalTestingService,2012),whichmeasuresEnglishlisteningand readingcomprehensionskills.theparticipantsinthecurrentresearchwere drawnfromthefollowingfourclasses: C1(9firstyear,level'C'students) C2(10secondyear,level'C'students) D1(9firstyear,level'D'students) D2(11secondyear,level'D'students) Eachclassofstudentswasassignedtooneoffourgroups:nosubtitles(C1), Englishsubtitles(D2),Japanesesubtitles(D1)anddualsubtitles(C2). Foreaseofreferencethroughoutthispaper,andintablesandcharts,thefour groupsarereferredtoasfollows:c1ns(c1nosubtitles);c2ds(c2dual subtitles);d1js(d1japanesesubtitles);andd2es(d2englishsubtitles). AnANOVAofthefourgroups'TOEICbridgescoressuggestedthatthestudents' listeningandreadingabilitiesdifferedsignificantlybetweenclasses(p<.05).it wouldhavebeendesirable,therefore,torandomizetheassignmentofstudents toeachgroup,toensureanevenspreadofabilityandexperience,andallowa moreusefulcomparison.however,studentswererequiredtoremaininthe sameclassesforthedurationoftheterm,withnoexceptionsforthiskindof experimentalresearch,sothiswasnotpossible. 21

23 Consequently,whenthedifferencesinstudents'attitudestothetreatmentvideo andrespectivegainsinvocabularyarecompared,wehavetobearinmindthat differencesinthestudents'listeningandreadingabilities,andnumberofyears experiencestudyingenglish,mayhavehadaneffectontheresults.thispointis discussedinmoredetaillaterinthepaper(5.3.2). 3.2 Materials Thefollowingmaterialswereusedforthisstudy: advdofjessiarrington'swearing&nothing&newtedtalk(arrington, 2011),subtitledin4differentmodes amodifiedversionofthevocabularyknowledgescale(wesche& Paribakht,1996) amultiplechoiceopinionsurvey Eachofthesematerialsisdiscussedinfurtherdetailbelow JessiArrington's"WearingNothingNew"TEDtalk 'TEDTalks'arefreelyavailableEnglishYlanguagevideopresentations,manyof whichhavebeensubtitledinavarietyoflanguages,includingjapaneseand English.ThecontentofTEDtalksusedtorelateprimarilytothetopicsof technology,educationanddesign(hence'ted')butmorerecenttedtalksrelate toadiversevarietyoftopics. TEDtalksareprovidedunderthecreativecommonslicense,whichallows anyoneto"reproduce,distribute,displayorperformpubliclythetedtalks" (TEDConferencesLLC,2012b),makingthemsuitableforuseininstitutional settings. Theforeignlanguage(interlingual)subtitlesformostTEDtalksarecreatedby volunteers.thetedwebsitedescribestheprocessbywhichinterlingual subtitlesarecreated: 22

24 "Tohelpensurequality,wegenerateanapproved,professionalEnglish transcriptforeachtalk...oncethetalkistranslated,wethenrequireevery translationtobereviewedbyasecondfluentspeakerbeforepublishingit onted"(tedconferencesllc,2012a) ThesubtitlesprovidedwithTEDtalksthereforetendtobeveryhighqualityin relationtothecharacteristicsof'good'interlingualsubtitles,discussedabove (2.4.1). TheTEDtalkchosenforthisresearchwasgivenbyJessiArrington,anAmerican fashiondesignerandblogger,whosesixyminutepresentation"wearingnothing New"(Arrington,2011)extolledthevirtuesofbuyingsecondhandclothes. ThevideowaschosenforitspredictedappealtothefashionYconsciousteenage girlswhocomprisedtheparticipantsoftheresearch,andits'moderatelyslow' (Pimsleur,Hancock,&Furey,1977)rateofspeechat140wordsperminute.The EnglishlanguagetranscriptofthepresentationisprovidedinAppendix&A,and thejapanesetranslationinappendix&b TheVocabularyKnowledgeScale WescheandParibakht's(1996)VocabularyKnowledgeScale(VKS)was developedbyitsauthorsinordertohelpassessthedepthofanindividual's foreignlanguagevocabularyknowledge.ithassincebecomeacommonlyused scaleinresearchrelatingtoforeignlanguagevocabularylearning(yuksel& Tanriverdi,2009)andisparticularlysuitedto"track[ing]theearlydevelopment ofknowledgeofspecificwordsinaninstructionalorexperimentalsituation[s]" (Wesche&Paribakht,1996,p.33) TheVKScombinesassessmentofbothperceivedknowledgeanddemonstrated knowledge.theversionofthevksutilizedinthisresearchrequiredparticipants toselfyreporttheirleveloffamiliaritywithaparticularwordonascaleoffive levels.additionally,theupperthreelevels(iii,iv,v)requiredtheparticipantsto provideevidenceofthereportedknowledgebyeitherwritingeitherthel1 23

25 translationoftheword(iii,iv,v),oranl2sentenceusingthewordincontext (V). ThefivelevelsofselfYreportedvocabularyknowledgeusedinthisstudywereas follows: I. Ihaveneverseenthiswordbefore. II. Ihaveseenthiswordbefore,butIdon tknowwhatitmeans. III. Ihaveseenthiswordbefore,andIthinkIknowwhatitmeans. IV. Ihaveseenthiswordbefore,andIknowwhatitmeans. V. Ihaveseenthiswordbefore,Iknowwhatitmeans,andIcanuseitina sentence. TheversionoftheVKSusedinthispaperwastranslatedintoJapanese,inan attempttoensurethatapotentiallackofcomprehensionofthedescriptionof thefivevocabularyknowledgelevelswouldnotinterferewiththeabilityofthe participantstorespondtoeachquestion.theenglishversionofthevksutilized hereisprovidedinappendix&c,andthejapanesetranslationisprovidedin Appendix&D The,target,vocabulary, InordertoselectwhichwordsweretobecomethetargetwordsfortheVKS,the transcriptofthevideowasprocessedusingtheonlineversionoflauferand Nation'sfourYwaywordsorter(Cobb,2012).Thisprogramsortsthewordsof anytextfileintofourcategories:'k1words','k2words','academicwords'and 'offylistwords'. The'K1words'categoryconsistsofallthewordsinthetranscriptwhichappear inalistofthefirst1000mostcommonwordsoftheenglishlanguage;the'k2 words'categoryfeatureswordsappearinginalistofthenext1000most commonwords;the'academicwords'category(awl)includeswordsappearing inalistofthemostcommonacademicwords,andthe'offylist'wordscategoryis comprisedofanywordsnotappearinginanyofthethreeprecedinglists(such wordsareoftenpropernouns). 24

26 Ananalysisofthe'WearingNothingNew'transcriptisprovidedinTable&1,below. Asthedatashows,thevastmajorityofthetranscript(88.96%)consistedof wordsfromthek1list,withonlyasmallminorityofwords(4.52%)fromthek2 list,andfewerstill(1.25%)academicwords.thenumberofoffylistwords (4.52%)wasgreaterthanthenumberofK2words. Table1: VocabProfileanalysisof WearingNothingNew transcript Afullbreakdownofwordtypesappearingineachcategoryisprovidedin Appendix&E.OfthewordschosentobecometargetwordsfortheVKS,fourwere takenfromthe'offylist'category;onewastakenfromthe'academicwords' category,andonewastakenfromthe'2kwords'category.eachofthewords appearedonlyonceinthetranscript. WordswereselectedbyvirtueofthefactthatadirectL1translationcouldbe locatedinthejapaneseversionofthetranscript,andthemeaningsofthewords werelikelytobeunknowntotheparticipants.table&2,below,showseachword, thecategoryfromwhichitwastaken,itsjapaneseequivalentprovidedinthe Japanesetranscript,andthewordincontextanditslinenumberintheEnglish transcript. 25

27 Table2: Multiple^choiceopinionsurvey AmultipleYchoiceopinionsurveywasdevelopedinordertoelicitthe participants'viewsonthetreatmentvideo,aswellastheirattitudestowards, andhabitsinrelationto,watchingenglishlanguagevideosforenjoymentor vocabularylearningpurposesingeneral.theopinionsurveywasdividedinto threeparts.thefirstpartaimedtouncovertherespondents'englishlanguage videoviewinghabits,andconsistedofthefollowingtwoquestions: 1. HowoftendoyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideosforenjoyment? 2. HowoftendoyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideostoimproveyour knowledgeofenglishlanguagevocabulary? Therespondentsweregivenfivepossibleoptionsforeachquestion:'Never', 'Hardlyever','Sometimes','Often'and'Don'tknow'. Thesecondpartofthequestionnaireaimedtoidentifytherespondents'views towarddifferentmodesofsubtitlingwhenwatchingenglishlanguagevideosfor eitherenjoymentorenglishvocabularylearningpurposes.itconsistedofthe followingtwoquestions: 1. WhenyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideosforenjoyment,whichtype(s)of subtitlesdoyouusuallyprefer? 26

28 2. WhenyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideostoimproveyourknowledgeof Englishlanguagevocabulary,whichtype(s)ofsubtitlesdoyouusually prefer? Therespondentsweregivenfivepossibleanswers:'Japanese','English', 'SimultaneousJapaneseandEnglish','Nosubtitles'and'Don'tknow'. Respondentswereallowedtoselectmorethanoneresponseforeachquestion. Thefinalpartofthequestionnairerelatedspecificallytothevideothe participantshadbeenexposedtoduringthetreatmentphaseoftheresearch. Participantswereaskedtorankthestrengthoftheiragreementwiththe followingthreestatements: 1. IwasabletoimprovemyknowledgeofEnglishlanguagevocabularyfrom watchingthevideo 2. Thecontentofthevideowasinteresting 3. Thesubtitleswereeasytoread EachresponsewaschosenfromaLikertscaleoffivepossibleoptions:'Strongly agree','agree','neitheragreenordisagree','disagree'and'stronglydisagree'. ThewholequestionnairewastranslatedintoJapaneseinanattempttoaid comprehension.theenglishversionisprovidedinappendix&fandthejapanese translationinappendix&g. 3.3 Datacollectionprocedure Thestudentsparticipatedintheresearchduringtheirusuallessontime.Twoof thegroups,d1jsandc2ds,weretaughtbymyself.assistancewasobtainedfrom twootherteachersinorderthatthestudentsingroupsd2esandc1nswere abletoparticipateintheresearch. Priortoadministeringthetreatment(theviewingofthevideo)themembersof eachgroupwereaskedtocompletethevocabularypreytest(appendixc/d). Theyweregivenamaximumof10minutestocompletethisstage.Theywere thenshownadvdofthe'wearingnothingnew'tedtalk,subtitledaccordingto 27

29 thegrouptheparticipantswerein.thevideoisapproximately6minuteslong, andwasplayedtwiceinsuccession.toensureaconditionofincidentallearning, andfollowingkoolstraandbeentjes(1999),thestudentsweretoldto'just watch'thevideo,andnottomakenotes. ThevocabularypostYtestwasthenadministered(AppendixC/D),followedby theopinionsurvey(appendixf/g).thewholeprocesscanbesummarizedas follows: 1. VKSpreYtest (10mins) 2. Videoviewing (12mins) 3. VKSpostYtest (10mins) 4. Opinionsurvey (10mins) 3.4 Codingschemes VocabularyKnowledgeScale FollowingYuksel&Taniriverdi(2009),participantsresponsesfortheVKStest wereassignedascorebasedonthelevelofthevksselectedforeachword,i.e. LevelIresponses("Ihaveneverseenthiswordbefore")wereassignedonepoint, LevelIIresponses("Ihaveseenthiswordbefore,butIdon'tknowwhatit means")wereassignedtwopoints,etc. WhereparticipantsselectedaLevelIII,IVorVresponse,buttheirtranslationor examplesentencewasincorrect,theirresponsewasdowngradedbyonelevel, e.g.aparticipantwhoselectedleveliii("ihaveseenthiswordbeforeandithink Iknowwhatitmeans")butprovidedanincorrecttranslationofthewordwas awardedaleveliiresponseforthatword Opinionsurvey EachresponseintheLikertscaleopinionsurveywasassignedanumericalvalue, rangingfromplustwo,forstronglyagree,tonegativetwo,forstronglydisagree. Responsesindicating neitheragreenordisagree'wereassignedaneutralscore 28

30 ofzero.thescoreswerethenaddedtogetherandconvertedintoapositiveor negativepercentagetoarriveatthefinal agreementrating value. Thehighestpossibleagreementratingwasplusonehundred,whichwould indicatethatallrespondentsstronglyagreedwithaparticularstatement.the lowestpossibleagreementratingwasnegativeonehundred,whichwould indicateallrespondentsstronglydisagreedwithaparticularstatement. 29

31 Chapter4: Results 4.1 TheVKStest & Table&3,below,showsthescoresthatthestudentsobtainedontheVKSasbotha preytestandapostytesttothevideoviewing,aswellasanygainbetweenthetwo tests.ameangroupscoreandgroupgainforeachgroupisalsoprovided. Table3: VocabularygainsaccordingtoVLSscoreineachofthefourgroups (D2ES,D1JS,C2DS,andC1NS) 30

32 AswecanseefromTable&3,therewasasimilar,minimalgainineachofthefour classes.themeangainwas1.2forthed2esgroup,1.4forthed1jsgroup,1.7for thec2dsgroupand1.0forthec1nsgroup. Thehighestindividualgainof4wasmadebyStudent#5intheC1NSgroup. Therewereatleasttwostudentsineachgroupwhomadenomeasurablegains atall.inaddition,somestudentswereawardedalowerscoreonthepostytest thanonthepreytest,andthustheir'gains'areinnegativefigures.this phenomenonisdiscussedfurtherbelow(see5.1.3,5.1.4,and5.1.5). 4.2 Theopinionsurvey Englishlanguagevideoviewinghabits The39respondentsfromthe4groupswereallasked: "How&often&do&you&watch&English&language&videos&for&enjoyment?"&& Table&4,below,summarizestheresponsestothisquestion. Table4: Students responsestothequestion HowoftendoyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideosforenjoyment? 31

33 AswecanseefromTable&4,almosthalfthestudentssurveyed'often'watch Englishlanguagevideosforenjoyment.Morethanaquarterdoso'sometimes', andjustunderaquarter'hardlyever'doso.onestudentreportedthatthey 'never'watchenglishlanguagevideosforthispurpose,andonestudentdidn't knowhowoftentheywatchedenglishlanguagevideosforenjoyment. The39respondentsfromthe4groupswerealsoasked: "How&often&do&you&watch&English&language&videos&to&improve&your& & knowledge&of&english&language&vocabulary?"&& Table&5,below,summarizestheresponsestothisquestion. Table5: Students responsestothequestion HowoftendoyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideostoimprove yourknowledgeofenglishlanguagevocabulary? AswecanseefromTable&5,aroundafifthofthestudentssurveyed'often'watch EnglishlanguagevideosforthepurposesofimprovingtheirEnglishlanguage 32

34 vocabulary.overathirddoso'sometimes',andjustunderaquarter'hardlyever' doso.sevenstudentsreportedthatthey'never'watchenglishlanguagevideos forthispurpose Subtitlingpreferences The39respondentsfromthe4groupswereasked: "When&you&watch&English&language&videos&for&enjoyment,&which&type(s)&&of& & subtitles&do&you&usually&prefer?"& Table&6,below,summarizestheresponsestothisquestion. Table6: Students responsestothequestion WhenyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideosforenjoyment,which types(s)ofsubtitlesdoyouusuallyprefer? AswecanseefromTable&6,themajorityofstudentssurveyedpreferJapanese subtitleswhenwatchingenglishlanguagevideosforenjoyment,althoughdual subtitlesandenglishsubtitlesarealsofavoredbysignificantpercentages.only 33

35 twostudentsindicatedthattheywatchenglishlanguagevideoswithoutsubtitles whenviewingforpleasure. The39respondentsfromthe4groupswerealsoasked: "When&you&watch&English&language&videos&to&improve&your&knowledge&of& & English&language&vocabulary,&which&type(s)&of&subtitles&do&you&usually& & prefer?"& Table&7,below,summarizestheresponsestothisquestion. Table7: Students responsestothequestion WhenyouwatchEnglishlanguagevideostoimproveyour knowledgeofenglishlanguagevocabulary,whichtype(s)of subtitlesdoyouusuallyprefer? AswecanseefromTable&7,overathirdofstudentssurveyedpreferdual subtitleswhenwatchingenglishlanguagevideosforlearningenglishvocabulary. Englishsubtitlesarefavoredforthispurposebyjustunderathirdofthe students,andjapanesesubtitlesarefavoredbysome.afewstudentsindicated thattheypreferrednottohavesubtitleswhenwatchingenglishlanguagevideos forvocabularylearningpurposes,andtwostudentsdidn'tknowwhichkindof subtitlestheypreferredforthispurpose. 34

36 4.2.3 Effectofthetreatmentvideoonvocabularylearning Eachofthefourgroupswereaskedtoratetheiragreementwiththefollowing statementinrelationtothetreatmentvideotheyviewedforthisresearch: "I&was&able&to&improve&my&knowledge&of&English&language&vocabulary& & from&watching&the&video."& Table&8,below,summarizesthestudents'responsestothisstatement. Table8: Respondents'extentofagreementwiththestatement: "IwasabletoimprovemyknowledgeofEnglishlanguage vocabularyfromwatchingthevideo" AsTable&8shows,thevastmajorityofthestudentsintheD2ESgroupdisagreed withthestatement,withasmallminorityagreeingandasignificantnumber abstainingfromeitheragreeingordisagreeing.theoverallagreementratingwas stronglynegative(y32). IntheD1JSgroup,asignificantnumberofstudentsabstained,andjustunderhalf eitheragreedorstronglyagreed,withasmallminoritydisagreeing,resultingina mildlypositiveagreementratingof22. IntheC2DSgroup,therewasamoreorlessevensplitbetweenthosewhoeither disagreedorstronglydisagreedandthosewhoagreed,withthreestudents abstaining.theoverallagreementratingwasweaklypositive(5). 35

37 Finally,intheC1NSgroup,themajorityofstudentsdisagreedwiththestatement, withtwostudentsagreeingandanequalnumberabstaining,resultinginamildly negativeoverallagreementratingofminus Interestinthecontentofthetreatmentvideo Eachofthefourgroupswereaskedtoratetheiragreementwiththefollowing statementinrelationtothetreatmentvideotheyviewedforthisresearch: "The&content&of&the&video&was&interesting."& Table&9,below,summarizesthestudents'responsestothisstatement. Table9: Respondents'extentofagreementwiththestatement: Thecontentofthevideowasinteresting AsTable&9shows,themajorityofthestudentsintheD2ESgroupdisagreedwith thestatement,withaminorityeitheragreeingorstronglyagreeing.theoverall agreementratingwasamildlynegativeminus10. IntheD1JSgroup,themajorityofstudentseitheragreedorstronglyagreed,with theremainderabstaining,resultinginapositiveoverallagreementratingof44. IntheC2DSgroup,thevastmajorityeitheragreedorstronglyagreed,withthe remainderabstaining,resultinginastronglypositiveoverallagreementratingof

38 AsimilarsituationwasobservedintheC1NSgroup,withthemajorityeither agreeingorstronglyagreeing,andtheremainingminorityabstaining,resulting inapositiveagreementratingof38. Readabilityofsubtitlesinthetreatmentvideo Threeofthegroups(C1NSexcluded)wereaskedtoratetheiragreementwith thefollowingstatementinrelationtothetreatmentvideotheyviewedforthis research: "The&subtitles&were&easy&to&read."& Table&10,below,summarizesthestudents'responsestothisstatement. Table10: Respondents'extentofagreementwiththestatement: Thesubtitleswereeasytoread AsTable&10shows,almosthalfthestudentsintheD2ESgroupeitherdisagreed orstronglydisagreedwiththisstatement,withasmallminorityagreeing,anda significantnumberofabstainers.theoverallagreementratingwasminus19.in thed1jsgroup,theresultswerequitedecisive,withallofthestudentseither agreeingorstronglyagreeing.theoverallagreementratingwasaverystrongly positive77.inthec2dsgroup,theproportionofstudentswhostronglyagreed wasalmostequaltotheproportionthatdisagreedorstronglydisagreed.three studentsalsoabstained.theoverallagreementratingwas25. 37

39 Chapter5: Discussion 5.1 TheVKStest Generalfailuretoincreaseknowledgeoftargetvocabulary TheresultsoftheVKStestseemedtoindicatethatnosignificantgainsin knowledgeofthetargetvocabularywerecausedbyviewingthetreatmentvideo, regardlessofthekindofsubtitling.thereareseveralpossibleexplanationsfor this. Firstly,itispossiblethat,evenwiththeadditionofsubtitles,thevideowasnotat alevelwhereitconstitutedcomprehensibleinputforthestudents.itisvery difficult,ifnotimpossible,todetermineexactlywhatkrashen's(1991)'i+1' meanswithregardtotheenglishleveloflearningmaterials. Secondly,itispossiblethatthelimitedexposuretothetargetvocabularyinthe treatmentvideo(andpreyandpostytests)wasnotsufficienttocausethetarget vocabularytobecommittedtomemoryorevennoticedatall.itispossiblethata greaternumberofexposurestonewwordswouldbenecessaryforthewordsto benoticedorremembered. Thirdly,lackofimprovementinknowledgeofthetargetvocabularycouldhave beencausedbythe'incidental'asopposedto'active'natureofthelearning activity.hadthestudentsbeeninstructedtopayattentiontoparticularwords,or permittedtomakenotesduringthevideoviewing,wemayhaveseenmuchmore impressiveresultsbothontheopinionsurveyandthevkstest. Fourthly,itispossiblethatstudentspickedupwordsfromthevideootherthan thetargetvocabulary.furtherinvestigationwouldberequiredtodetermine whetherornotthiswasthecase. Fifthly,itispossiblethatthelanguageleveloftheparticipantswasnothigh enoughtoallowthemtobenefitfromtheeffectsofincidentallearningthrough videoviewing.neumanandkoskinen(1992)noteda'richgetricher'tendencyin theresultsoftheirresearch,wherebystudentswhohadhigherenglishlanguage 38

40 competenceattheoutsetofthestudymademoresignificantvocabularygains thantheirlowerlevelcounterparts. Finally,itisalsopossiblethatlongertermexposuretoEnglishlanguagevideosis necessarytoyieldanysignificantvocabularygains.theparticipantsinneuman andkoskinen's(1992)study,forexample,viewednumerousenglishlanguage videosovera12yweekperiod Increasingknowledgeoftargetvocabularynotimpossible Student#5inGroupC1NSandStudent#9inGroupC2DSweretheonlytwo studentstochooseleveliiresponses("ihaveseenthiswordbeforebutidon't knowwhatitmeans")inthepreytestandleveliiiresponses("ihaveseenthis wordbeforeandithinkiknowwhatitmeans")forthesamewordintheposty test,wherethepostytestresponseswereaccompaniedbycorrectjapanese translationsofthewordsinquestion 'confession'forstudent#5and'obsessed' forstudent#9. Thesetwoexceptionalcasessuggestthatthetaskexpectedofthestudents (incidentallylearningtargetvocabularyfromthetreatmentvideo)wasnot impossible,althoughclearlynootherstudentsinanyofthegroupsmanagedit.it isnotclear,however,whatthoughtprocessesthesetwostudentswereinvolved inwhilewatchingthevideoortakingthepreyandpostytests. WithrespecttoStudent#5,itwasnotpossibleforhertohaveacquiredthe translationofthewordfromsubtitles,asshewasamemberofthe'nosubtitles' group.didshelearnthemeaningofthewordfromthecontextitappearedinin thevideo,ordidshesimplysucceedinrecallingthemeaningofthewordinthe postytestwhereshehadfailedtodosointhepreytest?furtherinvestigation wouldberequiredtodeterminethereasonforwhichthisstudentwasableto produceacorrecttranslationofthewordinthepostytest,butnotinthepreytest. ForStudent#9,itispossible,andseemslikely,thatshepickeduptheJapanese translationofthewordfromthedualsubtitlesthatweredisplayedwhile watchingthevideo.ofcourse,itmaybethatshesimplyrecalledthemeaningofa 39

41 wordinthepostytestthatshewasforsomereasonunabletorecallintheprey test Students'confidenceinlevelofwordknowledgemaydecrease WithregardtoStudent#2inGroupD2ESandStudent#4inGroupC1NS,the reasonforthenegativegainswasareductioninconfidenceofwordknowledge ontheposttest.bothstudentshadselectedalevelivresponse("ihaveseenthis wordbeforeandiknowwhatitmeans")foronewordinthepreytest,andalevel IIIresponseforthesameword("IhaveseenthiswordbeforeandIthinkIknow whatitmeans")inthepostytest.thisresultedinthelossofapointinrelationto thatword,andthusanoverallnegativegain. Itisunclearwhatcausedthestudentstomoderatetheconfidenceoftheir responsesinthisway.inbothcasesthetranslationofthewordinquestion ('overrated'forstudent#2and'donate'forstudent#4)offeredbythestudents wasthesame,incorrecttranslationinbothinthepreyandpostytests Studentsmayfailtonoticetargetwords Students#5,#7,#8,and#9inGroupD2ES,Students#1,#5,and#6inGroup C2DS,andStudents#2,#3,#6and#8inGroupC1NS,allfailedtonoticeatleast oneofthesixtargetwordsbetweenpreyandpostytests.thatis,allofthese studentsselectedleveliresponses,"ihaveneverseenthiswordbefore",forat leastonewordonthepostytest. Thisphenomenonmightbeexplainedinpartbythegapbetween'input'and 'intake'.asbrown(2007,p.297)explains,"[intake]isthesubsetofallinputthat actuallygetsassignedtoourlongytermmemorystore".inotherwords,wedon't remembereverythingweseeorhear.inthecurrentresearch,itisclearthat someoftheparticipantsdidn'trememberhavingseenorheardthetargetwords ineitherthepreytestorthetreatmentvideo. 40

42 5.1.5 Studentsmayforgettheyhaveseenwords InthecaseofStudents#5,#7and#11inGroupD2ES,Students#2and#7in GroupD1JS,andStudent#1inGroupC2DS,thenegativeoverallgainsaredueto selectingleveliresponses("ihaveneverseenthiswordbefore")ontheposty testwhereleveliiresponses("ihaveseenthiswordbefore,butidon'tknow whatitmeans")wereselectedforthesamewordsonthepreytests. Itispossible,ofcourse,thatsomestudentsmerelyforgotthefactthatthey&said& on&the&preutesttheyhadseenthetargetwordsbefore,andwerethereforeunable tobeconsistentintheiranswersonthepostytest. 5.2 Theopinionsurvey Theparticipantswatchvideosbothforenjoymentandvocabularylearning Almostthreequartersofthestudents(72%)surveyedwatchEnglishlanguage videosforenjoymentatleast'sometimes'.thisisimportantbecausetheaffective filtercanbeloweredandintrinsicmotivationraisedifstudentsexperiencesome senseofenjoymentinthelearningprocess(chang,2005) Additionally,asshownabove(4.2.1),themajorityofstudentssurveyedwatch videosforenglishvocabularylearningpurposesatleast'sometimes'.wemight thereforeinferthatthemajorityofstudentshavesomeexperienceinlearning vocabularyfromenglishlanguagevideos Interlingualsubtitlesarepreferredforenjoyment Asshownabove(4.2.2),whenitcomestowatchingEnglishlanguagevideosfor enjoymentpurposes,japanesesubtitleswereclearlypreferredbystudents surveyed.thisresultsuggeststhat,whatevertheymightdoforpedagogical purposes,themajorityofenglishlanguagevideoviewinginstudents'leisure timeisdonewiththeassistanceofjapanesesubtitles. ClaimsofbeingabletoincreaseEnglishvocabularyknowledgewerestrongest fortheparticipantswhoviewedthejapanesesubtitledversionofthevideo 41

43 (4.2.3).Iftheseclaimsaretakenatfacevalue,itseemsthatthemajorityof students'englishlanguagevideoviewingopportunities,i.e.thoseavailablein theirleisuretime,maybeeffectivewithregardstotheacquisitionofenglish languagevocabulary.however,theresultsofthevkstestonthisoccasiondid notseemtosupportsuchclaims Dualsubtitlesarepreferredforvocabularylearning ThemostpopularkindofsubtitleswhenwatchingEnglishlanguagevideosfor vocabularylearningpurposesweredualsubtitles(4.2.2),althoughtheremay havebeensomeconfusionastowhatthistermactuallymeant(5.3.5). Englishsubtitleswerealsoapopularchoice,followedbyJapanesesubtitlesand thennosubtitles.asthesecondmostpopularchoice,itseemsthatwheredual subtitlesarenotavailable,andcannotbeeasilyeditedintoavideo,teachers shouldoptforenglishsubtitlesiftheywanttomatchasignificantproportionof theirstudents'subtitlingpreferences Interlingualanddualsubtitlesarefelttobeeffectiveforvocabulary learning ResultsindicatethatstudentsinGroupD1JSandtosomeextentGroupC2DSfelt thattheywereabletoimprovetheirvocabularyknowledgefromwatchingthe video.however,studentsingroupc1nsandgroupd2esdidnot,onthewhole, feeltheywereabletodoso. TheseresultssuggestthatwhereJapanesesubtitlesarepresent whether exclusivelyorinconjunctionwithenglishsubtitles students'beliefintheir abilitytoincreasetheirknowledgeofenglishvocabularywillbehigher Videoswithintralingualsubtitlesmaybelessinteresting Allgroups,withtheexceptionofD2ES,reportedthattheyfoundthecontentof thevideointeresting.itispossiblethatvideoswithintralingualsubtitlesareless interestingthanvideoswithinterlingualordualsubtitles.ofcourse,itisdifficult 42

44 tobeinterestedinanyvideothatwedon tunderstand,andthelackofinterest exhibitedbygroupd2esmayhavebeenduetolackofunderstanding.the extenttowhichthegroupsunderstoodorthecontentofthevideoswould requirefurtherresearchtoreveal Interlingualsubtitlesaretheeasiesttoread ItprobablycomesasnosurprisetofindthatGroupD1JSexpressedthestrongest generalagreementwiththestatement'thesubtitleswereeasytoread'.group C2DShadthenextstrongestagreementrating.Therefore,itseemsthatforthe participantsofthecurrentstudy,interlingual(japanese)subtitlesaretheeasiest toread,followedbydualsubtitles.theintralingual(english)subtitlesgroup (D2ES)expresseddisagreementonthewholewiththestatement. Thissuggeststhatdualsubtitles,despitepresentingthestudentswiththetriY modalinputofjapanesesubtitles,englishsubtitlesandenglishaudio,were apparentlyeasiertoreadthantheintralingual(english)subtitlesalone.itseems thattheparticipantsofthecurrentstudy,asinchang's(2003)study,wereable toovercomethe"limitsofhumanattention"hypothesizedbysome(neuman& Koskinen,1992).However,itisalsopossiblethatparticipantsweresimply ignoringtheenglishsubtitlesandfocusingsolelyonthejapanese. 5.3 Issueswiththecurrentresearch Conservativeestimatesofability Duetothenatureoftheresearchinstrumentsutilizedinthisresearch, respondentswererequiredtogiveselfyreportsoftheirownabilitiesinrelation tocomprehensionofthetreatmentvideo,andgainsinenglishvocabulary knowledge. SuchselfYreportscanbeaffectedbytheconfidencelevelsofthestudents,anda lackofwillingnessamongstjapaneselearnersinparticulartoconcludethatthey mayhaveperformedbetterthantheirpeers(heine,takata,&lehman,2000) mayhaveresultedininaccuratereportsofknowledgeorability. 43

45 Ifthecurrentresearchwasrepeated,itwouldbedesirabletoutilizeresearch instrumentsthatmightminimizetheimpactofthestudents'ownconfidence levelsontheresultsoftheresearch Non^homogeneityofgroups Asstatedpreviously(3.1),itwasunfortunatelynotpossibletorandomlyassign thestudentswhoparticipatedinthisstudyintohomogenousgroupsofenglish abilityandexperience.thestudentswereonlyabletoparticipateintheresearch intheclassestheyhadalreadybeenassignedtoinordertoundertaketheir regularenglishlisteningandreadinglessons. Ifthecurrentresearchwererepeated,itwouldbedesirabletoeither homogenizethetreatmentacrossallfourgroups,oradministerfourdifferent treatmentstoeachgroupoveralongerperiodoftime.duetotheresearcher's desiretoevaluatetheeffectoffourdifferenttypesofsubtitlingmodes,the formerapproachwasnotadopted;andduetothetimeconstraintsofthecurrent research,itwasnotpossibletoadoptthelatterapproachonthisoccasion Long^termmemoryversus'learning' Astudentwhoencountersanewwordinthetreatmentvideo,andstoresthe wordintheirlongytermmemoryuntilrequiredinthepostytestcannot necessarilybeconsideredtohave'learnt'theword. AdelayedpostYtestwouldberequiredtodeterminewhetheranywords encounteredinthetreatmentvideoandcorrectlyrecalledinthepostyteststage hadindeedbeenretainedlongeryterm,(i.e.'learnt')orjusttemporarilyheldin longytermmemoryandthenforgotten Extraneousexposurestotargetwords Theresearchconductedwasdesignedtomeasuretheeffectofasubtitled authenticvideoonenglishvocabularylearning.however,duetothenatureof 44

46 theresearchinstruments,thevideodidnotcomprisethesoleexposuretothe targetvocabulary. ThepreYtestandpostYtesteachconstitutedoneexposuretothetarget vocabulary.itisnotpossibletosayfordefinitewhetherresearchparticipants whochoseleveli("ihaveneverseenthiswordbefore")responsesontheprey testandlevelii("ihaveseenthiswordbeforebutidon'tknowwhatitmeans") responsesforthesamewordsonthepostytestwereacknowledgingthefactthat theyhadseenthewordinthepreytestortheyhadseenorheardthewordonthe treatmentvideo,orboth.however,asthesetwoextraexposureswerepresentin allfourgroups,theycannotbesaidtoconstituteanunfairadvantagetoanyone ofthegroups Confusionwiththeconceptof'dualsubtitles' Aftertheopinionsurveyhadbeenadministeredtoallfourgroups,itwas discoveredthatthejapanesetranslationfor'dualsubtitles'wasnotentirely accurate.althoughitconveyedtheimpressionof'bothjapaneseandenglish subtitles'theideathatthejapaneseandenglishsubtitlesweredisplayed& simultaneouslywasnotaccuratelyconveyed. Thisfactmayhaveaffectedtheresultsinrelationtowhatkindofsubtitleswere preferredbytherespondentswhenwatchingenglishlanguagevideosforeither enjoymentorvocabularylearningpurposes.ifthecurrentresearchwere repeated,itwouldbedesirabletoutilizeamoreaccuratetranslationofthiskey concept Abilityofstudentstoguessthemeaningsofunknownwords AftertheVKSwasadministered,acolleague(inpersonalcorrespondence) pointedoutthatthevksdidnotaccountforacasewhererespondentsmightbe abletoguessthemeaningofaworddespitenothavingseenitbefore.thismight bepossibleifanunfamiliarwordwasneverthelessmadeupoffamiliar morphemes. 45

47 Forexample,inthecaseoftheword'overrated',therespondentsmayhavebeen familiarwiththewords'over'and'rated'andthusabletohazardaguessasto whatthemeaningof'overrated'mightbe.ifthecurrentresearchweretobe repeated,itwouldbedesirabletoaccountforthisscenariointhevkspreyand postytests Small,non^representativesample ThesmallandnonYrepresentativesampledealtwithinthisresearchmakesit impossibletogeneralizetheresultstojapaneselearnersofenglishingeneral,or evenalllearnersofenglishattheteachingcontextinwhichtheresearchwas conducted.theresultscanonlybesaidtoapplytothestudentswhoactually participatedintheresearch. Infuturesimilarstudies,itwouldbedesirabletohavemuchlargerandmore representativesampleinorderthatthefindingsmightbegeneralizedtolarger populationsofenglishlearners,andtheconclusionsdrawnmightbemore relevanttoenglishlanguageeducatorsingeneral. 46

48 Chapter6: Conclusion 6.1 Summaryoffindings Theaimsofthisresearchweretouncovertheparticipants'Englishlanguage videoviewinghabits,establishtheirsubtitlingpreferenceswhenviewingfor eitherenjoymentorenglishlearningpurposes,anddeterminewhetherthe participantscouldincidentallylearnthemeaningsofsixtargetwordsappearing inthetreatmentvideo.thequestionsofwhethertheparticipantsfelttheywere abletolearnnewvocabularyfromwatchingthevideo,whethertheywere interestedinthecontentofthevideo,andwhetherthesubtitleswerereadable, werealsoexamined. Theresultsoftheresearchrevealedthattheparticipantsofthecurrentresearch watchenglishlanguagevideosforbothenjoymentandenglishvocabulary learningpurposes,althoughtheyengageintheformermuchmorefrequently thanthelatter. TheparticipantsappearedtopreferJapanesesubtitleswhentheyviewedEnglish languagevideosforenjoyment,anddualsubtitleswhentheyviewedfor vocabularylearningpurposes,althoughtheremayhavebeensomeconfusionas towhat'dual'subtitlesactuallywere. Mostoftheparticipantsfailedtolearnthemeaningofthetargetwords appearinginthetreatmentvideo,althoughinacoupleofexceptionalcases,this wasshowntobepossible.despitethisfact,membersofgroupd1js,andtosome extentgroupc2ds,feltthattheywereabletoimprovetheirvocabulary knowledgefromwatchingthevideo.however,studentsingroupc1nsand GroupD2ESdidnotfeeltheywereabletodoso. Themajorityofthegroupsseemedtobeinterestedinthecontentofthevideo, withtheexceptionoftheintralingual(english)subtitlegroup(d2es).thismay havebeenduetothetypeofsubtitlesdisplayedonthevideofailingtopromote understanding,butitisnotpossibletoisolatethisvariablefromotherpotential 47

49 factors,suchasthestudents'englishabilitylevel,personalinterests,andlevelof motivation. Itwassuggestedthatdualsubtitleswerefeltbytheparticipantstobemore 'readable'thanintralingual(english)subtitles,despitetheformerpresentinga challengeintermsofthenumberofmodesofinputandtheincreaseddemandon thebrain'sinformationprocessingability,althoughstudentsmaysimplyhave beenignoringtheenglishsubtitlesandfocusingsolelyonthejapanese. 6.2 Implicationsforteachingpractice Furtherresearchwouldberequiredinordertoconfirmorrejectanyofthe findingsdiscussedinthisreport.however,somepreliminaryimplicationsofthe findingscanbeoutlined. Firstly,itseemsthatstudentseitherneedtobegivenmoreexposuretotarget words,orthesameamountofexposurecoupledwithintentionaloractive learning.theoptimalcombinationmaybemoreexposureandactivelearning. Thiscombinationmaybeeffectiveinenablingthestudentstobothnoticethe targetwordsandprocesstheirmeanings. Secondly,itseemsthatinterlinguallysubtitledvideosshouldbeutilizedif teacherswanttoexploittheconfidencestudentsfeelintheirabilitytolearn Englishvocabularyfromwatchingvideossubtitledinthismode. Alternatively,dualsubtitlescouldbeeditedintoauthenticvideosbyteachers withaccesstosubtitlingtechnology.dualsubtitlesseemtobemorereadable thanintralingualsubtitles,whichisprobablyduetothepresenceofthel1 translation.studentsfeeltosomeextentconfidentintheirabilitytolearn Englishvocabularyfromvideoswithdualsubtitles. Finally,forlowYintermediatestudents,avideowithalowerlevelofEnglishthan theoneselectedforthisstudymaybenecessaryinordertobe'slightlyabove' 48

50 thestudents'currentlevel(i.e.krashen's(1991)'i+1').failingthis,itmightbe necessarytorelyonnonyauthenticvideosfeaturinggradedlanguagewhichcan bemoreeasilyunderstoodbylowyintermediatelevelstudents. 6.3 Avenuesforfurtherresearch Furtherresearchwouldberequiredtoconfirm: whetherstudentsare'lessinterested'inintralinguallysubtitledvideos (andwhythismightbeso),ascomparedtothesamevideosubtitled interlinguallyorwithdualsubtitles; whetherparticipantsofthecurrentresearchpickedupwordsotherthan thetargetvocabularyfromthetreatmentvideo; theextenttowhichthegroupsunderstoodorfailedtounderstandthe contentofthevideo,and; whetherthetreatmentvideowasactuallyeffectiveincausingstudents#5 and#9topickupthemeaningsoftwoofthetargetwords,orwhether theirfailuretowritethemeaninginthepreytestwasduesimplytoalapse ofmemory(itmaybebeenpossibletodeterminethiswithafollowyup interviewofthesestudents) 49

51 Bibliography Allan,M.(1985).Teaching&English&with&Video.Essex:Longman. Arrington,J.(2011,March).Wearing&Nothing&New.(TED,Producer)Retrieved January2012,fromTED: Brown,H.(2007).Principles&of&Language&Learning&and&Teaching.NewYork: PearsonEducation. Carter,R.(1998).Vocabulary(2ndEditioned.).Oxon:Routledge. Carter,R.,&McCarthy,M.(1988).Vocabulary&and&language&teaching.Essex: LongmanGroup. Chang,M.(2005).ApplyingSelfYRegulatedLearningStrategiesinaWebYBased Instruction AnInvestigationofMotivationPerception.Computer& Assisted&Language&Learning,&18(3),217Y230. Chang,S.(2003).The&Interaction&Between&Schemata&and&Subtitles.Retrieved November2011,from Chaudron,C.(1985).Intake:Onmodelsandmethodsfordiscoveringlearners' processingofinput.studies&in&second&language&acquisition,&1,1y14. Clark,J.,&Paivio,A.(1991).DualCodingTheoryandEducation.Educational& Psychology&Review,&3(3),149Y210. Cobb,T.(2012).Web&Vocabprofile.RetrievedJanuary2012,fromAnadaptation ofhealey&nation's(1994)range: DeBock,H.(1977).Ondertitelen&of&Nasynchroniseren?&[Subtitling&or&Dubbing?]. Hilversum.NOS. 50

52 d'ydewalle,g.,&vandepoel,m.(1999).incidentalforeignylanguageacquisition bychildrenwatchingsubtitledtelevisionprograms.journal&of& Psycholinguistic&Research,&28(3),227Y244. EducationalTestingService.(2012).TOEIC&Bridge.RetrievedJanuary2012,from Ellis,N.(1997).Vocabularyacquisition:wordstructure,collocation,wordYclass, andmeaning.inn.schmitt,&m.mccarthy,vocabulary:&description,& Acquisition&and&Pedagogy(pp.122Y139).Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress. Froehlich,J.(1988).VideoswithGermanSubtitles:ANewApproachtoListening ComprehensionDevelopment.Teaching&German,&21(2),199Y203. Gregg,K.(1984).Krashen'sMonitorandOccam'sRazor.Applied&Linguistics,&5(2). Hambrook,J.(1992).Factorsaffectingtheproductionofvideoforlanguage teachingandlearning.ins.stempleski,&p.arcario(eds.),video&in&second& language&teaching;&using,&selecting,&and&producing&video&for&the&classroom. TESOLInc. Harji,M.B.,Woods,P.C.,&Alavi,Z.K.(2010).TheEffectofViewingSubtitled VideosonVocabularyLearning.Journal&of&College&Teaching&and&Learning,& 7(9),37Y42. Hayati,A.,&Mohmedi,F.(2011).Theeffectoffilmswithandwithoutsubtitleson listeningcomprehensionofefllearners.british&journal&of&educational& Technology,&42(1),181Y192. Heine,S.,Takata,T.,&Lehman,D.(2000).BeyondSelfYPresentation:Evidencefor SelfYCriticismAmongJapanese.Personality&and&Social&Psychology&Bulletin,& 26(71),71Y78. Ivarsson,J.,&Carroll,M.(1998).Subtitlling.TransEdit. 51

53 Katchen,J.(1997).CanstudentslearnEnglishfromTheXYFiles?InJ.Katchen,&Y. Leung(Ed.),The&proceedings&of&the&fifth&international&symposium&in& English&teaching(pp.243Y250).Taipei:TheCranePublishingCompany. Kelty,J.,Cooperman,A.,&Lefferts,G.(1991).Family&Album&USA.NewYork: MaxwellMacmillanInternational. Kieras,D.(1978).Beyondpicturesandwords:AlternativeinformationY processingmodelsforimageryeffectsinverbalmemory.psychological& Bulletin,&85,532Y554. Koolstra,C.,&Beentjes,J.(1999).Children'sVocabularyAcquisitioninaForeign LanguageThroughWatchingSubtitledTelevisionProgramsatHome. Educational&Technology&Research&and&Development,&47(1),51Y60. Krashen,S.(1982).Principles&and&Practice&in&Second&Language&Acquisition. AlemanyPress. Krashen,S.(1991).The&Input&Hypothesis:&Issues&and&Implications.Laredo Publishing. LadauYHarjulin,U.(1992).UsingvideototeachcommunicativeEnglishto studentsofinternationalbusiness.ins.stempleski,&p.arcario(eds.), Video&in&second&language&teaching;&using,&selecting,&and&producing&video&for& the&classroom.(pp.57y78).tesolinc. Levin,J.,&Berry,J.(1980).Children'slearningofallthenewsthat'sfittopicture. Educational&Communication&and&Technology,&28,177Y185. MetiriGroup.(2008).Multimodal&Learning&Through&Media:&What&the&research& says.retrieveddecember2011,from LearningYThroughYMedia.pdf MillanYVarela,C.(Ed.).(2010).ProfessionalContextsofTranslation.University&of& Birmingham&Translation&Studies&Course&Book. 52

54 Mitterer,H.,&McQueen,J.M.(2009).ForeignSubtitlesHelpbutNativeYlanguage SubtitlesHarmForeignSpeechPerception.PLoS&ONE,&4(11). Neuman,S.,&Koskinen,P.(1992).CaptionedTelevisionasComprehensible Input:EffectsofIncidentalWordLearningFromContextforLanguage MinorityStudents.Reading&Research&Quarterly,&27(1),94Y106. OED.(2010).Oxford&Dictionaries.RetrievedDecember2011,from Paivio,A.(1975).Codingdistinctionsandrepetitioneffectsinmemory.InG. Bower(Ed.),The&Psychology&of&Learning&and&Motivation(Vol.9,pp.179Y 214).NewYork:AcademicPress. Paivio,A.(1991).DualCodingTheory:RetrospectandCurrentStatus.Canadian& Journal&of&Psychology,&45(3),255Y287. Paivio,A.(1971a).ImageryanddeepstructureintherecallofEnglish nominalizations.journal&of&verbal&learning&and&verbal&behavior,&10,1y12. Paivio,A.(1971b).Imagery&and&Verbal&Processes.NewYork:Holt,Rinehartand Winston. Pimsleur,P.,Hancock,C.,&Furey,P.(1977).Speechrateandlistening comprehension.inm.burt,h.dulay,&m.finocchiaro,viewpoints&on& English&as&a&Second&Language.NewYork:Regents. Richards,J.(1976).Theroleofvocabularyteaching.TESOL&Quarterly,&10(1),77Y 89. Scarcella,R.,&Perkins,L.(1987).ShiftingGears:Krashen'sInputHypothesis. Studies&in&Second&Language&Acquisition,&9,347Y353. Schmitt,N.,&McCarthy,M.(1997).Vocabulary:&Description,&Acquisition,& Pedagogy.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Sherman,J.(2003).Using&authentic&video&in&the&classroom.Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress. 53

55 Stempleski,S.(1992).Teachingcommunicationskillswithauthenticvideo.InS. Stempleski,&P.Arcario(Eds.),Video&in&second&language&teaching:&using,& selecting,&and&producing&video&for&the&classroom.tesolinc. Stewart,M.,&Pertusa,I.(2004).GainstoLanguageLearnersfromViewing TargetLanguageClosedYCaptionedFilms.Foreign&Language&Annals,&37 (3),438Y442. Swain,M.,&Lapkin,S.(1995).Problemsinoutputandthecognitiveprocesses theygenerate:asteptowardssecondlanguagelearning.applied& Linguistics,&16,371Y391. TEDConferencesLLC.(2012a).TED&Open&Translation&Project.RetrievedJanuary 2012,fromTED: TEDConferences,LLC.(2012b).Are&TEDTalks&copyrighted?RetrievedJanuary 2012,fromTEDFrequentlyAskedQuestions: copyrightedy Titelbild.(n.d.).Code&of&Good&Subtitling&Practice.RetrievedNovember2011,from %20Practice_en.pdf Tsai,C.Yj.(2009).Insightintolearners'perspectivesonwatchingmovieswithL1 vsl2subtitles:focusingonlanguage.proceedings&of&kentucky&foreign& Language&Conference. Vanderplank,R.(2010).Dejavu?Adecadeofresearchonlanguagelaboratories, televisionandvideoinlanguagelearning.language&teaching,&43(1),1y 37. Vinje,M.(1994).KinderenpratenEngels:BalansvanhetEngelsaanheteinde vandebasisschool[childrenspeakenglish:resultsofenglishlessonsat thecompletionofelementaryschool].jsw,&79(4),32y35. 54

56 Wesche,M.,&Paribakht,T.(1996).AssessingSecondLanguageVocabulary Knowledge:DepthVersusBreadth.The&Canadian&Modern&Language& Review,&53(1),13Y39. Yuksel,D.,&Tanriverdi,B.(2009).Effectsofwatchingcaptionedmovieclipon vocabularydevelopmentofefllearners.the&turkish&online&journal&of& Educational&Technology,&8(2),48Y54. Zanon,N.T.(2006).Usingsubtitlestoenchanceforeignlanguagelearning.Porta& Linguarum,&6,41Y52. Zarei,A.A.(2009).TheEffectofBimodal,Standard,andReversedSubtitlingon L2VocabularyRecognitionandRecall.PazhuheshUe&ZabanhaUye&Khareji,& 49(SpecialIssue),65Y85. Zarei,A.A.(2011).TheEffectofInterlingualandIntralingual,Verbatimand NonverbatimSubtitlesonL2VocabularyComprehensionandProduction. Journal&of&Language&Teaching&and&Research,&2(3),618Y

57 Appendix A Jessi Arrington Wearing Nothing New TED Talk transcript I'm Jessi, and this is my suitcase. But before I show you what I've got inside, I'm going to make a very public 2, and that is, I'm outfit obsessed. I love finding, wearing, and more recently, photographing and blogging a different colorful, crazy outfit for every single occasion. But I don't buy anything new. I get all my clothes secondhand from flea markets and thrift stores. Aww, thank you. Secondhand shopping allows me to reduce the impact my wardrobe has on the environment and on my wallet. I get to meet all kinds of great people; my dollars usually go to a good cause; I look pretty unique; and it makes shopping like my own personal treasure hunt. I mean, what am I going to find today? Is it going to be my size? Will I like the color? Will it be under $20? If all the answers are yes, I feel as though I've won. I want to get back to my suitcase and tell you what I packed for this exciting week here at TED. I mean, what does somebody with all these outfits bring with her? So I'm going to show you exactly what I brought. I brought seven pairs of underpants and that's it. Exactly one week's worth of undies is all I put in my suitcase. I was betting that I'd be able to find everything else I could possible want to wear once I got here to Palm Springs. And since you don't know me as the woman walking around TED in her underwear -- (Laughter) that means I found a few things. And I'd really love to show you my week's worth of outfits right now. Does that sound good? (Applause) So as I do this, I'm also going to tell you a few of the life lessons that, believe it or not, I have picked up in these adventures wearing nothing new. So let's start with Sunday. I call this shiny tiger. You do not have to spend a lot of money to look great. You can almost always look phenomenal for under $50. This whole outfit, including the jacket, cost me 55, and it was the most expensive thing that I wore the entire week. Monday: Color is powerful. It is almost physiologically impossible to be in a bad mood when you're wearing bright red pants. (Laughter) If you are happy, you are going to attract other happy people to you. Tuesday: Fitting in is way overrated. I've spent a whole lot of my life trying to be myself and at the same time fit in. Just be who you are. If you are surrounding yourself with the right people, they will not only get it, they will appreciate it. Wednesday: Embrace your inner child. Sometimes people tell me that I look like I'm playing dress-up, or that I remind them of their seven year-old. I like to smile and say, "Thank you." Thursday: Confidence is key. If you think you look good in something, you almost certainly do. And if you don't think you look good in something, you're also probably right. I grew up with a mom who taught me this day-in and day-out. But it wasn't until I turned 30 that I really got what this meant. And I'm going to break it down for you for just a second. If you believe you're a beautiful person inside and out, there is no look that you can't pull off. So there is no excuse for any of us here in this audience. We should be able to rock anything we want to rock. Thank you. (Applause)

58 Friday: A universal truth -- five words for you: Gold sequins go with everything. And finally, Saturday: Developing your own unique personal style is a really great way to tell the world something about you without having to say a word. It's been proven to me time and time again as people have walked up to me this week simply because of what I'm wearing. And we've had great conversations. So obviously this is not all going to fit back in my tiny suitcase. So before I go home to Brooklyn, I'm going to donate everything back. Because the lesson I'm trying to learn myself this week is that it's okay to let go. I don't need to get emotionally attached to these things, because around the corner, there is always going to be another crazy, colorful, shiny outfit just waiting for me, if I put a little love in my heart and look. Thank you very much. (Applause) Thank you.

59 Appendix B Jessi Arrington Wearing Nothing New TED Talk transcript Japanese translation 20 TED TED

60

61 Appendix C Name: Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (PRE-TEST/POST-TEST) obsessed 1. I have never seen this word before. 2. I have seen this word before, but I don t know what it means. 3. I have seen this word before, and I think I know what it means. 4. I have seen this word before, and I know what it means. 5. I have seen this word before, I know what it means, and I can use it in a sentence. If you checked 3, 4, or 5, please write the Japanese translation of the word below: If you checked 5, please write an English sentence using the word below: donate 1. I have never seen this word before. 2. I have seen this word before, but I don t know what it means. 3. I have seen this word before, and I think I know what it means. 4. I have seen this word before, and I know what it means. 5. I have seen this word before, I know what it means, and I can use it in a sentence. If you checked 3, 4, or 5, please write the Japanese translation of the word below: If you checked 5, please write an English sentence using the word below: overrated 1. I have never seen this word before. 2. I have seen this word before, but I don t know what it means. 3. I have seen this word before, and I think I know what it means. 4. I have seen this word before, and I know what it means. 5. I have seen this word before, I know what it means, and I can use it in a sentence. If you checked 3, 4, or 5, please write the Japanese translation of the word below: If you checked 5, please write an English sentence using the word below:

62 sequins 1. I have never seen this word before. 2. I have seen this word before, but I don t know what it means. 3. I have seen this word before, and I think I know what it means. 4. I have seen this word before, and I know what it means. 5. I have seen this word before, I know what it means, and I can use it in a sentence. If you checked 3, 4, or 5, please write the Japanese translation of the word below: If you checked 5, please write an English sentence using the word below: confession 1. I have never seen this word before. 2. I have seen this word before, but I don t know what it means. 3. I have seen this word before, and I think I know what it means. 4. I have seen this word before, and I know what it means. 5. I have seen this word before, I know what it means, and I can use it in a sentence. If you checked 3, 4, or 5, please write the Japanese translation of the word below: If you checked 5, please write an English sentence using the word below: phenomenal 1. I have never seen this word before. 2. I have seen this word before, but I don t know what it means. 3. I have seen this word before, and I think I know what it means. 4. I have seen this word before, and I know what it means. 5. I have seen this word before, I know what it means, and I can use it in a sentence. If you checked 3, 4, or 5, please write the Japanese translation of the word below: If you checked 5, please write an English sentence using the word below:

63 Appendix D

64

65 Appendix E Breakdown of word types appearing in the transcript of Wearing Nothing New 1k types: [families 196 : types 239 : tokens 714 ] a_[15] able_[2] about_[1] adventures_[1] again_[1] all_[6] allows_[1] almost_[3] also_[2] always_[2] am_[11] and_[22] another_[1] answers_[1] any_[1] anything_[2] are_[8] around_[2] as_[4] at_[2] back_[3] bad_[1] be_[8] beautiful_[1] because_[3] been_[1] before_[2] believe_[2] break_[1] bright_[1] bring_[1] brought_[2] but_[3] buy_[1] call_[1] can_[2] cause_[1] certainly_[1] child_[1] color_[2] colorful_[2] cost_[1] could_[1] day_[2] developing_[1] different_[1] do_[7] does_[2] dollars_[1] down_[1] dress_[1] else_[1] every_[1] everything_[3] expensive_[1] feel_[1] few_[2] find_[2] finding_[1] fit_[2] fitting_[1] five_[1] for_[8] found_[1] friday_[1] from_[1] get_[5] go_[4] going_[10] gold_[1] good_[4] got_[3] great_[4] grew_[1] had_[1] happy_[2] has_[1] have_[7] having_[1] heart_[1] her_[2] here_[3] home_[1] i_[48] if_[7] impossible_[1] in_[12] including_[1] inner_[1] is_[17] it_[13] just_[3] kinds_[1] know_[1] laughter_[2] learn_[1] let_[2] life_[2] like_[4] little_[1] look_[8] love_[3] make_[1] makes_[1] markets_[1] me_[8] mean_[2] means_[1] meant_[1] meet_[1] mom_[1] monday_[1] money_[1] more_[1] most_[1] much_[1] my_[13] myself_[2] need_[1] new_[3] no_[2] not_[10] nothing_[2] now_[1] number_[4] occasion_[1] of_[10] off_[1] old_[1] on_[2] once_[1] one_[1] only_[1] or_[2] other_[1] out_[2] own_[2] people_[5] person_[1] personal_[2] playing_[1] possible_[1] powerful_[1] pretty_[1] proven_[1] public_[1] pull_[1] put_[2] really_[3] recently_[1] red_[1] reduce_[1] right_[3] rock_[2] same_[1] saturday_[1] say_[2] second_[1] seven_[2] shiny_[2] should_[1] show_[3] simply_[1] since_[1] single_[1] size_[1] smile_[1] so_[6] somebody_[1] something_[3] sometimes_[1] sound_[1] spend_[1] spent_[1] springs_[1] start_[1] stores_[1] sunday_[1] surrounding_[1] talk_[1] taught_[1] tell_[4] that_[12] the_[14] their_[1] them_[1] there_[3] these_[3] they_[2] thing_[1] things_[2] think_[2] this_[11] though_[1] thursday_[1] time_[3] to_[36] today_[1] truth_[1] trying_[2] tuesday_[1] turned_[1] under_[2] until_[1] up_[4] us_[1] usually_[1] very_[2] waiting_[1] walked_[1] walking_[1] want_[3] was_[3] way_[2] we_[3] wear_[1] wearing_[5] wednesday_[1] week_[6] what_[7] when_[1] who_[2] whole_[2] will_[4] with_[6] without_[1] woman_[1] won_[1] word_[1] words_[1] wore_[1] world_[1] worth_[2] would_[2] year_[1] yes_[1] you_[31] your_[2] yourself_[1] 2k types: [27:28:38] applause_[3] attract_[1] audience_[1] clothes_[1] confession_[1] confidence_[1] conversations_[1] corner_[1] entire_[1] exactly_[2] exciting_[1] excuse_[1] hunt_[1] inside_[2] key_[1] lesson_[1] lessons_[1] lot_[2] packed_[1] pairs_[1] photographing_[1] picked_[1] probably_[1] remind_[1] shopping_[2] thank_[5] treasure_[1] universal_[1] AWL types: [9:9:10] appreciate_[1] attached_[1] environment_[1] finally_[1] impact_[1] obviously_[1] phenomenal_[1] style_[1] unique_[2] OFF types: [?:34:46 ] arrington_[1] aww_[1] betting_[1] blogging_[1] brooklyn_[1] crazy_[2] donate_[1] embrace_[1] emotionally_[1] flea_[1] jacket_[1] jessi_[2] mood_[1] obsessed_[1] okay_[1] outfit_[4] outfits_[2] overrated_[1] palm_[1] pants_[1] physiologically_[1] secondhand_[2] sequins_[1] suitcase_[4] ted_[3] thrift_[1] tiger_[1] tiny_[1] transcript_[1] underpants_[1] underwear_[1] undies_[1] wallet_[1] wardrobe_[1]

66 Appendix F Feedback questionnaire (English version) PART 1 Please check your answer to the following questions () 1. How often do you watch English language videos for enjoyment? Never Hardly ever Sometimes Often Don't know 2. How often do you watch English language videos to improve your knowledge of English language vocabulary? Never Hardly ever Sometimes Often Don't know PART 2 1. When you watch English language videos for enjoyment, which type(s) of subtitles do you usually prefer? (You may select more that one answer) Japanese English Simultaneous Japanese and English No subtitles Don't know 2. When you watch English language videos to improve your knowledge of English language vocabulary, which type(s) of subtitles do you usually prefer? (You may select more that one answer) Japanese English Simultaneous Japanese and English No subtitles Don't know

67 PART 3 The following questions relate to the video you watched in the lesson, which had no subtitles / English subtitles / Japanese subtitles / simultaneous Japanese and English subtitles. 1. I was able to improve my knowledge of English language vocabulary from watching the video Strongly Agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree 2. The content of the video was interesting Strongly Agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree 3. The subtitles were easy to read Strongly Agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree

68 Feedback questionnaire (Japanese version) 1 () Appendix G

69