Coastal Sedimentary Environments. Second Revised, Expanded Edition

Transcription

1 Coastal Sedimentary Environments Second Revised, Expanded Edition

2 With Contributions by Paul B. Basan Senior Geologist ERCO Petroleum Services Houston, Texas Robert B. Biggs Associate Professor College of Marine Studies University of Delaware Newark, Delaware Jon C. Boothroyd Associate Professor Department of Geology University of Rhode Island Kingston, Rhode Island Michael J. Chrzastowski Graduate Student Department of Geology University of Delaware Newark, Delaware Richard A. Davis, Jr. Professor Department of Geology University of South Florida Tampa, Florida William T. Fox Professor and Chairman Department of Geology Williams College Williamstown, Massachusetts Robert W. Frey Professor Department of Geology University of Georgia Athens, Georgia Victor Goldsmith Professor Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Institute Haifa, Israel and Earth Resources Institute University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina Thomas S. Hopkins Physical Oceanographer Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, Long Island, New York George de Vries Klein Professor Department of Geology University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois John C. Kraft Professor Department of Geology University of Delaware Newark, Delaware Maynard M. Nichols Professor Department of Geological Oceanography Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Virginia Alan W. Niedoroda R J. Brown and Associates of America, Inc North Loop West-Suite 200 Houston, Texas Donald J. P. Swift Principal Research Geologist ARCO Oil and Gas Company Exploration and Production Research Dallas, Texas L. Donelson Wright Professor and Head Department of Geological Oceanography Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062

3 Coastal Sedimentary Environments Second Revised, Expanded Edition Edited by Richard A. Davis, Jr. With 376 Figures Springer-Verlag N ew York Berlin Heidelberg Tokyo

4 Richard A. Davis, Jr. Department of Geology University of South Florida Tampa, Florida Cover photo is of Egg Island, Alaska, taken in June, 1971, at low tide. It is courtesy of Miles O. Hayes, Research Planning Institute, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Coastal sedimentary environments. Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Sediments (Geology) 2. Coasts. 3. Sedimentation and deposition. I. Davis, Richard A. (Richard Albert), QE471.2.C ' , 1985 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1985 All rights reserved No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. Typeset by Ampersand, Inc., Rutland, Vermont ISBN-13: DOl: / e-isbn-13:

5 Preface The zone where land and sea meet is composed of a variety of complex environments. The coastal areas of the world contain a large percentage of its population and are therefore of extreme economic importance. Industrial, residential, and recreational developments, as well as large urban complexes, occupy much of the coastal margin of most highly developed countries. Undoubtedly future expansion in many undeveloped maritime countries will also be concentrated on coastal areas. Accompanying our occupation of coasts in this age of technology is a dependence on coastal environments for transportation, food, water, defense, and recreation. In order to utilize the coastal zone to its capacity, and yet not plunder its resources, we must have extensive knowledge of the complex environments contained along the coasts. The many environments within the coastal zone include bays, estuaries, deltas, marshes, dunes, and beaches. A tremendously broad range of conditions is represented by these environments. Salinity may range from essentially fresh water in estuaries, such as along the east coast of the United States, to extreme hypersaline lagoons, such as Laguna Madre in Texas. Coastal environments may be in excess of a hundred meters deep (fjords) or may extend several meters above sea level in the form of dunes. Some coastal environments are well protected and are not subjected to high physical energy except for occasional storms, whereas beaches and tidal inlets are continuously modified by waves and currents. Because of their location near terrestrial sources, coastal environments contain large amounts of nutrients. The combination of this nutrient supply with generally shallow water gives rise to a diverse and large fauna and flora. Coastal areas also serve as the spawning and nursery grounds for many openocean organisms. Many species in coastal environments are of great

6 VI Preface commercial importance, such as clams, oysters, shrimp, and many varieties of fish. It is certain that we 'need better management of these resources. We also need to develop more and improved methods of cultivating these environments. All of the above examples point out the need for a fundamental knowledge of modem coastal environments. An almost equally important aspect of coastal environments is their role in the geologic record. In order to properly interpret the relationships and depositional environments among various facies preserved in the rock record it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of modern environments (Law of Uniformitarianism). There is a great deal of economic significance to ancient coastal environments. Water, oil, and gas occur in large quantities in various reservoir sands of beach and dune complexes of ancient barrier island and inner shelf sands. The huge clastic wedge deposits of ancient deltaic environments are also a source of petroleum materials and coal. All of the above examples indicate various reasons that a comprehensive knowledge of coastal environments is necessary for a geologist, engineer, oceanographer, or coastal manager, or for other persons involved in the coastal zone. This book is designed to provide such a background. Most of the important coastal environments are included. The discussions contain such descriptive aspects as morphology and sediment distribution but also emphasize physical processes and their interactions with the sediments and sediment body morphology. Primary consideration is given to the principles involved and to general considerations but numerous case history examples are included. Our efforts here represent an unusual attempt to produce a text for student use in that each chapter is authored by a different individual or individuals. The subject matter makes this approach a practical one in that the discussion of each of the coastal environments is presented by a specialist who has considerable experience in the environment being discussed. Each of the chapters that covers one of the coastal environments can stand alone. As a result, these chapters can be ordered to suit the reader or the instructor. The depth of treatment for each of these chapters shows some variation, in part because of the existing literature. For example, there are many volumes devoted to beaches, estuaries, and deltas in addition to the journal literature. Such coastal environments as dunes and marshes, in contrast, have not received the same coverage in the literature, especially by way of thorough summaries. These environments therefore have been treated in more detail than other environments. The chapters on dunes and marshes are probably the most comprehensive summaries available in the literature. The last two chapters both involve applications of basic principles to the study of coastal environments or coastal systems. The chapter on sequences, especially Holocene stratigraphic sequences, provides an excellent framework for the reader to gain an understanding of Walther's Law as well as coastal systems. Application of computer techniques to coastal sedimenta-

7 Preface vii tion has been an important and valuable tool. The discussion of this topic considers various approaches to modeling, including conceptual, simulation, and predictor types. No consideration is given to programming or computer language; only the principles of modeling and various examples are discussed. Addendum Much research has taken place in coastal geology since the publication of Coastal Sedimentary Environments. This additional research and the need to expand the coverage by adding chapters has stimulated this second edition. Each of the original authors has updated and modified his respective chapter. In two of the chapters, co-authors were taken on to help accomplish this task. Especially noticeable is the expansion of the chapters on coastal bays (estuaries) and on coastal sequences. Two new chapters have been added to make the text more comprehensive; one on intertidal flats and one on the shoreface. The need to include the former is obvious, but inclusion of the shoreface may not be. This portion of the inner shelf interfaces with various coastal environments and is integral to a complete understanding of process-response systems operating on the coast In preparing this revised edition, we have tried to incorporate suggestions made in the various published reviews of the first edition. Although the title implies comprehensive coverage of coasts, virtually all of the discussion is devoted to terrigenous sedimentary environments although basic principles apply to carbonate environments and sediments as well. Authors Each of the contributors is an active researcher in the coastal zone, with specialization in the environment for which he is responsible in the book. The authors represent a rather broad spectrum of backgrounds, with research experience being concentrated on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, although most have some foreign experience as well. Dr. Paul B. Basan is a sedimentologist and paleontologist currently involved in research applied to the energy industries. He conducted his doctoral studies on sedimentation in salt marshes under the supervision of his co-author, Dr. R. W. Frey, at the University of Georgia. In addition to his research on salt marshes, Dr. Basan has authored numerous articles on trace fossils. Dr. Robert B. Biggs is a geological oceanographer with the College of Marine Studies and the Department of Geology at the University of Delaware. Dr. Biggs has studied extensively the trace element geochemistry

8 viii Preface of estuarine bottom and suspended sediments, quantification of the sources and sinks of suspended organics and organic matter in estuarine waters, environmental effects of dredging and dredge spoil disposal, and the Holocene and Pleistocene coastal features of the Delmarva Peninsula. In addition to his research on coasts, Dr. Jon C. Boothroyd also is active in research on glaciofluvial environments and on the geomorphology and surface processes on Mars. Dr. Boothroyd's coastal research is now directed to the Alaskan and Rhode Island coasts. Most of his research has been supported by the Office of Naval Research, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Rhode Island Sea Grant Program, and the National Atmospheric and Space Administration. Michael Chrzastowski is a doctoral candidate in geology at the University of Delaware under the supervision of his co-author, Dr. John C. Kraft. His current research concerns the sedimentology and stratigraphy of a coastal lagoon which has been influenced by human activity. Mr. Chrzastowski has had experience with the NOAA National Ocean Survey in Alaska, Hawaii, California, and Washington. The editor, Dr. Richard A. Davis, Jr. is interested in coastal depositional systems with emphasis on barrier island complexes. He has published numerous research articles with W. T. Fox and has written Principles of Oceanography and Depositional Systems and has edited Beach and Nearshore Sedimentation and Wave Dominated Coasts. Major support for his coastal research has come from the Office of Naval Research, the Coastal Engineering Research Center and the Florida Sea Grant Program. Dr. William T. Fox combines expertise in computer modeling with much experience in beach and nearshore dynamics. Much of his work has been with R A. Davis and has been funded by the Office of Naval Research. Dr. Fox has recently authored The Seas Edge, a popular book on coastal environments. Dr. Robert W. Frey is a paleoecologist who specializes in animalsediment relationships and ichnology. He has 15 years experience on recent environments of the G e o q coast ~ i a and shelf. In addition to his many research articles, Dr. Frey edited a comprehensive volume, Trace Fossils. Much of his research has been supported by the National Science Foundation. After spending nearly 10 years on the Atlantic coast of the United States, Dr. Victor Goldsmith has relocated to the eastern Mediterranean coast He has had much experience in dune sedimentation and beach and nearshore dynamics. Most of Dr. Goldsmith's research on dunes was funded by the Coastal Engineering Research Center. Dr. Thomas S. Hopkins has studied continental shelf circulation along coasts of the United States, Peru, and the Mediterranean Sea. He specializes in observations and modeling of shelf processes, particularly, as related to

9 Preface ix geological and biological problems. At the Brookhaven National Laboratory, Dr. Hopkin's research has been supported by the Department of Energy and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Dr. George devries Klein's research interests are in coastal and deepwater marine sediment transport and deposition. He has done considerable work on intertidal sand bodies in the Bay of Fundy. Dr. Klein has participated on Legs 30 and 58 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. His research has been supported primarily by the National Science Foundation and the Office of Naval Research. Dr. Klein has authored or edited Clastic Tidal Facies, Sandstone Depositional Models and Exploration/or Fossils Fuels, Holocene Tidal Sedimentation and Sedimentary Processes: Processes 0/ Detrital Sedimentation. Holocene and Pleistocene coastal sequences have been studied by Dr. John C. Kraft for nearly two decades. Although most of his research has been along the North Atlantic coast of the United States, other areas have also been included with recent emphasis in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and Ilawaii. Much of Dr. Kraft's research has been supported by the Office of Naval Research, the National Science Foundation and the Delaware Sea Grant Program. Dr. Maynard M. Nichols is a geological oceanographer with specialization in estuarine sedimentation. His numerous publications on estuarine processes emphasize the dynamics of the turbidity maximum, responses to river flooding and estuarine-shelf interrelationships. Most of Dr. Nichols' research has been supported by the Army Research Office and the Environmental Protection Agency. After completing his graduate work, Dr. Alan W. Niedoroda was on the faculty of the University of Massachusetts for several years conducting research on coastal dynamics. He is now a consulting oceanographer specializing in coastal and shelf, sediments and processes. Research from which this chapter was formulated was supported by the Office of Naval Research and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Dr. Donald J. P. Swift spent many years in academics and in federal research agencies prior to assuming his present position. His research emphasis has been on shelf sedimentation. Dr. Swift has studied sediment dynamics on the Atlantic coast of North America, in the Bay of Fundy, on the Spanish Mediterranean coast and on the Argentine coast. He is co-author of Shelf Sediment Dynamics, Marine Sediment Transport and Environmental Management and of the reprint volume, Coastal Sedimentation. Dr. Swift's research has been supported by the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, the Corps of Engineers and a consortium of petroleum research companies. Dr. L. Donelson Wright has investigated nearly every major delta in the world during his association with the Coastal Studies Institute of Louisiana

10 x Preface State University. He also investigated beach and nearshore dynamics throughout the coast of Australia and is now conducting similar studies on the mid-atlantic coast of the United States. Most of Dr. Wright's research has been supported by the Office of Naval Research and the Australian Research Grants Committee. Richard A. Davis, Jr.

11 Table of Contents Preface... Acknowledgments... v xv 1. River Deltas L.D. Wright Introduction... 1 Occurrence and Distribution of Deltas... 2 General Characteristics of Deltas and Deltaic Environments Delta-Forming Processes Deltaic Sediments and Sedimentary Structures Variability of Deltaic Depositional Models Summary References Estuaries Maynard M. Nichols and Robert B. Biggs Introduction Occurrence and Distribution of Estuaries Estuary Evolution Sources and Nature of Estuarine Sediments Estuarine Processes Hydrodynamic Factors Transport and Accumulation Mechanisms Particle Dynamics and Behavior Estuarine Dispersal and Depositional System Depositional Sequences in Estuaries

12 xii Contents Summary Unsolved Questions References Intertidal Flats and Intertidal Sand Bodies George de Vries Klein Introduction.: Global Distribution Sedimentation Processes Intertidal Flats Intertidal Sand Bodies Summary References Coastal Salt Marshes Robert W. Frey and Paul B. Basan Introduction The State of the Art Definition and Occurrences of Coastal Salt Marshes Environmental Conditions and Marsh Zonation Characteristic Plants Characteristic Sediments Substrate Characteristics and Biogeochemistry Processes Affecting Sedimentation in Salt Marshes Sedimentary Structures References Coastal Dunes Victor Goldsmith Introduction Coastal Sand Dunes Physical Processes of Eolian Sedimentation Artificially Inseminated Coastal Sand Dunes References Beach and Nearshore Zone Richard A. Davis, Jr. Introduction Distribution Geometry Beach Materials Processes Sedimentary Structures Process-Response Systems in the Beach and Nearshore Environment

13 Contents xiii Stratigraphic Sequences References Tidal Inlets and Tidal Deltas Jon C. Boothroyd Introduction Bedforms Genesis of Tidal Bedforms Tidal Deltas Stratigraphic Sequences and Depositional Models References The Shoreface Alan W. Niedoroda, Donald J. P. Swift, and Thomas S. Hopkins Introduction Fluid Dynamics of the Shoreface Sediment Dynamics on the Shoreface Morphodynamics of the Shoreface Shoreface Facies Engineering Implications Summary References Coastal Stratigraphic Sequences John C. Kraft and Michael J. Chrzastowski Introduction Processes of Coastal Change Sea Level Change Continental Margins Lagoon-Barrier Systems Interpreting Sedimentary Sequences The Transgressive Coast The Regressive (Progradational) Coast Delta-Chenier Plains Coastal Sequence Preservation Potential Coastal Sequences in Time and Space Summary References

14 xiv Contents 10. Modeling Coastal Environments William T. Fox Introduction Hydraulic Scale Models Statistical Models Probabilistic Model Deterministic Model Fourier Model... " Coastal Storm Model Summary References Index

15 Acknowledgments A book of this type is not only the result of the efforts of its authors and editor, but also in large measure of various types of input from many other sources. These include many researchers whose results have been published elsewhere, numerous colleagues and students who are, or have been, associated with the authors, and the many agencies who have supported the authors' research efforts. In addition, several people have given freely of their time and expertise by way of reviewing chapters. Numerous people and publishers have given permission to reproduce illustrations from previous publications: their generosity is greatly appreciated. Specific acknowledgments are as follows: Chapter 1. Most of the research on which this chapter is based was supported by the Office of Naval Research through the Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University and by the Australian Research Grants Committee through the University of Sydney. Support of the preparation of this revised edition was provided by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. The author is especially grateful to J. M. Coleman and B. G. Thom for cooperation in the field, in numerous discussions of ideas and concepts, and for collaboration on many of the research papers underlying this chapter. Chapter 2. The authors' original research which contributed to this chapter was supported by the Army Research Office and the Environmental Protection Agency through the Virginia Institute of Marine Science and the University of Delaware Sea Grant Program (NABOAA-D-00106, Office of Sea Grant, NOAA, U. S. Dept. of Commerce). Additionally, this chapter synthesizes research results of many estuarine studies, notably those of G. P.

16 xvi Acknowledgments Allen, K. Kranck R. Gibbs, D. Haven, R. Krone, I. N. McCave, H. Postma, L. Clifton, and P. Scruton. Kay Stubblefield of VIMS drafted the figures. Chapter 3. Financial support for the author's research was provided by the National Science Foundation through its grants GA-407, GA-1583, and GA-21141, and the Office of Naval Research through its grant Nonr-266(84). Numerous students and colleagues have provided assistance, suggestions and advice during the course of this work. Chapter 4. Financial support for the authors' research has been provided by the National Science Foundation (GA-2271O), the Georgia Sea Grant Program and a NSF-Institutional Grant from the University of Georgia. The critical assistance of several people is acknowledged; E. S. Belt, J. D. Howard, V. J. Hurst, K. B. MacDonald, R. Pestrong, P. R. Pinet, F. B. Phleger, L. R. Pomeroy, A. C. Redfield, and R G. Wiegert. L. Gassert, and G. K. Maddock aided in the literature search. Chapter S. Most of the author's original research On Cape Cod was supported by the Coastal Engineering Research Center (Contract DACW C-0004). The Virginia Institute of Marine Science and Virginia Sea Grant (Contract ), have also provided some support. C. A. M. King and R. J. Byrne reviewed the first edition, and H. Tsoar reviewed and provided many useful suggestions for this revision. Chapter 6. The author's research on beach and nearshore environments has been funded by the Office of Naval Research (Contracts and ) in cooperation with W. T. Fox and by the Coastal Engineering Research Center (Contracts DACW72-70-C-0037 and DACW72-73-C- 0003). Numerous stimulating discussions with J. C. Boothroyd, M. O. Hayes, D. Nummedal, and H. E. Clifton have been very beneficial. A large number of graduate students has also provided significant input. Chapter 7. Much of the discussion in this chapter has its roots in the association of the author with M. O. Hayes and Coastal Research groups at the universities of Massachusetts and South Carolina. Funds were provided through the Office of Naval Research (Contract NOOOI4-67-A ), the Coastal Engineering Research Center (Contract DACW C-0029) and the Rhode Island Sea Grant Program. Numerous colleagues and students have assisted in various aspects of this work. Chapter 8. The author's shoreface research has been supported largely by the Office of Naval Research, Department of Energy, and NOAA. Field assistance was provided by H. Peg, D. Battisti, S. Wall, L. Wall, J. Collins, J. Leonard, G. Bowers, B. Brenninckmeyer, E. Divit, and D. Carlson. Various logistic support was provided by Southampton College, Boston

17 Acknowledgments xvii College, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. ARCO Oil & Gas Company provided support for the preparation of the manuscript. Chapter 9. Research on Holocene sequences has been supported by the Delaware Sea Grant College Program; State of Delaware, Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Control; Office of Naval Research (Contract NOOOI4-69-A0407); the National Science Foundation (GP-5604); and the University of Delaware Research Foundation. Many graduate students at the University of Delaware have contributed both the data and the concepts incorporated in this chapter. Chapter 10. The author is grateful to the late W. C. Krumbein who stimulated his interest in computer applications and provided his initial training at Northwestern University. Most of the author's research in this area was supported by the Office of Naval Research (Contracts NOOO C-O 151 and NOO C-O 151). In addition to the assistance of numerous students, much input has been provided by colleagues, especially R A. Davis, Jr. and P. D. Komar. Finally, gratitude is expressed to the personnel of Springer-Verlag, Inc., New York for their patience, cooperation, and assistance in preparation and production of this revised edition. Appreciation is also extended to Wanda McClelland who retyped several of the revised chapters and to Iris Rose who typed much of the correspondence associated with the second edition.