Tema Vulnerabilidade das Áreas Urbanas Painel: Leila da Costa Ferreira, UNICAMP

Transcription

1 Tema Vulnerabilidade das Áreas Urbanas Painel: Leila da Costa Ferreira, UNICAMP

2 RISK AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN BRAZILIAN COASTAL CITIES Leila da Costa Ferreira Rafael D Almeida Martins Fabiana Barbi Leonardo Ribeiro Teixeira Marília Giesbrecht Alberto Matenhauer Urbinatti

3 INTRODUCTION In a short period of time, climate change has become one of the most pressing issues in the 21 st century (Giddens 2009; Hogan 2009a). Since 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established by the United Nations (UN) and by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), has been engaged in understanding the functioning of the global climate system. The greatest scientific advances of this movement came with the most recent reports (Third and Forth Assessment Reports), when expressed relative consensus on global warming by concluding with higher confidence that climate change is unequivocal and the increase in average temperature of the Earth s surface results from human activities combined with natural variation of the global climate system (IPCC 2007). This fact represents an advance in the debate since previous positions and arguments persisted defending, with some power of public persuasion, that the contemporary global warming had only natural causes mainly resulting from biogeological cycles of the planet. According to such positions, for being a natural problem, there would be nothing to do about it apart from accepting it and coping with it (Giddens 2009).

4 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON COASTAL ZONES In Brazil, where major cities are located on coastal zones, the impacts of climate change are an extremely relevant issue. Coastal areas are considered particularly vulnerable to climate change (Adger 1999; Nicholls et al. 2007); at the same time they concentrate an expressive contingent of world s population (McGranahan et al. 2007), and are development centres of the worldwide economy due to their infrastructure and natural resources (Satterthwaite et al. 2007). In this direction, this article reflects on the challenges of climate change for these areas, how the issue could be framed and how local governments in Brazilian coastal cities in the State of São Paulo (SP) are prepared (or not) to this risk in terms of policy strategies and instruments (figure 1).

5 Fig.1 Coastal cities in the State of São Paulo (SP), Brazil Source: Elaborated by Allan Iwama Coastal cities in the State of São Paulo

6 RISK AND CLIMATE CHANGE It is hard to know the magnitude of these risks and, in many cases, it is impossible to predict before it is too late, since the society does not know what other changes will come, or what dangers they will bring with them. Thus, the challenge posed is how to establish effective policies to address different problems, since the future is uncertain and it is not possible to evaluate the risks with complete accuracy until the anticipated hazards eventually materialise (Giddens 2009). The required political action and intervention at the international, national and local levels will have a decisive effect in setting the boundaries to avoid dangerous global warming and support adaptation efforts that are increasingly underway (Parry et al. 2008; Parry 2009), particularly in the developed countries (i.e. Moser 2009 for USA; Hulme and Neufeldt 2010 for Europe).

7 CLIMATE CHANGE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS A summary of some local and state governments responsibilities in areas related to climate change and risk management that need to be components of a comprehensive adaptation strategy to climate change is presented in Table 1. Usually local governments are responsible for (Satterthwaite et al. 2007; Satterthwaite 2008): Finance: financial and accounting management of municipal budget; taxes collection and management, licenses and fees. Engineering and public construction: construction and maintenance of the public space. Urban/local development: land use regulation, urban zoning, real state registration and urban planning. Health and public hygiene: collection, distribution and treatment of drinking water, pollution control, collection and treatment of solid waste, sanitary hygiene, public areas cleaning, medical and ambulatory services. Social urban policies: housing, schools, day-care centres, youth, elderly, etc. Civil defence and emergency response: disasters relief, fire brigade, ambulance services and rescue. Public administration and human resources: various administrative tasks and responsibilities including human resources management.

8 CLIMATE CHANGE IN BRAZILIAN COASTAL CITIES THE COAST OF THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO (SP) In Brazil, many important cities and infrastructure are located along more than 8,600 Km of coastline making the impacts of climate change an extremely relevant issue for the present and future of these areas (Nicolodi and Petermann 2010). It is also estimated that more than 20% of the Brazilian population live on coastal cities (Zamboni and Nicolodi 2008). In this context, São Paulo - the largest Brazilian state in terms of population concentration and economic development has many of its infrastructures located on its coastal region. The ports of Santos and São Sebastião, respectively the biggest port in South America and the main distribution centre for Brazilian inland oil, along with the industrial district of Cubatão and the tourism industry are just some examples of the importance of this region for the social and economic development of the country.

9 THE COAST OF SÃO PAULO STATE The coast of São Paulo has an extension of about 700 km comprising 16 cities with over two million inhabitants (see Table 2) and diversified ecosystems that have the presence of estuaries, mangroves, sandbanks, caves, rivers, rocky shores and about 150 islands (SMA 2005). Moreover, it has several protected areas within its territory as it contains a great proportion of the Atlantic Forest remnants in the country, one the three most threatened ecosystems on the planet and a hotspot for biodiversity. Although there are a number of measures in place to protect these important ecosystems, they have been endangered by increasing tourism activities, modern transportation infrastructures, oil and gas industry, and illegal exploitation of natural resources.

10 DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS AND EXPRESSIVE INVESTMENTS IN INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE REGION In terms of regional and socio-economic aspects, the Northern part of the coast of the State of São Paulo is currently being targeted by a series of development interventions and expressive investments in infrastructure, especially in the area that corresponds to the cities of Caraguatatuba and São Sebastião. In this sense, it is expected the construction of a number of new facilities in the coming years including: a road bypass connecting the cities of São Sebastião and Caraguatatuba; a regional landfill to minimise the chaotic situation of solid waste in the region; a prison facility in Caraguatatuba; and a natural gas treatment plant (already under advanced stage of construction). Expansion of the Port São Sebastião; Oil and Gas in marine deposits of the Pre-salt (with consequent adaptation of terrestrial infrastructure).

11 ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN AREAS WITH EFFECTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE Local government role Long term planning Prevention of disasters Response to extreme events Reconstruction Built environment Construction Code High n.d. High High Land use regulation and real estate registration High Low n.d. High Maintenance and construction of building and public space High Low n.d. High Urban Planning and Zoning High n.d High High Infrastructure Water treatment High Low High High Wastewater treatment High Low High High Drainage system High Low High High Streets, avenues, bridges High n.d. High High Electricity High Low High High Landfill High Low n.d. High Services Protection against fire High Low High Low Public order, police Average High High Low Solid waste collection High High High High Education Average Average n.d. n.d. Health and public hygiene Average Average High High Public Transportation Average High High High Social welfare Average High High High Responses to disasters and civil defense n.d. n.d. High High Source: Adapted from Satterthwaite (2008, p. 26).

12 CLIMATE CHANGE IN BRAZILIAN COASTAL CITIES City Population Cananéia Iguape Ilha Comprida Cubatão Guarujá Itanhaém Mongaguá Peruíbe Praia Grande Santos São Vicente Bertioga Caraguatatuba Ilhabela São Sebastião Ubatuba Total Table 2 Population of the Coastal Cities of São Paulo Source: IBGE 2009.

13 POLITICAL-INSTITUTIONAL STRATEGIES Strategies at the Federal Level One of the first movements at the federal level related to climate change was the creation of the Brazilian Forum on Climate Change - FBMC in June Its objective is to introduce, educate and mobilize society for the discussion and position on issues relating to global warming. Seven years later, in November 2007, the federal government created the Interministerial Committee on Climate Change (MIC) with the main tasks of designing and implementing a National Policy on Climate Change - National Climate Change Plan and National Plan on Climate Change. The Plan was launched in late 2008 indicating the objectives, principles, guidelines and instruments for the enactment of Law in 2009, which provides for a National Policy on Climate Change. In general, the national planning emphasizes the small contribution of Brazil to the generation of global environmental problem compared to other emerging and developed economies, and indicates that the country has done its part in mitigation, but is willing to do more (CIM 2008).

14 STRATEGIES AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL To achieve the objectives of this policy and taking advantage of the international spotlight, Brazil presented at the 15th UN Conference on Climate Change (COP15) in Copenhagen, national voluntary commitment to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases between 38 and 36.1%, 9% of their total projected emissions by 2020 (BRAZIL 2009). Between the creation and promulgation of the FBMC PNMC other public events, research institutions and civil society organizations were established at the federal level. Among them, the introduction of Network- CLIMATE, the creation of the National Institute of Science and Technology (INCT) Climate Change, developing the network of civil society organizations called "Climate Observatory ; the launch of the FAPESP Research on Global Climate Change and the creation of the Brazilian Panel on Climate Change - PBMC.

15 STRATEGIES AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL According to the Second Brazilian Inventory of Anthropogenic (MCT 2010) Brazil has been increasing its emissions of GHGs at rates very significant in the last fifteen years. Between the years 1990 and 2005 the CO ² emissions increased by approximately 65% of the sum of all the sectors surveyed, only emissions related to coal mining declined by 29%. The sector of Change of Land Use and Forests was responsible for the largest share of CO2 emissions in 2005 with participation of 77% of total emissions. During the period analyzed ( ) emissions from this sector grew 64.3%.

16 POLITICAL-INSTITUTIONAL STRATEGIES Regional level strategies In Brazil, the city of São Paulo was a pioneer in approving a specific law to deal with climate change. The municipal law (n ) was approved in 2009 and establishes the reduction of 30% in total GHG emissions of the city. It enforces public transportation priority, gradual reduction in fossil fuel consumption and dependence, compulsory recycling program and reduction of solid waste altogether with energy efficiency criteria combined with eco-building. Some months after this approval, the São Paulo State also approved its own law becoming the second Brazilian state to approve such type of regulation (the first one was the State of Amazonas in 2007), which also presents tangible mitigation targets. The so-called State Climate Change Policy expects a reduction of at least 20% in total CO2 emissions by 2020 in relation to the 2005 level. Every five years, until 2020, the government will be able to set intermediate targets to reach the 20% goal.

17 Regional level strategies To achieve the objectives of this policy and taking advantage of the international spotlight, Brazil presented at the 15th UN Conference on Climate Change (COP15) in Copenhagen, national voluntary commitment to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases between 38 and 36.1%, 9% of their total projected emissions by 2020 (BRAZIL 2009). Between the creation and promulgation of the FBMC PNMC other public events, research institutions and civil society organizations were established at the federal level. Among them, the introduction of Network-CLIMATE, the creation of the National Institute of Science and Technology (INCT) Climate Change, developing the network of civil society organizations called "Climate Observatory ; the launch of the FAPESP Research on Global Climate Change and the creation of the Brazilian Panel on Climate Change - PBMC.

18 POLITICAL-INSTITUTIONAL STRATEGIES In spite of being considered substantial advances to address the climate change problem, these laws rely on a network of political-institutional structures and governance arrangements in order to be effectively applied (see Table 1). Thus, it is fundamental to investigate the presence of some of these structures in the 16 coastal cities of the São Paulo State as inherent part of our research agenda as these cities do not present any clear climate change response in terms of specific laws or policies as in the case of the city and the state of São Paulo. Hence, in order to assess the institutional and administrative capacity of these coastal cities to internalise the climate change issue, a mapping exercise was carried out aiming at finding the presence of governmental bodies and institutions interlinked with sectors and policies with some level of effect and jurisdiction to address climate change.

19 LOCAL POLITICAL-INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE Our mapping exercise focused on the executive and the legislative municipal bodies as well as on the presence of secretariats, departments, other public agencies, and City Council commissions that have some history and capability in dealing with areas that can affect or be affected by climate change. As these coastal cities do not have particular institutions to respond to climate change so far, the idea of looking at the municipal realities was used as a strategy to frame the climate change issue within the current administrative structures.

20 LOCAL POLITICAL-INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE Table 3 shows that a great part of the investigated cities presents political-institutional structures that could be mobilised to address the climate change issue, especially in terms of specific secretariats, governmental agencies and departments. Our survey highlights the presence of structures dedicated to social, economic and urban development policies, besides environment and health.

21 TABLE 3 POLITICAL-INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE IN COASTAL CITIES OF THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO Area of action* List of Cities Number of Cities Economic Development: Secretariats; Authorities (Agriculture; Fishery; Industry; Commerce; Science; Technology) Cananéia, Caraguatatuba, Cubatão, Guarujá, Ilha Comprida, Itanhaém, Mongaguá, Peruíbe, Santos, São Sebastião, São Vicente, Ubatuba. 12 Social Development: Secretariats; Authorities (Social Action; Social Promotion; Social Assistance; Citizenship) Urban Development: Secretariats; Authorities (Housing; Public Construction; Public Services; Infrastructure) Bertioga, Cananéia, Caraguatatuba, Cubatão, Guarujá, Ilhabela, Ilha Comprida, Itanhaém, Mongaguá, Peruíbe, Praia Grande, Santos, São Vicente, Ubatuba. Bertioga, Cananéia, Caraguatatuba, Cubatão, Guarujá, Iguape, Ilhabela, Ilha Comprida, Itanhaém, Mongaguá, Peruíbe, Praia Grande, Santos, São Vicente, São Sebastião, Ubatuba Environment: Secretariats; Authorities Planning (Management): Secretariats; Authorities Health: Secretariats; Authorities Security: Secretariats; Authorities; Directories (Public Security; Urban Security; Social Defense; Civil Defense) Transport: Secretariats; Authorities Bertioga, Cananéia, Caraguatatuba, Cubatão, Guarujá, Iguape, Ilha Bela, Itanhaém, Mongaguá, Peruíbe, Praia Grande, Santos, São Sebastião, São Vicente, Ubatuba. Caraguatatuba, Cubatão, Guarujá, Ilha Comprida, Itanhaém, Mongaguá, Peruíbe, Santos, São Vicente, Ubatuba. Bertioga, Cananéia, Caraguatatuba, Cubatão, Guarujá, Iguape, Ilha Bela, Ilha Comprida, Itanhaém, Mongaguá, Peruíbe, Praia Grande, Santos, São Sebastião, São Vicente, Ubatuba. Caraguatatuba, Guarujá, Itanhaém, Mongaguá, Peruíbe, Santos, São Sebastião, São Vicente, Ubatuba. Caraguatatuba, Iguape, Itanhaém, Mongaguá,

22 LOCAL STRATEGIES ON CLIMATE CHANGE Even though science is advancing to provide increasingly reliable data, methodologies, tools and frameworks to help society to cope and adapt to the impacts of climate change and variability, these local governments located on the coast of the São Paulo State are still struggling to provide the most basic urban services for a proportion of their dwellers in terms of adequate housing, sanitation and health care. The lack of financial and human resources combined with the high level of uncertainty in regards to climate change impacts (Beck 1992, 2009; Giddens 2009) and the need for climate change scientific data at local level also contribute to the lack of consistent action towards climate change risks in this region.

23 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION IN THE COASTAL CITIES OF THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO Cities Municipal Organic Law Land Use Planning Environm ent Code Urban Developm ent Planning Regional Ecological -Economic Zoning Conservatio n Units Acts Others Bertioga X X Cananéia X Cubatão X Guarujá X X Ilha Comprida X Itanhaém X X X Peruíbe X Praia Grande X X X Santos X X X X São Vicente X X São Sebastião X Ubatuba X Source: The authors.

24 FINAL COMMENTS According to the discussion of risk theory in Beck (1992, 2009), the risks brought by climate change are characterized by escaping the perception, situated in the sphere of physical and chemical formulas, remaining invisible. They can be changed, magnified, dramatized or minimized within knowledge and accordingly, are open to social definition and construction. Also, these risks are closely related to the future and to the misfortunes actively assessed in relation to future possibilities. In this scenario, political action and intervention at international, national and local levels will have a decisive effect on establishing limits to global warming and on adapting to what is already in progress (Giddens 2009). International agreements are essential, and other agencies, including NGOs and the private sector also have a key role; however, the state has many powers that have to be raised, if more serious impacts involving global warming occur, as discussed in section 3.

25 FINAL COMMENTS In terms of climate change policies, the debate in Brazil is still in its early stages and there are a number of issues to be worked in the coming years. Despite being a new subject in the political arena, there are legislations that have been approved since 2007 at the national, state and municipal level that aim at mitigating GHG emissions and coordinating adaptation efforts combined with risk management and disaster risk reduction, as presented in section 4. It was also discussed the fact that local governments are considered critical actors to address many of the causes and consequences arising from climate change as they are close to wherein these activities and events take place, considering areas such as built environment, infrastructure and services, as shown in Table 1, which have direct and indirect effects on climate change.

26 FINAL COMMENTS This papers reflects the attempt to investigate some of the politicalinstitutional structures that have some effect on relevant areas for intervention in terms of climate change at the local level in the 16 coastal cities of the São Paulo State. Such analysis (Tables 3 and 4) shows that these cities present secretariats, departments, directories and other types of governmental bodies as well as environmental legislation that will have to be mobilised in climate change actions. We have argued that the existing structures and the alternatives that have being proposed up until now by these institutions are far from sufficient to respond effectively to the magnitude and complexity of the problem. If we consider that we are debating and deciding on the future - even though the future has been made present - and the quality of the life in the planet, not only for humans but also for diverse ecosystems depend on actions and measures taken now then the socio-environmental (in)justice that devastates millions raises ethical dilemmas. Emerging from this debate there are reasonable arguments to defend the engagement in collective and political dialogues, negotiation and proposals that could enhance the response capacity to the challenges are posed so that these responses would not be palliative responses that go towards the social and economic maintenance of the status quo, the political interests and unsustainable patterns of human development.

27 THE ISSUE OF INTEGRATION BETWEEN THE PLANNING FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL The issue of integration between the planning Federal, State and Local also deserves attention. Few instruments such as the Economic-Ecological Zoning possess the ability to interfere in municipal planning. The other tools are rarely incorporated into local plans. It was also discussed the fact that local governments not only in Brazil but also elsewhere are considered critical actors to address many of the causes and consequences arising from climate change as they are close to wherein these activities and events take place, considering areas such as the built environment, infrastructure and public services, which have direct and indirect effects on climate change (as shown in Table 1).

28 OBRIGADA!