policy STUDY Comparing Public and Private Schools in Omaha A First Look at the Available Evidence on Students, Schools, Funding, and Achievement

Transcription

1 policy STUDY Platte Institute January 2013 Comparing Public and Private Schools in Omaha A First Look at the Available Evidence on Students, By Vicki E. Alger, Ph.D. Schools, Funding, and Achievement

2 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study Table of Contents Section Page Executive Summary 3 Introduction: Nebraskans Support Private Schools and Parental Choice 3 Overview of the Omaha Universe of Schools 5 A Closer Look at Omaha Public and Private School Communities 6 An Omaha Private School Snapshot 7 Disadvantaged Students in Omaha Private Schools 8 Omaha Public and Private Schools: Enrollment, Staffing, and Students 9 Omaha Public and Private Schools, Comparing Per-Pupil Revenue and Tuition 13 Achievement Profile: Available Evidence Relating to Omaha Public and Private Schools 16 Private Schools are Less Selective than Commonly Assumed 19 Conclusion 21 About the Author 22 Endnotes 22 Tables Page Table 1. Support for Private Schools and Related Policies 4 Table 2. Savings to Nebraska Taxpayers from One Child Educated in Omaha Private Schools 14 Table 3. Fiscal Impact to an Average Omaha School District of One Student Transfer 15 Table 4. Fiscal Impact to an Average Omaha School Classroom of Student Transfers 15 Figures Page Figure 1. Location of Omaha Public and Private Schools, by District Boundaries 5 Figure 2. Location of Omaha Public and Private Schools, by Community Locales 5 Figure 3. Racial Composition of Omaha Public and Private School Communities, by Zip Codes 6 Figure 4. Median Household Income of Omaha Public and Private School Communities, by Zip Codes 6 Figure 5. Omaha Private School Enrollment, by Grade Level 7 Figure 6. Omaha Private School Enrollment, by Religious Orientation 8 Figure 7. Estimated Participation Rates of Omaha Private School Students, by Federal Program 9 Figure 8. Omaha Public and Private School Student Enrollment, by School District Boundaries 9 Figure 9. Omaha Public and Private Schools by Grade Level 10 Figure 10. Omaha Public and Private Schools by Specific Grade Configurations 10 Figure 11. Omaha Public and Private School Average Student/Teacher Ratios 11 Figure 12. Omaha Public and Private Schools, Average Teacher/Staff Percentages 11 Figure 13. Racial Demographics of Omaha Public and Private Schools, Enrollments and Communities Compared 12 Figure 14. Omaha Public and Private School Revenue, Per-Pupil Funding and Estimated Tuition Compared 13 Figure 15. Average Omaha Public School Per- Pupil Revenue, Funding Sources and Amounts 13 Figure 16. Average Estimated Omaha Private School Tuition, by School Grade Levels 14 Figure 17. Omaha Public Schools Average NeSA Proficiency Rates by Grade, Figure 18. National NAEP Grade 4 Reading and Math, by Student Types, Figure 19. National NAEP Grade 8 Reading and Math, by Student Types, Figure 20. Percent of ACT-Tested Graduates Nationwide Ready for College-Level Work, Figure 21. Average ACT Composite Scores by Race, Nationwide Class of Figure 22. Nebraska Mean SAT Scores by Type of High School, Figure 23. Percentage of Schools with Special Admissions Requirements 19 Figure 24. Percentage of Schools Using Various Special Admissions Requirements 20 2

3 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha Executive Summary Nebraska has a strong tradition of parent-controlled education. It is home to the 1923 Supreme Court ruling in Meyer vs. State of Nebraska affirming the right of parents to control their children s education. By law, Nebraska parents may also choose the public school or district they think is best regardless of where they live. Yet Nebraska is one of the few states without public charter schools. It also lacks private school choice programs embraced by other states. These programs include publicly-funded voucher scholarships, privately-funded tax-credit scholarships, tax deductions and credits for educational expenses, and education savings accounts (ESAs) nearly forty programs in all across the country. Recent opinion surveys show such programs have strong, broad-based support. Likely Nebraska and Omaha voters across political parties, races, creeds, and incomes including those with labor union affiliations support private schooling options and policies that help parents access those options. In fact, given a choice, private schools are the most popular education option for obtaining the best education, more than twice as popular as homeschooling and three times as popular as public schooling. This comparative analysis focuses on the 135 public and 38 private schools located in Omaha. It examines the communities where those schools are located as well as various school and student characteristics based on available information collected by the U.S. Department of Education and other government sources. This analysis finds that nearly 13,200 students are enrolled in Omaha private schools. More than nine out of 10 of those schools, 92 percent, have a religious orientation. Most Omaha private schools, 79 percent, are Roman Catholic, and those schools enroll 87 percent of Omaha private school students. Other findings include: A higher proportion of public schools are located in the Omaha suburbs than private schools, 13 percent compared to 8 percent. Omaha private schools communities have higher percentages of Blacks and Hispanics than public school communities. Omaha private school communities have a lower median household income than public school communities, $48,000 compared to $56,000. Overall, the average Omaha private school has a 14 to one student/teacher ratio, compared to a 15 to one ratio in Omaha public schools, increasing to 16 to one in Omaha public high schools. The teacher/other staff ratio across Omaha public schools is 51 percent, compared to 58 percent across private schools. Average total funding for Omaha public-school students is $4,500 higher than the estimated average tuition at Omaha private schools, $11,100 compared to $6,600. An estimated 95 percent of Omaha private schools offer tuition discounts. This means that Omaha private schools are likely more affordable than assumed and not just to families considering their children s educational options. Every Omaha child who completes his or her K-12 education in an Omaha private school instead of a public school will save state and local taxpayers more than $163,000. This means the Omaha private-school Class of 2025 alone could save Nebraskans nearly $173 million in local, state, and federal taxes. Available research also indicates private-school student performance is superior to their public school peers, even after controlling for student background differences. Further research would be needed for a more detailed Omaha public and private schools comparison. Yet available evidence indicates that Omaha private schools enroll socioeconomically diverse student bodies. Importantly, Omaha private schools have achieved such diversity without the additional government expenditures, controversial funding schemes, or reliance on the income and race-based admissions requirements used by the Learning Community for metro-omaha public schools. Additionally, abundant evidence contradicts claims that private schools cherry pick students. As state officials grapple with improving socioeconomic diversity throughout Nebraska schools, they should not lose sight of the power of parental freedom to choose from a variety of schools both within and beyond the public schooling system. Introduction: Nebraskans Support Private Schools and Parental Choice Nebraska has a strong tradition of parent-controlled education. It is home to the 1923 Supreme Court ruling in 3

4 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study 4 Meyer vs. State of Nebraska affirming the right of parents to control the education of their own. 1 By law Nebraska parents have the primary responsibility of ensuring that their children receive the best education possible, including choosing what public school or public school district is best for their children. 2 This means regardless of where Nebraska families live, parents may send their children to public schools outside their resident districts, although parents must pay for transportation costs unless they qualify as low-income. 3 A variety of recent public opinion polls, however, indicates that Omaha parents want different schooling options, not simply more. A 2009 survey conducted for Omaha Public Schools revealed that what matters most to parents are quality education, quality teachers, and a safe environment in schools close to home. Survey authors found that after informing parents of OPS 17 specialized magnet schools, Even specialized curriculum and experiences not available in other schools, an obvious magnet and focus school advantage, was not rated as high in importance as quality, safety, and proximity. 4 Considering there are an average of 53 public schools offering elementary, middle, and high school grades within five miles of every major Omaha zip code, it is likely that parents are most concerned about the academic quality and environment of their children s schools. 5 Additional survey findings appear to substantiate that belief. Close to 90 percent of Nebraska students attend public schools (88 percent), but only about one in five parents statewide (21 percent) say they would choose a public school for their children given other alternatives, according to a recent survey of likely Nebraska voters. 6 In fact, given a choice private schools are the most popular option for obtaining the best education among likely voters, more than twice as popular as homeschooling (48 percent compared to 20 percent) and three times as popular as public schooling (48 percent compared to 16 percent). 7 Among Nebraska voters who would prefer private schools, more than half (57 percent) say they want religiouslyaffiliated private schools. Academics and schools mission are the overwhelming reasons why (67 percent combined). 8 Support for private schools is as strong or stronger among voters in Omaha. Omaha voters say the biggest public school challenge is not funding but accountability (27 percent), overcrowding (21 percent), and engagement with parents (25 percent). 9 Given the opportunity to send their children to any type of school, close to half of Omaha voters (48 percent) say they would choose a private school for their child, compared to less than one in five (15 percent) who say they would choose a public school. 10 A majority of Omaha voters also favor policies that support parents choice to send their children to private schools. Fully 55 percent support taxcredit scholarships, which allow individuals and businesses to claim credits against their state income taxes for donations to non-profit scholarship-granting organizations. There is even stronger support for publicly funded voucher scholarships, with 58 percent of Omaha voters saying they favor such a policy. 11 Support for private schools and policies that encourage parents freedom to choose private schools for their children is strong across partisan, religious, and socioeconomic lines in Nebraska, as summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Support for Private Schools and Related Policies Likely Voters: Nebraska Omaha Political Party: % Pick Private School % Pick Public School % Somewhat or Strongly Favor Tax- Credit Scholarships % Somewhat or Strongly Favor Voucher Scholarships Democrat Rpeublican Independent Ethnicity/Race: African American Hispanic White Religion: Catholic Protestant None Household Income Under $25,000 $25,000 - $49,999 $50,000 - $74,999 $75,000 - $150, Over $150, Union Affiliation: Union Ties (Self or Family) Source: Author s table based on survey findings from the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice

5 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha With one exception (about one-third of African- American likely voters favor voucher scholarships), a majority of likely Nebraska and Omaha voters across political parties, races, creeds, and incomes including those with labor union affiliations support private schooling options and policies that help parents access those options. Figure 1. Location of Omaha Public and Private Schools, by District Boundaries Overview of the Omaha Universe of Schools The Omaha public and private school universe and comparative data for this analysis come from the U.S. Department of Education s Common Core for Data (CCD). 12 To be included in the school universe for this analysis, public and private schools had to be located in Omaha, enroll at least 100 students, and serve at least two grade levels. Only regular public schools were included, and public schools designated as special education, vocational, and alternative were excluded, as they serve highly specific student populations that are not comparable with schools enrolling general education students. Based on those criteria the resulting Omaha universe is 173 schools: 135 public and 38 private. The majority of schools (81) are in the Omaha Public Schools district, representing 59 percent of the public school universe. The majority of private schools (28) are also located within Omaha Public Schools district boundaries, representing 74 percent of the private school universe. There are six districts with public schools included in this analysis, but only four also have private schools located within their boundaries. As shown in Figure 1, the vast majority of both types of schools included in the analysis universe are located within the district boundaries of Omaha Public Schools, Millard Public Schools, and Westside Community Schools. Fully 93 percent of public schools are located in those districts, and 97 percent of private schools are located within the boundaries of those districts. The public schools included in this analysis are located in three counties, with the overwhelming majority of schools (128) located in Douglas County, representing 95 percent of the public school universe. Seven public schools are located in Sarpy Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes: 1. There were no Omaha private schools located within the district boundaries of Ralston Public Schools or South Sarpy District There was one public school and no private schools in South Sarpy District 46. County. All private schools in this analysis are located in Douglas County. The public and private schools in this analysis universe are also located in various community types. As shown in Figure 2, most Omaha public and private schools are located in the city but a higher percentage of private schools than public schools are located there, 90 percent compared to 83 percent. A higher percentage of public schools than private schools are located in the suburbs, 13 percent compared to 8 percent. Six public schools and one private school are located in rural areas. Figure 2. Location of Omaha Public and Private Schools, by Community Locales Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. 5

6 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study 6 Thus in terms of location, the public and private Omaha schools in this analysis are primarily located within the same three school district boundaries, Omaha Public Schools, Millard Public Schools, and Westside Community Schools. They are overwhelmingly located in Douglas County, and the majority of both public and private Omaha schools are designated with city locales. However, a slightly higher proportion of public schools are located in the suburbs than private schools. This is an intriguing finding since it is commonly assumed that tuitioncharging private schools are more likely to locate in affluent suburban areas than taxpayer-funded public schools. A Closer Look at Omaha Public and Private School Communities The U.S. Census Bureau provides more detailed information about the communities where Omaha public and private schools are located. 13 Based on schools zip codes, the Census Bureau generates community profiles that include racial demographics and median household income figures. This information reveals that close to nine out of 10 Nebraskans are White, 86 percent as shown in Figure 3. Comparing specific communities within Omaha where public and private schools are located shows that public schools are located in areas with lower proportions of Blacks than private school communities, less than 5 percent compared to more than 6 percent. Omaha public schools are also located in communities with slightly lower proportions of Hispanics than private school communities, 5.5 percent compared to 5.9 percent. It is also commonly assumed that private schools are located in more affluent areas. Again, Census Bureau data show this is not the case concerning the communities where Omaha private schools are located, as shown in Figure 4. The median household income of the communities where Omaha public schools are located is Figure 3. Racial Composition of Omaha Public and Private School Communities, by Zip Codes Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau. Notes: 1. Racial demographic percentages by zip codes are from the most recent available years, ranging from 2000 to State racial demographic percentages are from For readability, the above figure omits the percentages of racial/ethnic groups representing less than 3 percent of the specified population. The omitted percentages are as follows for the state of Nebraska, public school zip code communities, and Omaha private school zip code communities, respectively: American Indian/Alaska Native persons, 1.3 percent, 2.2 percent, and 2.7 percent; Asian, 1.9 percent, 0.4 percent, and 0.5 percent; Native Hawaiian or other Native Pacific Islander, 0.10 percent for all three communities; and persons of two or more races, 1.8 percent statewide and for private schools, and 1.7 percent for public schools. nearly $56,000, which exceeds the statewide household median income of $49,000, as well as the median household income of the communities where Omaha private schools are located, $48,000. Figure 4. Median Household Income of Omaha Public and Private School Communities, by Zip Codes Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau. Note: Median household income data by zip codes and for the state are from and presented in unadjusted 2010 dollar amounts.

7 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha This section along with the previous one indicates that roughly nine out of 10 Omaha public and private schools included in this analysis are located within the same school district boundaries and in Douglas County. Further, more than eight out of 10 Omaha public and private schools are located in city areas. Yet in spite of those similarities: More Omaha public schools are located in the suburbs than private schools, 13 percent compared to 8 percent; Omaha public schools are located in communities with higher proportions of Whites than private school communities, 82 percent compared to 77 percent; Omaha public schools are located in communities with lower proportions of Blacks than private school communities, less than 5 percent compared to more than 6 percent; Omaha public schools are located in communities with slightly lower proportions of Hispanics than private school communities, 5.5 percent compared to 5.9 percent; and Omaha public schools are located in communities with a higher overall median household income than private school communities, $56,000 compared to $48,000. The following section takes a closer look inside Omaha private schools. An Omaha Private School Snapshot The Omaha private schools in this analysis enroll 13,163 students from prekindergarten through grade 12. Most Omaha private schools offer a regular elementary and secondary program. The two nonsectarian private schools in this analysis offer a Montessori program emphasis. 14 Private school enrollment figures across grades are fairly uniform, averaging 940 students. Four grade levels however, have higher than average enrollment, with more than 1,000 students each: prekindergarten, kindergarten, grade 6, and grade 8. The high school grades have lower than average enrollment, decreasing from 870 in grade 9 to just over 700 in grade 12. Figure 5. Omaha Private School Enrollment, by Grade Level Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Note: Enrollment figures are from the school year, the latest available at the time of this analysis. More than nine out of 10 Omaha private schools, 92 percent, have a religious orientation. The overwhelming majority of religiously oriented schools, 79 percent, are Roman Catholic; 8 percent are Lutheran (Missouri Synod); and 5 percent are Christian with no denomination specified. Another 8 percent of Omaha private schools are nonsectarian. Enrollment patterns, not surprisingly, reflect those percentages. Roman Catholic schools represent 87 percent of Omaha private school enrollments. Nondenominational Christian private schools account for 5 percent of private school enrollments; while Lutheran and nonsectarian private schools each account for 4 percent of Omaha private school enrollments, as shown in Figure 6. 7

8 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study Figure 6. Omaha Private School Enrollment, by Religious Orientation Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Note: Enrollment figures are from the school year, the latest available at the time of this analysis. This section indicates that the Omaha private schools in this analysis: Offer a variety of grade configurations, and that grade levels share similar enrollment numbers, although prekindergarten and kindergarten, along with grades 6 and 8, have the highest enrollments; Overwhelmingly have a religious orientation, more than nine out of 10; Most Omaha private schools are Roman Catholic, 79 percent, and those schools account for 87 percent of Omaha private school enrollments. The following section examines the proportion of disadvantaged students enrolled in Omaha private schools. Disadvantaged Students in Omaha Private Schools The U.S. Department of Education regularly collects private school-level statistics about the number of students enrolled in federal programs for disadvantaged students. It reports those statistics as nationally representative averages disaggregated by schools religious orientation. Applying those nationally representative averages to the private schools included in this analysis provides a clearer picture of the types of students likely attending Omaha private schools. 15 Participation rates in two federal programs indicate how many students are from low-income families. Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), commonly referred to today as No Child Left Behind, authorizes targeted federal funding for public and private schools serving students from disadvantaged backgrounds. The goal of this federal funding is to help close achievement gaps and help ensure low-income students reach statedefined proficiency standards. 16 The National School Lunch Program provides federally subsidized free and reducedpriced lunches to students from low-income families. 17 Similarly, students identified with special education needs are given an individualized educational program or plan, referred to as an IEP, to help ensure they receive appropriate educational services. Under the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), public and private schools students are guaranteed a free and appropriate education, referred to as FAPE. If students public schools cannot meet their needs, parents may send their children to a private school using their children s IDEA funding. Currently, nearly 1,400 Nebraska students with special needs are attending private schools at their parents request. 18 Finally, the U.S. Department of Education collects statistics on students who are classified as English language learners (ELL), or limited English proficiency (LEP). 19 It is important to note that the student participation rates in these programs reported by the U.S. Department of Education likely understate the actual number of low-income and special needs students for several reasons. First, not all students who qualify for these programs necessarily participate in them. Second, it is common for private schools to provide needed services to students on a case-by-case basis rather than expend related limited resources on the administration and overhead associated with participation in federal programs. 20 Thus, just because private students are not labeled with various federal classifications does not mean they are not from low-income families, have special educational needs, or have limited proficiency in English. 21 In fact, the U.S. Department of Education reports that 58 percent of private schools nationwide choose not to participate in federal education programs. 22 Finally, it is important to keep in mind that with regard to special education a growing body of research finds that perverse financial incentives exist to over-label students with special educational needs. In fact, while the percentages of 8

9 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha Figure 7. Estimated Participation Rates of Omaha Private School Students, by Federal Program Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes: 1. The percentage of Omaha private school students receiving federal Title I services is the author s estimate based on a weighted Omaha private school percentage derived from the SASS nationally representative percentages disaggregated by religious orientation. 2. The percentage of Omaha private school students receiving free and reducedpriced lunches under the National School Lunch Program is the author s estimate based on a weighted Omaha private school percentage derived from the SASS nationally representative percentages disaggregated by religious orientation. 3. Special Education refers to the number of students classified with an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). The percentage of Omaha private school students participating in federally supported special education services is the author s estimate based on a weighted Omaha private school percentage derived from the SASS nationally representative percentages disaggregated by religious orientation. 4. English Language Acquisition refers to students deemed limited English proficient, or LEP. This term has been replaced by English language learner, or ELL. The percentage of Omaha private school students participating in federally supported English language acquisition programs is the author s estimate based on a weighted Omaha private school percentage of students classified as LEP derived from the SASS nationally representative percentages disaggregated by religious orientation. medically-based disabilities have remained fairly constant since 1975, the cases of more subjective, non-medically diagnosed learning disabilities have risen sharply. 23 Experts from the National Institutes for Health also estimate that the vast majority of learning disabilities are actually the result of poor instruction in the early grades, which is later misdiagnosed. 24 With those caveats in mind, Figure 7 summarizes the estimated percentages of Omaha private school students participating in programs for low-income, special needs, and limited English students. 25 Thus, roughly 5 percent of Omaha private school students likely participate in targeted programs for low-income, special education, and limited English students. Close to 30 percent of Omaha private school students also likely participate in the free and reduced-priced lunch program serving children from lowincome families. Omaha Public and Private Schools: Enrollment, Staffing, and Students This section compares Omaha public and private schools in terms of school characteristics and student enrollment. As with previous sections, the information used for these comparisons comes from the U.S. Department of Education s CCD for the most recent years available. The Omaha public schools included in this analysis enroll 80,839 students, and Omaha private schools enroll 13,163 students. 26 As shown in Figure 8, public schools in and private schools within the Omaha Public Schools district boundaries have the largest student enrollments, more than 48,000 and 8,000 students, respectively. Schools in and within the Millard Public Schools district boundaries have the next highest student enrollments, followed by schools in and within the Westside Community Schools district boundaries. As noted previously, those three districts account for 93 percent of public schools and 97 percent of private schools in this analysis. In terms of student enrollments, schools located in and within the Omaha, Millard, and Westside Public Schools district boundaries account for 95 percent of all Omaha public school enrollments and 99 percent of all Omaha private school enrollments. Figure 8. Omaha Public and Private School Student Enrollment, by School District Boundaries Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes: 1. Public school enrollment figures are from the school year, and private school enrollment figures are from the school year. 2. There were no private schools located within the Ralston Public Schools or South Sarpy District 46 boundaries. 9

10 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study 10 Figure 9. Omaha Public and Private Schools by Grade Level Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes:1. One private school offering prekindergarten and kindergarten only is excluded because it does not meet the U.S. Department of Education s definition of an elementary school. So private school percentages will not equal There were no Omaha combined public schools. Omaha public and private schools offer a variety of grade configurations spanning prekindergarten through grade 12. The U.S. Department of Education organizes various grade configurations into three general categories: elementary, secondary, and combined, summarized in Figure While the vast majority of both public and private schools in Omaha offer elementary grades, a variety of grade configurations at both the elementary and secondary levels is available, as shown in Figure 10. In general, Omaha public school grade configurations tend to separate primary and middle elementary grades, while Omaha private schools tend to combine them. There are two combined schools offering prekindergarten through grade 12. One is a nondenominational Christian school, and the other is a Roman Catholic school. There is one nonsectarian private school offering prekindergarten and kindergarten. The two private schools offering grades prekindergarten through grade 6 are also nonsectarian. The majority of Omaha private schools in this analysis offer prekindergarten through grade 8, specifically 16 Roman Catholic schools and one Lutheran school. The sole private school offering grades 7 through 12 is a Lutheran school. Finally, there are five private high schools, offering grades 9 through 12. All five of those schools are Roman Catholic. A school s grade configuration is an important consideration for parents. Some may prefer combined schools to help promote greater continuity for their children as they progress through their elementary, middle, and/or high school years. Other parents may prefer distinct grade level groupings so their children can experience different schools and settings during their elementary, middle, and high school years. Another important consideration for parents is the ratio of students to teachers. While research consistently shows that having capable, quality teachers contributes more to student learning than class size alone, parents want to be reassured that their children can receive the attention they need from their classroom teachers. Figure 10. Omaha Public and Private Schools by Specific Grade Configurations Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Note: Public and private school grade level data are from the school year.

11 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha Figure 11. Omaha Public and Private School Average Student/Teacher Ratios Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes: 1. Public school student/teacher ratios represent the school year. Private school student/teacher ratios represent the school year. 2. One private school offering prekindergarten and kindergarten only is excluded because it does not meet the U.S. Department of Education s definition of an elementary school. Were that school to be included, the Private Schools All student/teacher ratio would be only slightly lower, 13.7 compared to the 13.8 ratio shown in the figure. 3. There are no combined Omaha public schools. staff, food service personnel, custodial and security personnel, are also classified as other full-time school staff. 28 The U.S Department of Education collects both public and private school staffing data. This information is collected and reported at the district level for public schools. Staffing information is collected at the school level for private schools; however, the U.S. Department of Education reports it as national averages according to private school religious orientation. For the most accurate possible teacher/other staff comparison between the Omaha public and private schools in this analysis, Figure 12 presents teacher/other staff percentage averages weighted by the number of public schools for each district included in this analysis and by the number of private schools according to their religious orientation. Overall, the average Omaha public school student/teacher ratio is 15 to one, compared to a 14 to one ratio for Omaha private schools. Yet it is important to note that student/teacher ratios generally increase from the elementary grade to the secondary grades. At the elementary level, Omaha public and private schools have virtually the same average student/teacher ratios, about 14 students per teacher each. At the secondary level, Omaha public schools have almost two more students per teacher than Omaha private schools, nearly 16 students compare to 14 students per teacher, respectively. The only two combined schools in this analysis are private schools, offering prekindergarten through grade 12. The average student/teacher ratio at those schools is less than 11 to one. The ratio of full-time teachers to other full-time school staff is another consideration. Other full-time staff for both public and private schools includes principals and vice principals, instructional aides and curriculum supervisors, librarians, and school counselors. Student support staff, such as nurses, psychologists, speech therapists, as well as other support staff, for example federal program administrators, clerical Figure 12. Omaha Public and Private Schools, Average Teacher/Staff Percentages Source: Author s figure is based on data from the U.S. Department of Education Notes: 1. Public school data are from the school year. Private school data are from the school year. 2. Public school percentages represent weighted averages based on district-level data reported by the CCD. 3. Private school percentages represent weighted averages based on national averages reported by religious orientation. While average private school teacher/other staff weighted percentage is based on national averages not the specific Omaha private schools included in this analysis, it helps provide some insight into the workings of private schools. 11

12 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study This comparison suggests that the teacher/other staff ratio is virtually identical in Omaha public schools, but at private schools teachers represent a much higher proportion of overall staff, 58 percent. This finding is indicative of the high priority private schools place on academics over administration. It also squares with other findings by the U.S. Department of Education that private school teachers are given wide latitude in what subjects they teach and how they teach them. Private school teachers also report that their influence on various school policies is fairly strong. 29 It is commonly assumed that public schools, in contrast to private schools, have more socioeconomically diverse student bodies and enroll significant majorities of lowincome and special needs students. Socioeconomic integration has also been a longstanding and contentious issue for the city of Omaha. The Learning Community of Douglas and Sarpy Counties began operations in 2009 to promote socioeconomic integration in metro-omaha public schools, as well as to help ease tensions over funding and boundaries between Omaha Public Schools and surrounding districts. 30 The Learning Community is comprised of 11 member districts, including the Elkhorn, Millard, Omaha, Ralston, and Westside school districts. 31 To meet its goal of increasing socioeconomic diversity in member districts classrooms and closing student achievement gaps, parents in Douglas and Sarpy Counties may apply to send their children to any member public school as long as there is room and students meet certain guidelines. Siblings of current students get top consideration, Then, students who contribute to the socioeconomic diversity of the school, that is, the mix of affluent and poor kids. Last, everyone else, according to the Learning Community s official website. 32 Constitutional questions surrounding the Learning Community s levying authority were settled by the Nebraska Supreme Court in early Still concerns have been raised over governing officials spending priorities and the Learning Community s funding, which amounted to nearly $7 million from property and other taxes, as well as state appropriations during fiscal year Knowing the integration struggles confronting the city of Omaha helps put schools racial demographics into better context. More than 80 percent of the communities where Omaha public schools are located are White; while around 6 percent are Hispanic, and 5 percent are Black. Yet close to 40 percent of Omaha public school students are Black or Hispanic, and just over 50 percent are White. Those proportions suggest that Omaha public schools are likely drawing students beyond the confines of their geographical communities. There is a far greater balance between the racial demographics of Omaha private schools and the communities where they are located. Such balance in itself calls into question assumptions about the supposed homogeneity of private schools. As shown in Figure 13, Omaha private school communities have a lower proportion of Whites than public school communities and slightly higher proportions of Blacks and Hispanics. Those proportions are reflected in Omaha private school enrollments. Figure 13. Racial Demographics of Omaha Public and Private Schools, Enrollments and Communities Compared Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Census Bureau. Notes: 1. Public school racial enrollment percentages are the author s based on school year student counts by race from the CCD, which cautions that student enrollment details may not add to totals. 2. Public school racial enrollment percentages are reported by the CCD for the school year. 3. Census bureau racial demographic percentages by zip codes are from the most recent available years, ranging from 2000 to A much more detailed analysis than can be done here would help shed light on how Omaha private schools are achieving such a balanced reflection of their communities in spite of the fact that parents pay out-of-pocket tuition in addition to taxes that support Omaha public schools. It is 12

13 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha also interesting to consider that Omaha private schools are reflections of the diversity within the communities they serve without additional government expenditures or tax levies. There is a significant body of literature on comparative levels of integration within public and private schools. 34 Researchers caution that higher proportions of minority enrollments do not necessarily mean schools are truly integrated. One in-depth analysis of high school seniors nationwide found that public school twelfth graders were far more likely to be in virtually all white or all minority classrooms, 55 percent compared to 41 percent of private school students. In fact, more than twice as many private school seniors as public school seniors were in classrooms whose racial composition mirrored the national average within 10 percent of the national average, 37 percent compared to 18 percent, respectively. Many factors contribute to within-school integration, such as not tracking or grouping students, and a more thorough examination of Omaha public and private schools than can be done here would help identify them. Yet it is worth noting that the fact that Omaha private schools enrollments so closely match their surrounding communities is a commonly documented phenomenon among private schools nationwide. 35 As state officials grapple with improving socioeconomic diversity throughout Nebraska schools, they should not lose sight of the power of parental freedom in education and ways to expand it. Figure 14. Omaha Public and Private School Revenue, Per-Pupil Funding and Estimated Tuition Compared Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes:1. Public school average per-pupil revenue is based on district-level figures from the CCD for the school year. 2. Private school tuition average is based on nationally representative figures according to private school religious orientation and grade level from the SASS for the school year. 3. One private school offering prekindergarten and kindergarten only is excluded because it does not meet the U.S. Department of Education s definition of an elementary school and therefore a nationally representative tuition average could not be determined. 4. Private school tuition average has been inflation adjusted to reflect 2008 dollars At about $6,000, state funding represents the largest share of total average Omaha public school funding, as shown in Figure 15. Average local funding amounts to nearly $4,000, while federal funding is around $1,100. Omaha Public and Private Schools, Comparing Per-Pupil Revenue and Tuition Public and private schools are funded in different ways. The U.S. Department of Education reports public school revenue at the district, not individual school, level. Public schools receive their revenue from a combination of federal, state, and local sources. 36 The U.S. Department of Education also collects private school tuition information and reports it as representative national averages according to private school religious orientation and grade level. 37 Those tuition averages do not reflect discounts. As shown in Figure 14, average total funding for Omaha publicschool students is more than $4,500 higher than the full average tuition at Omaha private schools, $11,100 compared to $6,600. Figure 15. Average Omaha Public School Per-Pupil Revenue, Funding Sources and Amounts Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Note: 1. Public school average per-pupil revenue is based on district-level figures from the CCD for the school year. 2. Figures represent unadjusted dollar amounts. 13

14 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study 14 Figure 16. Average Estimated Omaha Private School Tuition, by School Grade Levels Source: Author s figure based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes: 1. Public school revenue figure is from the school year. 2. Private school tuition averages are based on nationally representative figures according to private school religious orientation and grade level from the SASS for the school year. 3. Private school tuition averages have been inflation adjusted to reflect 2008 dollars. 4. Private school percentages represent weighted averages based on national averages reported by religious orientation. 5. One private school offering prekindergarten and kindergarten only is excluded because it does not meet the U.S. Department of Education s definition of an elementary school and therefore a nationally representative tuition average could not be determined. Private school tuition is reported as representative national averages according to private school religious orientation and grade level. Based on those averages, the estimated Omaha private tuition amounts are presented in Figure 16. Even accounting for the fact that more advanced grades typically require more funding, the estimated average Omaha tuition amounts across private school types are still lower than the average per-pupil revenue for Omaha public schools. The average estimated tuition at Omaha secondary schools is nearly $2,800 less than the average per-pupil revenue for Omaha public schools, private combined schools are almost $2,800 less, and private elementary schools are more than $4,500 less. While based on nationally representative averages, actual Omaha private school tuition averages presented in this section are likely lower than the estimated tuition amounts. First, Nebraska and the city of Omaha have some of the country s lowest cost of living indexes. 38 Since the tuition averages used to derive the Omaha estimates here are based on tuition averages from private schools in other cities and states with higher costs of living, those averages likely overstate the actual tuition price of the private schools in this analysis. Second, even if the national tuition averages are closely representative, the overwhelming majority of Omaha private schools likely do not charge all families full tuition. The U.S. Department of Education also reports the percentage of private schools offering tuition discounts as representative national averages by private school religious orientation. 39 Based on those statistics, more than 95 percent of Omaha private schools likely offer tuition discounts. Finally, 91 percent of the Omaha private schools in this analysis offering elementary grades (30 schools out of 33) participate in the Children s Scholarship Fund of Omaha, which awarded more than $2 million worth of scholarships during the school year to 1,827 K-8 private school students, who are attending 81 private schools throughout Omaha and northeastern Nebraska. 40 This means that Omaha private schools are likely more affordable than assumed and not just to families considering their children s educational options. Every Omaha child who completes his or her K-12 education in an Omaha private school instead of a public school will save state and local taxpayers more than $163,000. Table 2. Savings to Nebraska Taxpayers from One Child Educated in Omaha Private Schools Source: Author s table based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes: 1. Omaha average public school revenue amounts in school year one represent figures from the school year. 2. Figures are adjusted at an annual inflation rate of 2 percent.

15 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha Table 3. Fiscal Impact to an Average Omaha School District of One Student Transfer Source: Author s table based on data from the U.S. Department of Education and the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice. Notes: 1. Omaha average public school revenue amounts represent figures from the school year. 2. The author calculated the variable portion of state funding at 75 percent. To put those savings into perspective, assuming the 1,057 private school kindergarteners enrolled in Omaha private schools (see Figure 5) remain in and graduate from private schools in 12 years, the combined savings to Nebraska taxpayers from the Class of 2025 alone would be nearly $173 million. That amount reflects approximately $62 million in local tax savings, $94 million in state tax savings, and $17 million in federal tax savings from one graduating class alone. But what would happen if an Omaha public school student transferred to a private school? Calculating the precise fiscal impact of student transfers on individual public school districts would require a more detailed analysis than can be provided here. Yet, it is possible to generate a rough estimate after reviewing a few public school finance basics. Unlike private schools, where revenue is closely tied to student enrollment based on tuition, only a portion of public school funding is based on student enrollment. Some public school funding is variable, meaning it is tied to the number of students enrolled and therefore increases or decreases based on the number of students. 41 Other public school funding is fixed, meaning it is allocated to public schools according to formulas for specified purposes or programs and is not dependent on the number of students enrolled. Generally speaking, most federal and local funding for Nebraska public schools is fixed, meaning it is not directly based on student enrollment. 42 About three-quarters of Nebraska state funding, however, is tied to student enrollment. 43 This means that if a student transfers out of a given public school, that school will lose about 75 percent of the student s state funding. 44 Students may leave Omaha public schools for a variety of reasons. Their families move out of a given district or the state, students graduate or drop out, or students parents transfer them to private schools. The fiscal impact to the average Omaha public school district is the same, regardless of the reason students leave. Every time a student leaves the average Omaha public school, that school s district loses roughly $4,500 in state variable funding and retains about $6,600 in fixed state, local and federal funding. Thus when a public-school student leaves for whatever reason, that student s Omaha public school loses the associated costs of educating him or her and keeps $6,600 to disperse throughout a smaller student body. It s important to keep in mind that public schools are funded on a prior year basis, so there is time to mitigate any enrollment declines by attracting new students. Yet if class-size reduction is the goal, policies that support parents choice of a private option still pays significant dividends. The significance of those dividends becomes clearer if one considers the impact of student transfers on a hypothetical Omaha public school classroom.there is an average of 23 students per regular Omaha classroom, which works out to nearly $256,000 per classroom. 45 If students transfer, the corresponding classrooms lose their variable funding but keep their associated fixed funding. This means overall classroom funding declines, but so do the costs associated with educating students who transfer. Additionally, since associated fixed funding does not leave with transferring students, it remains behind to be dispersed among fewer students, meaning per-pupil funding increases, as shown in Table 4. Table 4. Fiscal Impact to an Average Omaha School Classroom of Student Transfers Source: Author s table is based on data from the U.S. Department of Education. Notes: 1. Data are from the school year. 2. The Omaha average class size figure is based on weighted Nebraska class size averages for elementary and secondary public schools. 15

16 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study A classroom size reduction of 5 percent to 30 percent due to transfers, which reduces class size from 22 to 15 students respectively, increases per-pupil funding by more than $3,500 from $11,100 to nearly $14,700. A per-pupil funding increase of that magnitude is significant especially weighed against the cost to taxpayers of various class-size reduction efforts. Even though Nebraska is among the minority of states without formal class-size legislation, OPS allocated $1,298,942 in federal funding for class-size reduction activities during Nebraska s fiscal year 2013 budget request for class-size reduction efforts was $3.2 billion. 47 A recent analysis of 24 states policies mandating or incentivizing class-size reductions revealed that generally they are not good returns on investment because the resulting reductions were not enough to impact student achievement, specifically, reductions of at least seven to 10 students, and the program costs are so high, typically billions of dollars annually. 48 Florida s class-size reduction program costs up to $5 billion annually; while California has spent more than $25 billion in total since 1996 on its program. 49 Achieving a one-student class-size decrease by hiring more teachers instead is estimated to cost more than $12 billion annually nationwide just in teacher salaries. 50 Other estimates indicate that class-size reduction efforts have cost $12,000 per student. 51 Encouraging policies that support parents choices for a private education could therefore help reduce class sizes without breaking schools or the state s budgets. Figure 17. Omaha Public Schools Average NeSA Proficiency Rates by Grade, Source: Author s figure based on data from the Nebraska Department of Education. Private schools, however, do not necessarily participate in NeSA, and if they do, their results are not publicly reported. Based on the grade level proficiency rates for the Omaha public schools in this analysis, an average of 66 percent of students are proficient in reading overall, and 56 percent of students overall are proficient in math. Those proficiency rates vary by grade level, as shown in Figure 17. More Omaha public school students are proficient in reading than in math; however, in both subjects proficiency declines are evident as students progress through more advanced grades. Omaha public school student reading performance begins to decline in grade 7. Math performance declines after grade 3, steepening from grade 5 to grade 6. Figure 18. National NAEP Grade 4 Reading and Math, by Student Types 2011 Achievement Profile: Available Evidence Relating to Omaha Public and Private Schools Comparable achievement data are not available for Omaha public and private schools. The State education department publishes Nebraska State Accountability (NeSA) reading and math results for various Omaha public school grades. Source: Author s figured based on NAEP results for Notes: 1. IEP represents students with disabilities who have an Individual Education Plan. 2. ELL represents English language learners. 3. FRL represents students whose family incomes qualify them for free or reduced-priced lunches under the federal National School Lunch Program. 16

17 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha Figure 19. National NAEP Grade 8 Reading and Math, by Student Types 2011 Source: Author s figured based on NAEP results for Notes: 1. IEP represents students with disabilities who have an Individual Education Plan. 2. Reporting requirements for eighth grade private school English language learners were not met so they are not included in this figure. Typically when student sample sizes are too small they are suppressed for privacy reasons. 3. FRL represents students whose family incomes qualify them for free or reduced-priced lunches under the federal National School Lunch Program. Available national data from the U.S. Department of Education reveals private school student performance is superior to public school performance, even after controlling for student background differences. As shown in Figures 18 and 19, on the 2011 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), measured by a 500-point scale, all private school fourth graders nationwide scored an average of 234 points in reading and 247 in math compared to an average NAEP score of 220 in reading and 240 in math for public school students. 52 All private school eighth graders nationwide had an average NAEP reading score of 282 and 296 in math, compared to a reading score of 264 and a math score of 283 for public school eighth graders. 53 To help bring some perspective to NAEP score differences, a common (albeit rough) rule of thumb holds that 10 NAEP scale score points approximates one full grade level of learning. 54 This means all private school fourth graders are about 1.5 grade levels ahead of their public school peers in reading, and about three-quarters of a year ahead in math. By eighth grade, private school students are close to two grade levels ahead of their public school counterparts in reading, and more than a full year ahead in math. This pattern of superior performance also largely holds across student types, with the exception of low-income fourth graders eligible for the federal free and reducedpriced lunch program. In this instance, public school students outperform their private-school peers in math. Overall, the private-school student performance advantage is stronger in reading than math; however, in both subjects it increases between fourth and eighth grade across student types. In reading, the private/public performance advantage more than doubles for students with disabilities, from approximately more than one year to more than two years. For low-income private school students the performance advantage increases from marginal to nearly one year. Eighth grade results for private school English learners were not reported, but their fourth grade reading advantage amounted to more than one year. In math the private-school performance advantage is striking, increasing from a slight advantage in fourth grade to nearly a two-year advantage in eighth grade. Private school students in the free and reduced-priced lunch program perform roughly a half year behind their public-school peers in fourth grade. By eighth grade, however, they perform slightly better than their peers. Thus, while it is often assumed that more privileged students attend private schools, and therefore public and private school performance comparisons are unfair, national NAEP results do not appear to bear out that assumption. Other U.S. Department of Education evaluations also indicate that students from disadvantaged backgrounds attend and thrive in private schools. The D.C. Opportunity Scholarship Program (OSP) is the only federally funded parental choice program in the country. Enacted by Congress in 2004 the OSP has enabled over 5,200 low-income D.C. public school students, particularly those assigned to failing schools, to use publicly-funded scholarships to attend local private schools. 55 To be eligible for OSP scholarships, applicants families must either receive food stamps or earn less than 185 percent of the federal poverty line (which was about $42,600 for a family of four in 2012). 56 Scholarships for the school year were worth up to $12,000 for high school students and $8,000 for elementary students. That same year, the D.C. Public School system spent nearly $30,000 per student. 57 In spite of those funding differences, D.C. OSP scholarship 17

18 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study Figure 20. Percent of ACT-Tested Graduates Nationwide Ready for College-Level Work, 2012 Source: Author s figure is based on the table provided by Council for American Private Education, Private School Students More Likely to Succeed in College, CAPE Outlook, September 2012, No.377, p.1. Note: According to the ACT, college readiness benchmarks are the minimum scores needed on the ACT subject area tests to indicate a 50 percent chance of obtaining a B or higher or about a 75 percent chance of obtaining acorhigher in corresponding credit-bearing first-year college courses. 18 students had higher reading scores than control group members, which amounted to more than three months of additional learning over three school years. 58 Additionally, 82 percent of scholarship students graduated from high school. 59 In contrast, the D.C. public school graduation rate is 53 percent. 60 At the other end of the advantage spectrum, researchers often focus on college-bound students. This sub-set of students tend to be among the best and the brightest, come from families supportive of education, and are accustomed to high academic expectations from parents, guardians, and teachers. ACT results for college-bound high school seniors are not publicly reported by high school type, namely, public and private. A special national analysis prepared by ACT, Inc., for the Council for American Private Education (CAPE) revealed that private school high school graduates were better prepared for college-level work than their public school peers. Private school ACT test-takers scored an average of 17 percentage points higher than their public school peers across core subjects, ranging from 19 percentage points higher in English to 13 percentage points higher in science, as shown in Figure 20. Likewise, private school seniors overall and across racial sub-groups also outperformed their public school peers based on ACT composite results, which are scored on a 36-point scale. Across student groups, private school high school seniors scored an average of 2.3 scale score points higher, as shown in Figure 21. Compared to their public school peers, Hispanic private school seniors scored 2.9 points higher, all private school seniors scored 2.4 points higher, and Black high school seniors scored 1.7 points higher. While those scale score differences may appear small, it is important to note that they represent significant percentile shifts. For example, an ACT English score of 20 has a national percentile rank of 50, meaning that 50 percent of graduates who took the ACT English test scored a 20 or below. In contrast, an English scale score of 24 has a national percentile rank of 74. This means a four-point English ACT scale score difference represents a 24-point percentile difference. Unlike the ACT, the College Board s SAT results are reported according to public and private high school types. Among college-bound students, SAT mean scores across subjects reveal private school student performance is stronger than public school student performance, as shown Figure 21. Average ACT Composite Scores by Race, Nationwide Class of 2012 Source: Author s figure is based on the table provided by Council for American Private Education, Private School Students More Likely to Succeed in College, CAPE Outlook, September 2012, No. 377, p. 1. Note: According to the ACT, college readiness benchmarks are the minimum scores needed on the ACT subject area tests to indicate a 50 percent chance of obtaining a B or higher or about a 75 percent chance of obtaining a C or higher in corresponding credit-bearing first-year college courses.

19 Platte Institute Policy Study Public and Private Schools in Omaha Figure 22. Nebraska Mean SAT Scores by Type of High School, 2012 Source: Author s figure based on College Board, 2012 College-Bound Seniors: Nebraska State Profile Report. in Figure 22. On an 800-point scale, mean scores of Nebraska public-school test-takers were 574 in reading, 583 in math, and 558 in writing. SAT test-takers attending religiously-affiliated private schools and independent private schools scored much higher: 593 and 548 in reading, respectively; 605 and 616 in math, respectively; and 590 and 578 in writing, respectively. 61 The SAT is considered a strong predictor of how well students will perform in their college courses. 62 Graduating from a private school also correlates with a higher likelihood of college completion. The U.S. Department of Education has also found that college-completion rates are much higher for private school graduates of eighth grade. Students graduating from private school in eighth grade are twice as likely as their public-school peers to have completed a bachelor s or higher degree by their mid-20s. That rate doubles to nearly four times as likely for low-income students. 63 In spite of such findings, it is commonly assumed that superior privateschool performance is the result of cherry-picking the best students. The following section examines this claim in greater detail. Private Schools are Less Selective than Commonly Assumed A common criticism against private schools is that they, not parents or students, do the choosing. The findings presented in the previous section on the achievement of low-income and minority students already indicate that private schools are not excluding the kinds of students commonly considered difficult to educate and responsible for depressing schools overall test results. Before reviewing the ample corroborating research on that matter, many people might be surprised to learn that many public schools not just private schools use a variety of special admissions requirements besides proof of immunization, age, or residence. According to the U.S. Department of Education, 12 percent of public schools and 71 percent of private schools nationwide have special admissions requirements. Additionally, 5 percent of Nebraska public schools have special admissions requirements. Among both public and private schools, special admissions requirements are more common at the secondary level than the elementary level. As shown in Figure 24, the percentages of schools using admissions requirements vary by school type and religious affiliation. 64 Figure 23. Percentage of Schools with Special Admissions Requirements Source: U.S. Department of Education, Schools and Staffing Survey,

20 Public and Private Schools in Omaha Platte Institute Policy Study Figure 24. Percentage of Schools Using Various Special Admissions Requirements Source: U.S. Department of Education, Schools and Staffing Survey, Among religiously oriented private schools nationwide, roughly 60 percent of Catholic parochial and diocesan schools as well as Lutheran schools have admissions requirements. Close to three-fourths of nonsectarian and other religious private schools (74 percent each) have admissions requirements; while virtually all Catholic private schools (98 percent) do. Schools that have admissions requirements use a variety of them, as shown in Figure 24. Among private schools nationwide that have special admissions requirements, the most widely used are personal interviews (85 percent), followed by students academic records (75 percent), and recommendations (59 percent). Less than half of private schools nationwide with special admissions requirements use admissions tests (48 percent) or standardized tests (40 percent). Among Nebraska public schools with special admissions requirements the overwhelming majority use students academic records (78 percent). None use admissions or standardized tests, and roughly one-third or less use recommendations (34 percent) or personal interviews (28 percent). The very existence of admissions requirements may give superficial credence to the claim that private schools cherry pick students, but abundant research disputes it. A national survey of urban private schools conducted by the U.S. Department of Education found that most were religiously affiliated (Catholic, 57 percent; and other religious, 30 percent). Urban private schools enrolled high proportions of low-income and minority students (nearly one-third to more than one half of enrollments on average) and admitted 83 percent of all applicants overall. Importantly, admissions rates averaged 91 percent at schools charging lower tuition, less than $2, An in-depth and award-winning analysis of Catholic high schools nationwide by scholars from the schools of education at Harvard University and the University of Michigan also found that these schools are not highly selective in their admissions. The typical school reports accepting 88 percent of students who apply. Indeed, the school does not operate as the principal selection mechanism; the real control rests with the students and their families through the decision to apply for admission. 66 It is also worth considering the leading role private schools have played in publicly-funded parental choice programs. The Milwaukee Parental Choice Program (MPCP) enacted in 1990 was the country s first publicly-funded voucher program exclusively for students from low-income families. 67 In 1991, Milwaukee private schools enrolled 337 voucher students. Two decades later, private schools in 18 states and D.C. are enrolling more than 255,000 students from low-income families, with special educational needs, or assigned to failing public schools with the help of voucher, tax-credit scholarship, and educational savings accounts programs. 68 Private schools have also participated in privately funded scholarship programs for low-income students for more than two decades. The first such program was started in 1991 by an Indianapolis businessman who financed private-school scholarships exclusively for low-income students. By 2002, private organizations had helped spur the creation of nearly 80 additional programs in cities nationwide helping approximately 46,000 low-income students attend private schools with some $60 million in private scholarship assistance. 69 Gold standard, random-assignment research conducted on several of those programs confirms that 20