The Utility of Job Involvement over Job Satisfaction in Contributing to an Individual s Effectiveness in Flourishing at Work

Transcription

1 The Utility of Job Involvement over Job Satisfaction in Contributing to an Individual s Effectiveness in Flourishing at Work John W. Whiteoak, University of the Sunshine Coast, Faculty of Arts and Business, Australia. Whiteoak@usc.edu.au Abstract The aim of this paper is to explore two constructs identified in the literature as potentially being linked to effectiveness in managing monotony at work, job satisfaction and job involvement. Both job satisfaction and job involvement have been the focus of significant academic inquiry and to some degree argued to be related to predicting success at flourishing in the zone at work. This paper shows that while both constructs may be useful in understanding the zone at work, there is potentially higher veracity in Job involvement. Nonetheless, the paper concludes that because job satisfaction is such a familiar landmark in the management literature and in the frontline of organizations it still remains a useful reference point to further the understanding what helps to bring workers into the zone. Key words: job satisfaction, job involvement, flourishing at work, job engagement, disengagement, productivity 239

2 1. Introduction For decades job satisfaction has appeared in the academic literature as a pivotal point in understanding worker and workplace dynamics. However, in recent years there has been some contention of the role that job satisfaction may play as a predictor of employee engagement and that it is potentially an overlapping construct with job involvement in this relationship (Gruman & Saks 2011; Macey & Schneider 2008; Newman & Harrison 2008; Wefald & Downey 2009). The findings of this study suggest that an individual s effectiveness to manage their workplace performance in a monotonous or potentially monotonous environment, the role of job involvement has eclipsed the impact of job satisfaction. This is consistent with suggestions in the literature that job involvement is an important facet of the psychological state of engagement (Macey & Schneider 2008) and that disengagement may, among other things, be a result of employees who experience little autonomy in their work roles, or feel their jobs are unimportant (Luthans & Peterson 2002). It is believed that the findings of this paper have the scope to better explain worker disengagement which has been identified in the last few years as a major fiscal drain on developed economies. There is now a more established link between employee engagement and productivity at work (Markos & Sridevi 2010). Extensive evidence indicates deepening disengagement levels occurring among workers and a recent global Gallup engagement survey show that in the workplace it is revealed to be less than optimal in 67% of employees, of which 18% are described as actively disengaged. These levels of disengagement are estimated to be costing the United States Economy between $250 and $350 billion a year (Rath & Conchie 2009). As a consequence it makes good business sense to pay attention to the levels of staff engagement within a workplace (Bishop 2011). However, the pathway to high engagement from a disengaged state remains unclear (Whiteoak 2014). The aim of this paper is to explore two constructs identified in the literature as potentially being linked to effectiveness in managing monotony at work, job satisfaction and job involvement. For a long time one s IQ or intelligence quotient score was considered a predictor of job performance, income and life success. More than 100 years ago Alfred Binet, a French psychologist was commissioned to develop a means of predicting which children would have difficulty at school. Binet thought intelligence was made up of a number of abilities, but developed a single measure called the intelligence quotient or IQ. In 1916 the Stanford Binet intelligence scales were developed and they became the most popular tests in the United States the decades until around the 1960s when the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale or the 240

3 WAIS develop by David Wechsler became more popular and over took Binet as the most commonly used assessment of IQ. While both tests are still in use today and many organisations often rely on IQ as a tool to select employees. The use of IQ as a predictor of life and work success is often criticised (Gladwell 2008; Goleman 1995; 2005). One common criticism of the IQ criterion is that many researchers including Wechsler believed that social intelligence may be as or potentially even more important than IQ in predicting success in life, this drove in some part attention being given to understanding and managing human emotions, the started in the 1950s and continues today and during this period has led to the development of a theory that is popularly known as EQ. EQ or one s emotional intelligence quotient is essentially an individual s ability to manage emotions well in themselves and relationships. EQ has been around in a popularized for more than 20 years (e.g., Salovey & Mayer 1989; Goleman 1995), and there are now many programs available to help individuals improve the EQ. It is thought that improving your EQ can lead to improve life functioning and success at work and while EQ has provided some useful insights and is applied to selection and training particularly for managers in some organisations, there is clearly more to understand. This is because after more than 20 years of research (1.8 million results on a Google Scholar search 2014), millions of books sold, and the plethora of EQ workshops on the market (e.g., Bar-On and Parker 2000) we still grappling with an answer to improving productivity and disengagement of the workplace. The limitations of IQ in EQ in predicting success at flourishing in the zone have led to a deeper interest into this area of exploration. 2. Literature Review Together with the findings of other research, this paper questions the veracity of job satisfaction in contributing to our understanding of an individual s effectiveness with coping with monotony in the workplace and coincidently learning how to get into the zone and flourish at work. The role of job involvement is shown to eclipse job satisfaction when variables are subjected to a factor analysis. The intent of the paper is principally to share the findings of this exploratory factor analysis. Both job satisfaction and job involvement are well known management constructs that have been associated with heightened levels of worker engagement. In fact, the definition from Harter et al. (2002) includes both job satisfaction and job involvement. They suggest engagement is the individual's involvement and satisfaction with as well as enthusiasm for work (p. 269). Many authors have suggested that individual and organizational factors may operate together to predict worker engagement (i.e., Bakker & Demerouti 2008; Herzberg et al. 1959; 241

4 Rich et al. 2010; Saks 2006; Whiteoak 2014). Barrick et al. (2013) argues that in most instances employee behavior can be better understood by considering the combined influence of the work situation and individual differences. However, they state this is rarely addressed in unison. In this paper, factor analysis is used to explore both individual and organizational elements, that may work together to explain being the zone at work. In doing so, the position of job satisfaction in the factor plot can be revealed in unison with a number of other constructs that are identified in the management literature as being related to engagement, boredom-coping and an ability to flourish in one s work. The individual elements of engagement used in this paper are drawn from Whiteoak s (2014) model of boredom-coping. Boredom can be described as the polar opposite of engagement (Warr & Inceoglu 2012) and Whiteoak (2014) suggested that employees who are better able to cope with boredom are likely to have higher levels of employee engagement. Whiteoak identified a set of personal-qualities that were effective in managing boredom positively. In this study, these variables are included in the analyses. These are; group potency (Gibson et al. 2000), practical intelligence (Sternberg 1997), situational awareness (Endsley & Garland 2000), and foresight ability (Slaugther 1995), openness to experience and conscientiousness (McCrae, 1994). The cultural elements investigated in this research are described next. The management literature provides many potential organizational factors that are suggested to be associated with employee engagement. In this study a number of these that also anecdotally work well in practice are explored. There is significant research that links leadership to employee engagement levels (e.g., Ashford & Cummings 1983; Attridge 2009; Schaufeli & Salanova 2002). It has also been suggested (i.e., Gruman & Saks 2011) that leaders can also develop higher levels of engagement by providing assignments and experiences that provide some control, autonomy, performance feedback, and allow for participation in decision making. This is supported by a significant amount of research and discussion in the literature (e.g., Bakker & Demerouti 2008; Harter et al. 2002; Kahn 1990; Macey & Schneider, 2008) that propose that job involvement is potentially an important facet of the psychological state of engagement. An organization s approach to performance management has also been described as directly linked to their engagement strategy (Gruman & Saks 2011). The way performance is managed in the workplace is a significant issue for managers and can have significant implications for important work outcomes (Fletcher & Williams 1996; Kuvaas 2011; London & Smither 2002). Schaufeli and Salanova (2007) also note that one key element of keeping employees engaged is allowing them to continue developing their careers. Other researchers (e.g., 242

5 Ferguson & Reio 2012; Kraimer et al. 2011) also describe the importance of training and development opportunities for positive employee outcomes, such as engagement. The mining industry in many countries is known as a high paying industry and has relied upon relatively high levels of remuneration as a method to manage talent (van Hoek & Schultz 2013) thus is also likely to be linked to engagement and disengagement (e.g., Herzberg et al. 1959). Finally, researchers have explored the role of job satisfaction as an important attitude that may predict job performance (Judge et al. 2001) and as a variable that may help to better appreciate engagement at work (Harter et al. 2002; Schaufelli et al. 2009). Based on the preceding discussion a conceptual framework has been develop and is presented below (see Figure 1). The conceptual framework will be explored using Principal Components Analysis (PCA) using a varimax rotation. The personal qualities and intervention time line included in the analysis are based on Whiteoak s (2014) previous work. The positioning of the cultural variables is based on other research conducted by the author and his more than 15 years of practical management consulting experience. 243

6 Figure 1: Conceptual Framework and Time-Line Foresight Group Potency Situational Awareness Practical Intelligence Conscientiousness Openness The Zone Performance Management Management & Supervision Selection & Development Remuneration Involvement Job Satisfaction Immediate Trainable Enduring 3mths 18mths 3. Methodology This research was conducted at twelve Australian coal mine sites and focused specifically on the position of Dragline operators. Draglines are large specialized pieces of equipment valued at over 100 million dollars each and are responsible for uncovering approximately 30% of the coal mined in Australia (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics 2009). A survey with seven-point Likert Scale items was administered to 169 dragline operators (approximately 22.4% of the population of dragline operators in Australia, Lumley 2005). The participants were all male and their experience as a dragline operator ranged from 2 months to 34 years. The median experience as a dragline operator was 8 years. The data for the survey was collected during a six-month period. A survey based approach can be criticized as it is possible that common-method artifacts limit the conclusions that can be drawn from the findings. However, the methodology reflects the demands and needs of the research client and subsequently limited the data collection approach that could be employed. That is, the practical realities of the research required 244

7 anonymity of the participants and restricted the capacity to separate the collection of the independent variables and the dependent variable in the research. However, the quantitative analyses presented here was derived from initial data collected using a mixed-methods approach, independent samples at each stage, and multiple data collection sites and times. This helps to support the integrity of the conclusions presented. In addition, the participants were supplied with the survey on-site and in-person and were given verbal instructions and explanation of the purpose of the survey. This also meant the researchers were on-hand if a participant found any of the questions ambiguous and required clarification of any items. 3.1 Measures The measures of conscientiousness and openness to experience were assessed using subscales of the abridged and adapted Big Five Inventory (John & Srivastava 1999). These scales was found to display acceptable reliability (α=.70 and.71 respectively). The assessment for Practical intelligence was adapted from the Sternberg and Hedlund (2002) scale and displayed acceptable reliability (α=.78). An adapted version of Endsley and Garland s (2000) scale was employed to assess foresight and situational awareness. The scales showed an appropriate internal reliability (α=.77 and α=.81 respectively). The measure for group potency was adapted from Guzzo et al. (1993). Cronbach s alpha coefficient for the scale in the current study was.88. Seven measures were operationalized to develop the composite Establishment. The measures used in the composite were adapted from the Voice Climate Survey (VCS). The VCS is an employee opinion survey that measures work practices and outcomes. The measures represented participant s perceptions of direct supervision, overall management competence, communication and cross-unit cooperation, career and training opportunities, selection strategies, as well as how well the participants felt they were recognised and rewarded. The undimensionaility of the construct was confirmed and the final composite recorded an alpha of.88. Three sub-scales (empowerment, feedback, and involvement) were used to measure the composite of Job Involvement. Six items measuring empowerment were taken from Spreitzer s (1996) scale, four items from the Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman & Oldham 1975) were adapted to measure feedback and three items from the Voice Climate Survey were included and delivered a reliability of.73. The undimensionaility of the construct was confirmed and the final composite recorded an alpha of.84. Performance management was measured by adapting three items from VCS. These items from the VCS display good reliability (α =.87). Job satisfaction was measured using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)-Short Form (Weiss et al., 1967). 245

8 4. Results and Discussion A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) followed by varimax rotation, was conducted on nine of the constructs extracted from the questionnaire. A PCA was employed in this research to address the research objective as it can be used to summarise the relationships between variables. It provides the capacity to understand the role of different variables in the model The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO =.764) was greater than 0.6 so it was deemed appropriate to apply PCA to this data set. Two components accounting for 57.07% of the total variance explained were extracted with eigenvalues greater than 1. Component 1 accounted for 34.21% of the variance. Six of the variables loaded on Component 1 ranging in value from.59 to.83. In order of the strength of loading, this component comprised, Practical Intelligence, Situational Awareness, Foresight, Conscientiousness, Pod Synergy, and Openness. Given this pattern of results it was decided to label this component Personal Qualities. Component 2 accounted for 22.86% of the variance. Three variables loaded on Component 2 ranging in value from.78 to.85. The variables loading, in order of strength, on this component were Establishment, Job Involvement, and Performance Management. Given this pattern of results it was decided to label this component Cultural-Fit. The output of the factor plot is presented in Figure 2. A ensuing analysis included job satisfaction before the extraction. Please note that job satisfaction (job_sat*), has been painted into the plot (see Figure 2) after the analysis to demonstrate its position relative to the other variables. When job satisfaction is included in the analysis the Cultural-Fit factor now accounts for 31.03% (a loss of 3.18%) of the variance and the two components now account for 56.41% of the total variance (a loss of 0.66%). The final element of this analysis was to explore the data structure with Job Involvement removed and Job Satisfaction included. This extraction accounted for 56.21% of the total variance and the cultural-fit factor accounted for 34.36% of the output. 246

9 Figure 2: Rotated Factor Matrix Plot The results show that regardless of whether job involvement or job satisfaction are used together or separately, two dimensions remain evident in the factor plot. Personal qualities are a set of variables that group together to explain the first dimension in understanding the zone. Cultural-fit variables were also found to group together to make a contribution to explaining potentially flourishing in the workplace. Both Job satisfaction and job involvement appear to be considered as environmental concepts rather than individual qualities. The purpose of this paper was to look more closely at the role of Job Satisfaction and Job Involvement in understanding the zone. These data showed that the two constructs were relatively strongly correlated (r=0.61**) and in the PCA could be used almost interchangeably in the analysis. However, evidence from the coal-face suggests that elements of Job Involvement are more useful strategically to provide interventions that can help individuals move into the zone. From a management perspective this gives greater potential utility to Job Involvement. Supporting the argument for including job involvement over job satisfaction as part of the engagement equation is that individual measures of Job Satisfaction are often inferred from areas of one s work performance. Judge et al. (2001) explain that expectancy-based theories of motivation generally stipulate that job satisfaction follows from the rewards produced by performance (e.g., Naylor et al. 1980; Vroom 1964). Lawler and Porter (1967) argued that performance would lead to job satisfaction through the provision of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Judge et al. suggest that this school of thought regarding the relationship between job satisfaction and performance supposes that good performance may lead to rewards, which in turn lead to satisfaction. As such, job satisfaction is an outcome that may be derived, at least in part, through effective organisational strategies that support an individual s feeling of 247

10 involvement at work. This is important as both variables were found in this study as existing in the cultural environment of one s work. Nonetheless, it is also important to acknowledge that job satisfaction is a familiar term used in the management literature and among many managers and human resource professionals. So, the relative level of job-satisfaction within a workplace still remains as a key indicator of a healthy and effective culture in numerous work environments. Thus, job satisfaction remains as a good frame of reference for a conversation around the issues that are likely to get employees talking about and sharing their ideas about elements of engagement in a workplace. In summary, this research shows that job involvement can be used to substitute job satisfaction as a cultural factor in the engagement equation. In addition, job involvement provides more tangible strategies to improve staff engagement. This is because job satisfaction is theoretically an outcome of job involvement as explained by expectancy-based theories of motivation. This is also evidenced in qualitative research conducted with dragline operators (see Whiteoak, Hede, Lumley 2010). 5. Conclusions and Recommendations The management literature for a long time has centred on the contribution of job satisfaction in understanding disengagement and engagement at work. However, researchers have also questioned the role that job satisfaction may play as a predictor employee engagement. This paper has explored the role of job involvement and job satisfaction in a PCA and finds that both variables will contribute to explaining the variance when the other is removed. However, the paper concludes that evidence from the coal-face suggests that job involvement is likely to have more utility than job satisfaction understanding the zone at work. Even so it is recommended that the value of job satisfaction is in its familiarity as common term that is well understood that can still be applied usefully in many workplaces. References Ashford, SJ & Cummings, LL, 1983, Feedback as an individual resource: Personal strategies of creating information, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, vol. 32, no. 3, pp Attridge, M 2009, Measuring and managing employee work engagement: A review of the research and business literature, Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, vol. 24, no. 4, pp Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 2009, Australian Mineral Statistics, June quarter, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Canberra. 248

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