J.F. Ready, D.F. Farson, T. Feeley (Eds.): LIA Handbook of Laser Materials Processing ISBN Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York

Transcription

1 J.F. Ready, D.F. Farson, T. Feeley (Eds.): LIA Handbook of Laser Materials Processing ISBN Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Contents Chapter 1 Overview of Laser Materials Processing 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Laser Parameters Laser Beam Parameters Polarization 1.2 Absorption of Laser Energy Reflection Absorption Focusing of Laser Light Laser Damage 1.3 Laser Configurations Modal Characteristics Temporal Behavior Survey of Active Media Commercial Lasers for Materials Processing 1.4 Laser Systems Introduction Subsystems Illustrations of Complete Materials Processing Systems Illustrations of Time- Energy-Sharing Systems Chapter 2 Lasers for Materials Processing 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Carbon Dioxide Lasers Basic Principles Laser Configurations Optics Power Sources, Accessories and Controls Lifetime, Care and Maintenance Laser Gases for CO 2 Laser Resonators 2.2 Nd:YAG Lasers Basic Principles Laser Configurations Pump Sources Power Control Lifetime, Care and Maintenance Output Beam Quality 2.3 Other Solid-State Lasers 2.4 Excimer Lasers Basic Principles Wavelengths Resonator Configurations Optical Configurations Power Sources Lifetime, Care and Maintenance Gas for Excimer Lasers

2 2.5 Other Lasers Introduction CO Lasers Metal Vapor Lasers Ion Lasers Diode Lasers Introduction to Diode Lasers High-Power Diode Lasers for Materials Processing Iodine Lasers The Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL) Photolytic Iodine Laser Nonlinear Optical Effects in Crystals Free-Electron Lasers X-Ray Lasers Ultrafast Lasers for Materials Processing 2.6 Water Chiller Considerations for Laser-Cooling Applications Introduction Capacity of Cooling System Power Requirements Chiller System Components Water Issues Chapter 3 Optics and Optical Systems 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Properties of Laser Beams Monochromaticity Directionality Coherence Brightness Stable Resonator Modes Polarization 3.2 Beam Delivery Before Focusing Introduction Conventional Beam Delivery Fiber Optic Beam Delivery: Diode Lasers Fiber Optic Beam Delivery: Nd:YAG Lasers Robotic Applications 3.3 Focusing and Depth of Focus Focusing Depth of Focus 3.4 Mode Quality Chapter 4 Components for Laser Materials Processing Systems 4.0 Introduction 4.1 Components for Beam Delivery Systems General Remarks on Beam Delivery Systems and Design Criteria Components for Beam Delivery Adjustment/Alignment of Beam Delivery Systems 4.2 Focusing optics Introduction Lenses Mirrors Diffractive Optics Focusing Head and Integrated Actuators

3 4.3 Other Optical Components Beam Shaping Optics Scanners Beam Splitters Polarizers Isolators Infrared and Ultraviolet Transmitting Materials 4.4 Photodetectors Basics of Photodetectors Commonly Used Detectors 4.5 Beam Monitoring and Measurement Beam Samplers Energy Meters Power Meters Optimizing Meters Positioning of Power Monitors Beam Profilers 4.6 Components for Motion Systems Basic Considerations Guiding Methods Drive Units 4.7 Controllers Laser and Motion Control Laser System Control Programming CAD/CAM and Off-Line Programming 4.8 Process Gas Nozzles Introduction Nozzle Configurations Nozzle Selection Process Gas Nozzles for Cutting 4.9 Process Monitoring Systems Optical Penetration Sensing Optical Plasma Intensity Monitoring Acoustic Sensing Neural Networks Seam Tracking Basic Considerations Evaluation of Seam Tracking Methods Measurement of Keyhole Depth Infrared Monitoring Chapter 5 Laser -Material Interactions 5.0 Introduction 5.1 Materials Characteristics Optical Properties Thermal Properties 5.2 Laser Characteristics Important Laser Properties Pulsed versus CW Characteristics Focusing Characteristics Irradiance Important Lasers for Materials Processing Applications 5.3 Reflectivity and Absorptivity of Opaque Surfaces

4 5.3.1 Definitions Predictions from Electromagnetic Wave Theory Reflectivities of Metals Reflectivities in Nonconductors Polarization Effects Effects of Surface Conditions Summary 5.4 Absorption of Laser Radiation Absorption Coefficients Semitransparent Sheets Variation During Irradiation 5.5 Energy Transport in Laser-Irradiated Materials Introduction Parameters Heat Balance Conduction Convection Vaporization Mass Diffusion Specific Examples 5.6 Phase Changes 5.7 Plasma Shielding Introduction Atmospheric Breakdown Laser-Supported Absorption Waves Consequences of Plasma Shielding 5.8 Regimes of Irradiance and Interaction Time Chapter 6 Hazards and Safety Considerations 6.0 Introduction 6.1 Health Hazards and Personnel Safety Specific Biological Effects Hazard Classification: Classes of Lasers Safety Measures 6.2 Safety with Industrial Lasers Industrial Laser Systems Workplace Surveillance 6.3 Specific Systems and Applications Portable Laser Welders - An Example Beam Alignment Hazards 6.4 Nonbeam Hazards Types of Nonbeam Hazards Laser Generated Chemical Hazards Physical Hazards Personnel Protective Equipment Biological/Medical Hazards 6.5 Laser Safety Standards Terms and Abbreviations United States Standards International Standards European and Other Nations Standards and Directives Sources Chapter 7 Surface Treatment: Heat Treatment

5 7.0 Introduction 7.1 Principles of Transformation Hardening 7.2 Laser and Optics for Heat Treating Lasers Optics Optics For Uniform Beam Profiles 7.3 Results of Laser Heat Treatment Introduction Irradiance Versus Interaction Time Summary of Laser Heat Treatment Data Effect of Process Variables Residual Stresses in Laser Heat Treatment Laser Heat Treatment Hardness Data Surface Hardening with Diode Lasers 7.4 Materials and Testing Alloy Effects Surface Condition 7.5 Surface Properties Introduction Chemical Composition Hardness and Its Distribution Along the Surface Residual Stresses Residual Deformation Mechanical Characteristics Heat Resistance Corrosion Resistance Wear Resistance 7.6 Applications of Heat Treating Steering Gear Assemblies Diesel Engine Cylinder Liners Turbine Blade Hardening 7.7 Comparison with Other Technologies Advantages/Disadvantages Economic Considerations Chapter 8 Surface Treatment: Glazing, Remelting, Alloying, Cladding, and Cleaning 8.0 Introduction 8.1 Rapid Melting Melting Kinetics Absorption Mechanism Effects of Convection Temperature Distribution in the Melt 8.2 Rapid Solidification and Microstructure Solidification Temperature Distribution During Cooling Dendrite Spacing 8.3 Appropriate Lasers and Optics Nd:YAG Lasers CO 2 Lasers 8.4 Laser Glazing The Glazing Process Rapid Cooling 8.5 Surface Remelting Surface Remelting of Bearings

6 8.5.2 Melting Cast-Iron Surfaces 8.6 Surface Alloying Basics of Laser Alloying Materials Deposition Techniques Mixing Characteristics Enhanced Surface Properties 8.7 Surface Cladding Introduction Cladding Techniques Feeding Principles Process Characteristics Cladding Characteristics Cladding Materials Process Benefits Process Drawbacks Applications Special Applications 8.8 Cleaning Introduction Surface Cleanings Contaminant Removal Removal of Paint, Dielectric and Other Coatings 8.9 Disk Texturing Chapter 9 Brazing/Soldering 9.1 Process Definition 9.2 Appropriate Lasers 9.3 Beam Manipulation Techniques 9.4 Applications and Results Brazing of Steel Brazing of Titanium Joining Of Dissimilar Materials Soldering Applications with Diode Lasers Chapter 10 Conduction Welding 10.0 Introduction 10.1 Basic Description of Laser Welding Use of Laser Welding Metal Reflectivity Thermal Properties of Metals Fusion Front Penetration Thermal Conduction Limitations 10.2 Welding Procedures Laser Characteristics Optics Focus Position Surface Conditions Joint Design: Configurations and Tolerances Joint Design: Choice Elements of Quality Processing Gases Guidelines 10.3 Laser Welding Results Nd:YAG Laser Welding Nd:YAG Laser Welding Guidelines

7 Nd:YAG Laser CW Seam Welding of Common Materials Nd:YAG Pulsed-Seam Welding Spot Welding with Pulsed Nd:YAG Lasers Microjoining with Nd:YAG Lasers Conduction Welding with CO 2 Lasers Welding with Low Power CO 2 Lasers Welding with Diode Lasers Welding with Photolytic Iodine Lasers (PILS) 10.4 Materials Issues Tabulation of Materials and Weldability Welding of Dissimilar Materials 10.5 Comparison of Laser Welding with other Technologies Advantages/Limitations Economic Considerations Comparison of Welding Results Chapter 11 - Penetration Welding 11.0 Introduction 11.1 Description of Penetration Welding The Deep Penetration Process Motion of the Keyhole Penetration Lasers for Penetration Welding Melting Efficiency 11.2 Welding Procedures Laser Choice Optics Focus Position Surface Conditions Joint Design Edge Preparation Fixturing Shielding and Plasma Control Preheating Spatter Control Process Monitoring Systems Post Treatment Filler Material Considerations 11.3 Welding Data Summary High-Power Laser Welding of Common Materials CO 2 Laser CW Seam Welding of Common Materials; Conditions for Penetration Welding CW CO 2 Laser Welding of Common Materials Pulsed CO 2 Laser Welding of Common Metals Nd:YAG CW Welding of Common Materials Nd:YAG Laser-Pulsed Welding of Common Materials Comparison of Penetration Welding with Nd:YAG and CO 2 Lasers Laser Welding with Filler Wire Welding with Other Lasers Operating Costs for Penetration Welding 11.4 Industrial Applications of High-Power Laser Welding Introduction Key Aspects Welding Thin Sheet Material (< 0.5 mm) Sheet Material (1 3 mm) Welding Plate Material (4 12 mm) Weld Tolerances

8 Hybrid Welding Weld Testing Plastic Welding Material Welding Summary Laser-Welded Tailored Blanks Automotive Applications 11.5 Comparison of Laser Welding to Other Welding Technologies Alternate Welding Technologies Key Aspects of Comparison Laser Welding Comparisons Comparison of Welding Technology Results Chapter 12 Laser Cutting 12.1 Basic Description of Laser Cutting Cutting Processes Power Balance Appropriate Lasers Gas Assist Techniques Cutting of Complex Shapes Post-Cutting Operations Polarization Effects in Laser Cutting: Basics Control of Beam Polarization Effects in Cutting 12.2 Laser Cutting of Metals The Metal Cutting Process Characteristics of Laser-Cut Edges Laser Cutting of Specific Metals CO 2 Laser Cutting of Metals Nd:YAG Laser Cutting Thickness versus Cutting Speed Microcutting of Metals with Pulsed Nd:YAG Lasers Cutting of Metals with Other Lasers Cutting with a CO Laser Cutting with a Chemical Oxygen-Iodine Laser Cutting with Photolytic Iodine Lasers 12.3 Laser Cutting of Nonmetals Cutting Mechanisms and Cut Quality CO 2 Laser Cutting Cutting of Nonmetals with Nd:YAG Lasers Nd:YAG Laser Cutting Data Cutting Jewelry Materials 12.4 Costs of Laser Cutting Conventional CO 2 Laser Cutting System Conventional Nd:YAG Laser Cutting System 12.5 Comparison of Laser Cutting with Other Technologies Advantages and Drawbacks of Laser Cutting Comparison of CO 2 Laser Cutting with Other Profiling Techniques Advantages and Limitations of Laser Cutting of Nonmetals Chapter 13 Hole Drilling 13.1 Basic Description of Laser Drilling Surface Reflectivity Thermal Properties Physical Processes: Melting, Vaporization, Flushing, Percussion Appropriate Lasers: Power/Irradiance, Pulse Duration Percussion Drilling and Trepanning

9 13.2 Drilling of Metals Introduction Nd:YAG Laser Drilling CO 2 Lasers for Metal Driling CO 2 Laser Drilling Drilling with Copper Vapor Lasers Applications of Copper Vapor Laser Drilling 13.3 Drilling of Nonmetals General Considerations Nd:YAG Laser Drilling CO 2 Laser Drilling Excimer Laser Drilling Copper Vapor Laser Drilling 13.4 Aerospace Applications Hole Requirements Laser Type Typical Focus-Head Arrangement Percussion Drilling Trepan Drilling 13.5 Ultrashort-Pulse Laser Machining Introduction Dielectrics Metals 13.6 Comparison With Other Technologies Consideration of Quantity of Holes Drilled Large Diameter Holes, > 0.025mm (0.001 in) Small Diameter Holes, < 0.025mm (0.001 in) Laser Costs and Other Factors Summary Chapter 14 BALANCING 14.1 Basics of Balancing Introduction Conditions for Balancing Balancing Procedures Balancing Process Example: A Typical Balancing Task 14.2 Laser Balancing Procedures Introduction Advantages/Limitations of Laser Balancing Balancing Systems 14.3 Some Applications of Laser Balancing Timing Wheel Balancing Clutch Disk Balancing Frequency Spindle Balancing Other Applications Chapter 15 Marking 15.1 Basic Principles 15.2 Materials 15.3 Appropriate Lasers CO 2 Lasers NdYAG Lasers Excimer Lasers for Marking 15.4 Dot Matrix Marking Techniques

10 Results 15.5 Engraving Techniques Lasers Surface Effects Beam Motion Systems Masking Engraving Recommendations 15.6 Image Micromachining Techniques Results 15.7 Applications CO 2 Lasers Nd:YAG Lasers Excimer Lasers 15.8 Comparison with Other Techniques Chapter 16 Rapid Prototyping 16.0 Introduction and Glossary 16.1 Basics of Laser Based Rapid Prototyping Rapid Prototyping: An Overview Lasers Parameters for RP Scanning Exposure Factors Small Spot Systems 16.2 Stereolithography The Stereolithography Process Materials for Stereolithography Lasers for Stereolithography Stereolithography in Product Development 16.3 Selective Laser Sintering The Selective Laser Sintering Process Materials for SLS Lasers for Selective Laser Sintering Directed Light Fabrication The Laser Engineered Net Shaping Process Results 16.4 Laminated Object Manufacturing The LOM Process Applications Laser Cutting-Based Rapid Prototyping Options for Metal and Ceramic Components 16.5 CAM - LEM Processing of Ceramic and Metal Parts Introduction Material Properties Machine Variables 16.6 Coating of Rapid Tools by Pulsed Laser Deposition 16.7 Adaption of RP Technology to the Manufacture of Die Casting Tools 16.8 Table: Comparison of Rapid Prototyping Systems Chapter 17 Trimming 17.0 Introduction 17.1 Basics of Laser Trimming Physical Processes Overview of a Laser Trimming System Types of Laser Trims Appropriate Lasers

11 17.2 Trimming Techniques Thick-Film Trimming Thin Film on Ceramic Laser Trimming Chip Resistor Laser Trimming Thin Film on Silicon Resistor Trimming Interference Effects Chapter 18 Laser Marking/Branding 18.0 Introduction 18.1 Package Marking and Branding Laser Marking in Production The Marking Process Mark Quality Criteria 18.2 Wafer Serialization Techniques Results 18.3 Marking of Electronic Components Chapter 19 Link Cutting/Making 19.1 Basics of Link Processing with Lasers Introduction Basics of Link Cutting Memory Repair Goals Processing Concerns Lasers for Link Cutting Positioning Systems Optics Pulse Control Energy Coupling Link Materials Link Design Link Groups Accuracy Alignment Strategy 19.2 Redundancy for Memory Yield Enhancement Introduction Development of Redundancy Laser Choice Hardware Description Absorptivity Considerations Spot Size Consideration 19.3 Link Making Introduction Earlier Work Principles Reliability Implementation Laser Energy Summary 19.4 Personalization

12 Definitions and Basic Terms Personalization by Link Cutting - Choice of Laser The Personalization Process Chapter 20 Repair 20.1 Repair Needs 20.2 Substrate Repair Repair of Shorts Repair of Opens 20.3 Laser-Based Photomask Repair Chapter 21 Applications to Photolithography 21.1 Overview 21.2 Laser Sources for Microlithography Exposure Tools Excimer Lasers Diode Pumped Harmonic Nd:YAG Lasers 21.3 Advantages of Laser Microlithography Compared to Other Sources 21.4 Laser Based Photolithography System Issues 21.5 Deep Ultraviolet Laser Photolithography Overview High Resolution Lithography Deep Ultraviolet Lithography Issues Chapter 22 Flat Panel Display 22.0 Introduction 22.1 Repair Short Removal Open Repair 22.2 Marking 22.3 Laser Patterning Indium Tin Oxide Coated Flat Panel Displays Nature of Indium Tin Oxide Maskless Pattern Generation Laser Choices Laser Cutting 22.4 Annealing of Thin-Film Transistors Chapter 23 High-Temperature Superconductors 23.0 Introduction 23.1 Procedures Targets and Ablation Appropriate Lasers and Systems Film Growth 23.2 Results of HTSC Deposition Characterization Comparison with Other Techniques 23.3 Laser Treatment of HTSC Films Modification Polishing of Thin HTSC Films Chapter 24 Laser Produced Microstructures 24.1 Basic Laser Microstructuring Procedures Introduction Microstructuring by Laser Direct Ablation Microstructuring by Laser Etching 24.2 Other Methods of Laser Microstructuring Laser-LIGA Processing Laser Microstructuring of Glass

13 Laser Microstructuring of Semiconductors Chapter 25 Electronic Packaging: Electrical Interconnects 25.0 Introduction 25.1 Via Drilling Lasers for Via Drilling Optical Configurations Applications and Results 25.2 Bonding/Soldering Laser Tape Automated Bonding (TAB) Laser Reflow Soldering 25.3 Wirestripping Introduction Important Parameters in Laser Wirestripping Lasers for Wirestripping Wirestripping Procedures Chapter 26 Electronic Packaging: Package Sealing and Ceramic Processing 26.0 Introduction 26.1 Package Welding General Considerations Weld Schedule Development Process Monitoring 26.2 Cutting and Scribing of Substrates Introduction Laser Selection Process Parameters Pulse Parameters Optical Considerations Assist Gas and Nozzle Configuration Hardware Considerations Comparison of Scribing and Cutting Laser Scribing Results 26.3 Hole Drilling in Ceramics Introduction Advantages and Laser Choice Procedures and Results Chapter 27 Film Deposition and Doping 27.1 Thin Film Deposition Laser Chemical Vapor Deposition Coatings made by LCVD Direct Write Processing using LCVD Pulsed Laser Deposition 27.2 Deposition of Thick Films of Electronic Ceramics 27.3 Gas Immersion Laser Doping (GILD) Theory of Operation GILD Equipment and Sample Preparation Laser Sources Gas Sources Process Monitoring and Calibration Doping Profiles Wafer Throughput