HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING

Transcription

1 HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING

2 Technische Hochschule Darmstadt FACHBEREICH INFORMATIK B I B L I O T H E K ln»pntnr.nr,, t 3 " Q TT Standorti An Introduction to Psychology Second Edition PETER H. LINDSAY University of Toronto DONALD A. NORMAN University of California, San Diego ACADEMIC PRESS New York San Francisco London A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers

3 PREFACE v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii 1. HUMAN PERCEPTION PREVIEW 3 INTERPRETING SENSORY MESSAGES 5 Matching templates 5 DATA-DRIVEN AND CONCEPTUALLY DRIVEN PROCESSING 11 SOME PERCEPTUAL PHENOMENA 14 Organizing degraded images 15 Competing organizations 15 ORGANIZING AUDITORY PERCEPTIONS 16 Organization without meaning 17 Making the data fit the conceptualization 20 THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES 22 Perception of space 26 The importance of context 35 FEATURE ANALYSIS 38 Stopping the image 40 Aftereffects 44 WHAT TO LOOK AT FOR MOTION AFTEREFFECTS 46 The explanation of aftereffects 48 Orientation-specific color adaptation 49 Perception without features 51 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 51 SUGGESTED READINGS 52 Perception 52 Art 54

4 2. THE VISUAL SYSTEM PREVIEW 57 LIGHT 58 DECIBELS 59 THE OPTICAL PATH 60 The pupil 60 The lens 62 The retina 65 CHEMICAL RESPONSES TO LIGHT 65 The photochemical reaction 65 THE NEUROANATOMY OF VISION 66 The retinal network 69 THE PATHWAY TO THE BRAIN 72 SAMPLING VISUAL INFORMATION 73 Eye movements 73 The localizing channel 75 Vision without a visual cortex 78 Vision without a superior colliculus 79 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 80 SUGGESTED READINGS THE DIMENSIONS OF VISION PREVIEW 85 SENSORY EXPERIENCES 87 THE PERCEPTION OF BRIGHTNESS 89 Brightness contrast 89 Mach bands 92 BRIGHTNESS AND DEPTH 95 SPATIAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS 98 THE MEASUREMENT OF VISUAL SENSITIVITY 99 Equibrightness contours 102 TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VISION 104 Integration time 104

5 When flashing lights become continuous 104 Critical flicker 105 COLORS 107 The color circle 108 PAINTS AND LIGHTS 110 Making paints mix as lights 111 COLOR SENSITIVITY OF CONES 113 Induced contrast 114 Opponent process color theory 115 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 117 SUGGESTED READINGS 118 Color vision 119 Spatial frequency analysis THE AUDITORY SYSTEM PREVIEW 123 THE EAR 125 THE PHYSICS OF SOUND 126 The frequency of sound 127 The intensity of sound 131 DECIBELS 131 THE MECHANICS OF THE EAR 132 The inner ear 132 Movements of the basilar membrane 135 The hair cells 138 ELECTRICAL RESPONSES TO SOUND 139 Tuning curves 139 Temporal coding in neural responses 141 Coding of intensity information 142 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 144 SUGGESTED READINGS THE DIMENSIONS OF SOUND PREVIEW 147 SENSORY EXPERIENCES 149

6 LOUDNESS 151 Equiloudness contours 152 Listening to music 153 Masking 157 The measurement of loudness 160 PITCH 162 The musical scale 162 The tnel scale 163 Place theory: position on the basilar membrane 164 Periodicity pitch 166 Masking the missing fundamental 169 PITCH DISCRIMINATION WITHOUT A BASILAR MEMBRANE 171 Evidence against the periodicity pitch theory 173 The duplicity theory of pitch perception 174 THE CRITICAL BAND 176 AUDITORY SPACE PERCEPTION 178 Localization 179 Importance of binaural listening 183 The precedence effect 184 Recordings 185 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 188 SUGGESTED READINGS NEURAL INFORMATION PROCESSING PREVIEW 191 Part I: Neural Processes THE EYE OF A FROG 192 THE ANATOMY OF DETECTORS 193 PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCEDURES 195 The neuron 195 Recording neural responses 197 BASIC NEURAL CIRCUITS 199 The building blocks 200 LATERAL INHIBITION 203 Circuits for extracting contours 207 Center-surround fields 215 The opponent process color theory 220

7 Induced contrast 221 RESPONDING TO MOVEMENT 226 Circuits for detecting movement 227 Part II: Brain Processes FROM THE EYE TO THE BRAIN 228 The lateral geniculate nucleus 228 The visual cortex 229 EXTRACTING FEATURES 230 Simple cells 230 Complex cells 232 Hypercomplex cells 232 W, X, and Y Systems 237 Spatial frequency analysis 238 ACOUSTIC INFORMATION PROCESSING 240 Frequency sweep detectors 244 Binaural interactions 246 WHAT NEXT? 248 CONCLUSION 250 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 251 SUGGESTED READINGS PATTERN RECOGNITION AND ATTENTION PREVIEW 257 RECOGNIZING PATTERNS 259 Pandemonium 259 How to build pandemoniums 262 FEATURES FOR RECOGNIZING SPEECH 269 The segmentation problem 269 Classifying speech sounds 270 FEATURE ANALYSIS IS NOT SUFFICIENT 272 A matter of context 274 The importance of redundancy 277 DATA-DRIVEN AND CONCEPTUALLY DRIVEN PROCESSING 278

8 XVI Contents Specialist demons 279 The blackboard and the supervisor 280 The analysis of a sentence 281 On the power and weakness of the specialist system 281 THE PHENOMENA OF ATTENTION 285 Selecting messages 286 Processing the rejected message 289 Specialist demons and the supervisor 291 CONCLUSION 294 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 298 SUGGESTED READINGS THE MEMORY SYSTEMS PREVIEW 303 THE STORAGE SYSTEMS 304 Sensory information storage system 304 Short-term memory 305 Long-term memory 306 SENSORY INFORMATION STORAGE 307 VISUAL DISPLAY EXPERIMENTS 308 The capacity of SIS 310 SHORT-TERM MEMORY 315 Errors in recall from short-term memory 316 REHEARSAL 318 Forgetting 320 Attributes of memory 324 Selective interference: A useful experimental tool 328 ARE THERE SEPARATE SHORT-TERM MEMORIES FOR WORDS AND VISUAL IMAGES? 330 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 332 SUGGESTED READINGS USING MEMORY PREVIEW 337

9 FROM SHORT-TERM MEMORY TO LONG-TERM MEMORY 339 Learning lists 340 TESTING MEMORY 345 Memory and attention 346 Memory without attention 347 INTEGRATIVE PROCESSES 349 The need for organization 350 Depth of processing 354 STRATEGIES FOR REMEMBERING 358 Mnemonics 358 THE STUDY OF LONG-TERM MEMORY 366 Answering questions 367 Retrieving an image 370 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 378 SUGGESTED READINGS THE REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE PREVIEW 381 REPRESENTING INFORMATION IN MEMORY 382 The structure of concepts 382 Semantic definitions 384 Semantic networks 386 Sensory images and motor control images 390 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONCEPTS 391 Remembering events 393 Episodic and semantic memory 399 Using the data base 400 PROTOTYPES 406 MENTAL IMAGES 411 An experiment on images 412 A FINAL COMMENT 415 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 415 SUGGESTED READINGS 416

10 XVUi Contents 11. THE NEURAL BASIS OF MEMORY PREVIEW 419 STORING INFORMATION 420 Neural circuits of memory 421 DISORDERS OF MEMORY 428 Electroconvulsive shock 428 Amnesias 430 The cases of H.M. and N.A. 434 Other studies of amnesia 437 LOCALIZATION OF BRAIN FUNCTION 439 Specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain 441 Split brains in animals 443 Hemispheric specialization in humans 444 Two brains: fixed or flexible 449 Specialized hemispheres specialized thought 452 CONCLUSION 456 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 457 SUGGESTED READINGS 458 General 458 Memory mechanisms 458 Memory deficits 459 Hemispheric specialization LANGUAGE PREVIEW 463 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION 465 Conversational postulates 465 Communicating knowledge structures 466 ON TELLING LIES 469 THE RULES OF LANGUAGE 470 English grammar 473 The problem of reference 479 THE POWER OF WORDS 482 Words and morphemes 484 Lexical decomposition 485

11 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING 487 Understanding sentences 488 A SYSTEM FOR UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE 489 Demons 489 Understanding a particular sentence 490 Garden path sentences 492 SUMMARY 493 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 493 SUGGESTED READINGS LEARNING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PREVIEW 499 COGNITIVE LEARNING 500 Laws of learning ~, Learned helplessness 503 Reinforcement as a signal 505 Learning and awareness 507 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 507 Learning by experimentation 507 The importance of expectations 508 Sensorimotor learning 510 THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGES 511 Preoperational thought 512 Concrete operations 514 Formal operations 515 Thinking 516 LEARNING A LANGUAGE 517 Learning the vocabulary 517 The problem faced by the child 518 Learning words 519 Overgeneralization and overdiscrimination 521 Learning to speak 525 Imitation 526 Language as communication 528 Performance limits 529 LEARNING'AS ADDITIONS TO KNOWLEDGE 532

12 XX Contents REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 535 SUGGESTED READINGS 536 General issues in learning 536 Development 536 First language learning 538 Learning complex topics PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING PREVIEW 541 THE ANATOMY OF THE PROBLEM 543 Protocols 544 The procotol from DONALD + GERALD 544 The problem behavior graph 547 STRATEGIES OF PROBLEM SOLVING 551 Searching for solutions 553 Selecting operators 554 Limitations of protocol'analysis 557 HOW GOOD IS HUMAN PROBLEM SOLVING? 559 Limits imposed by short-term memory 560 Overcoming the limits 563 DECISION MAKING 565 DETERMINING VALUES 566 The psychological value of money 566 The value of complex alternatives 567 What is being optimized? 571 THE LOGIC OF CHOICE 572 RISKY DECISION MAKING 576 Utility in risky choices 576 Probability 577 Expected value 578 Subjective probability 579 Representativeness and availability 580 CONCLUSION 581 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 582 SUGGESTED READINGS 583 Problem solving 583

13 Decision making THE MECHANISMS OF THOUGHT PREVIEW 589 THINKING 590 Conscious and subconscious modes of thought 590 Subconscious problem solving 591 SOME PRINCIPLES OF PROCESSING 593 The processor 594 Memory 594 The trade-off between memory and processing 595 Day-arithmetic 595 Time sharing and multiple processors 599 HUMAN THOUGHT MECHANISMS 605 Dual processing units in the human 605 Meditation 607 The meddlesome nature of S 610 "^ The virtues of S 611 States of awareness 611 THE ANALYSIS OF HUMAN THOUGHT 615 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 617 SUGGESTED READINGS SOCIAL INTERACTIONS PREVIEW 621 PROTOTYPES AND SCHEMAS 622 Social stereotypes 623 Being sane in insane places 624 ATTRIBUTION THEORY 626 Attributing the cause of another's behavior 626 Attributing the causes of our own behavior 629 FORMING IMPRESSIONS 632 Information integration 632 Order effects 634

14 XXli Contents PATTERNS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION 635 Stereotyped patterns of interaction 635 I'm information processing, you're information processing 636 Scripts 638 THE PROCESSES OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE 640 Bystander behavior 642 Bystander apathy 644 Conformity 645 Compliance 647 INTERACTIVE DECISIONS 652 Bargaining 653 The bargaining procedure 653 The process of negotiation 657 SUMMARY 661 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 662 SUGGESTED READINGS STRESS AND EMOTION PREVIEW 667 STRESS 668 How to produce stress 668 Cognitive causes of stress 671 Performance under stress 672 INTERPRETING EMOTIONAL AROUSAL Emotions: one or many? 680 Interpreting emotions through context 684 A MODEL OF EMOTIONAL AROUSAL 687 REVIEW OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS 690 SUGGESTED READINGS 691 APPENDIX A. MEASURING PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES SCALING 693 Scale types 693 Scaling techniques 694

15 Magnitude estimation 696 The power law 698 "How much" versus "what kind" 698 Interpretation of the power function 699 Range of applicability 701 Cross-modality matching 701 How to scale 706 SUGGESTED READINGS 711 APPENDIX B. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS THE DECISION PROBLEM 715 THE DICE GAME 715 The criterion rule 717 Confidence ratings 721 The normal distribution 724 PROBLEMS 728 The fire sprinkler problem 728 ^ Memory 730 The dice game revisited 731 SUGGESTED READINGS 732 BIBLIOGRAPHY USING BASIC REFERENCE MATERIAL 735 Annual reviews 735 Psychological abstracts 735 The science citation index 735 The journals 736 GENERAL READINGS 737 REFERENCES 738 AUTHOR INDEX 763 SUBJECT INDEX 769