The Higgs Boson: Why We Needed It, and How We Found It. Maxim Perelstein, LEPP/Cornell U. CIPT Fall Workshop, Ithaca NY, October
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1 The Higgs Boson: Why We Needed It, and How We Found It Maxim Perelstein, LEPP/Cornell U. CIPT Fall Workshop, Ithaca NY, October
2 The basic question of particle physics: What is the world made of? What is the smallest indivisible building block of matter? Is there such a thing? In the 20th century, we made tremendous progress in observing smaller and smaller objects Today s accelerators allow us to study matter on length scales as short as 10^(-19) m
3 Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN (Geneva, Switzerland)
4 Particle Collider is a Giant Microscope! Optics: diffraction limit, Quantum mechanics: particles Higher energies Nucleus: Colliders before LHC: LHC: cm λ h/p E 1000 GeV 1 TeV min λ shorter distances: E 100 GeV proton mass waves, M p c 2 1 GeV cm cm
5 Particle Colliders Can Create New Particles! All naturally occuring matter consists of particles of just a few types: protons, neutrons, electrons, photons, neutrinos Most other known particles are highly unstable (lifetimes << 1 sec) do not occur naturally In Special Relativity, energy and momentum are conserved, but mass is not: energy-mass transfer is possible! E = mc 2 So, a collision of 2 protons moving relativistically can result in production of particles that are much heavier than the protons, made out of their kinetic energy This is how most elementary particles are discovered!
6 Another basic question: how did the Universe begin? High-energy particle collisions, today seen only in accelerators, were quite common in the high-temperature, high-density universe within the first second after the Big Bang!
7 All our knowledge about subatomic physics is summarized in the Standard Model - the most successful Physics theory ever! [from: particleadventure.org]
8 16 different elementary particles have been observed in collider experiments: 12 matter particles and 4 force particles (The Periodic Table - just like Chemistry, but much simpler and way cooler!) Matter particles are further divided into leptons and quarks There are 6 leptons and 6 quarks: 3 generations, 2 leptons and 2 quarks in each Particles in each row (e.g. u, c and t quarks) are identical except for their masses: t is heavier than c, which is heavier than u
9 Some Basic Properties of Matter Particles: Each matter particle has an antiparticle, with exactly the same mass but opposite electric charge Quarks do not exist as free objects, but only as constituents of baryons (a bound state of 3 quarks) and mesons (a bound state of a quark and an antiquark) Examples: p = uud, n = udd, p =ūū d, π + = u d, s of baryons and mesons have been observed, all can be understood as bound states of the known quarks Most particles are unstable (decay into other particles, with lifetimes <<1 sec) Exceptions: electron, 3 neutrinos, 2 baryons: proton (uud) and neutron (udd), and their antiparticles, are STABLE
10 FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES: Gravitational force: motion of planets, rockets, apples,... Electromagnetic force: electricity, radiowaves, light,... Weak force: origin of radioactivity Strong force: binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus Gravity is very weak a small magnet can balance the gravitational effect of the entire Earth, BUT: Only one type of gravitational charge (always attractive), forces add up very relevant over long distances (while E&M charges cancel)
11 Modern Picture of Forces: forces between matter particles are due to exchange of force particles For example: Electromagnetic force between electrons is due to a photon exchange
12 Quantum Electrodynamics - combines Maxwell s theory of electromagnetism, Special Relativity and Quantum Mechanics Feynman Electric and magnetic forces are described by emission and absorption of photon a particle of zero mass, the force carrier of electromagnetism Feynman Diagram [Nobel prize 1965, with Schwinger, Tomonaga]
13 Weak Interactions Weak force is described by a theory just like electrodynamics, but instead of photon, mediating particles are the W and Z bosons Weak force is short-range, with range about cm: V weak e r/r 0 This implies that the W and Z bosons are massive: r M h 100 GeV cr 0 Discovery of W and Z: CERN, 1983 [Nobel prize 1984: Rubbia, van der Meer] Feynman diagram for the neutron beta-decay
14 EM-Weak Unification d!/dq 2 (pb/gev 2 ) HERA I high Q 2 e - p H1 e - p NC ZEUS e - p NC SM e - p NC (CTEQ5D) EM and Weak forces become equally strong at short distances of order cm H1 e - p CC ZEUS e - p CC SM e - p CC (CTEQ5D) Same theory describes both forces in a unified framework y < [blue=em, red=weak] Q 2 (GeV 2 ) [Nobel prize 1979: Glashow, Salam, Weinberg]
15 Strong Interactions Strong force is also described by a theory very similar to electrodynamics, the force particle is the gluon Due to peculiar nature of the gluon, the strong force grows with distance between charges: V r Only quarks experience the strong force, leptons are immune to it (neutral). This explains why quarks are confined and leptons are not! [Nobel prize 2004: Gross, Politzer, Wilczek] At short distances, the strong force gets weaker - the closer together you bring the quarks, the more freedom they feel! ( asymptotic freedom )
16 Gravitational Interactions Gravitational force is supposedly described by a theory very similar to electrodynamics, the force particle is the graviton Just like photon is a quantum of electromagnetic wave, graviton would be a quantum of gravitational wave Gravitaional waves are predicted by General Relativity, and their indirect effects have been seen, but NO direct observation so far! LIGO gravitational wave detectors in Hanford, Washington and Livingston, Louisiana
17 This concludes our brief tour of matter particles... and their interactions/force particles!
18 Predictive Power of the Standard Model The Standard Model is not just a list of particles and a classification - it is a theory that makes detailed, precise quantitative predictions! Consider a head-on collision of a 100 GeV electron and a 100 GeV antielectron ( positron ). Possible outcomes: e + e,µ + µ,τ + τ,p p, W + W,e + e + e e,... Quantum mechanics: there is no way to know for sure which outcome will occur in a given collision, but the SM predicts probabilities ( cross sections ) of each outcome, plus details like directions of the produced particles, etc. Works spectacularly well! (some predictions experimentally verified to 0.1% accuracy)
19 Symmetry in the Standard Model Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model relies on a set of symmetries: relations among various particles (e.g. up and down quark). If symmetries are exact, predictions are incorrect: for example, all matter and force particles are predicted to be massless
20 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking Solution: Symmetries are Broken, but very subtly: Spontaneously Analogy: Empty space is isotropic, but space inside a capacitor is not - E field breaks the symmetry! In the SM, the Universe is assumed to be filled with a field: Higgs field Higgs field is scalar (like e.g. temperature) space still isotropic Higgs field breaks symmetries between particles gives them mass! Higgs Englert Brout 1964
21 Mass Generation, in Cartoons Mass is due to bumping into the Higgs field Different particles have different masses due to different strength of their interaction with the Higgs field ( charge )
22 Mass Generation, in Cartoons Mass is due to bumping into the Higgs field Different particles have different masses due to different strength of their interaction with the Higgs field ( charge )
23 Particles and Fields Field Wave Particle Electric+Magnetic Fields EM Waves Photons Relativity and Quantum Mechanics guarantee: particle e.g. electron field, proton field,..., Higgs particle! field!
24 Higgs: SM Predictions To recap: Massive particles + symmetries Higgs field Higgs particle - the 17th pillar of the SM! Predictions of the SM: Mass: roughly between 100* and 1000 GeV Cross Section : How many produced in a given number of proton-proton collisions (~100,000/year at the LHC, compared to 10^16 total collisions) Lifetime : about 10^(-22) sec Decay channels : 2 photons, 2 W s, 2Z s, 2 quarks, etc., and relative rates for each one ( branching fractions )
25 Finding the Higgs Accelerate 2 protons to very high energies Collide them at interaction points : energy mass Produced Higgs bosons instantly decay, for example into two photons Surround interaction points by detectors which can detect Higgs decay products Analyze the data from the detectors: find a way to distinguish the Higgs event from 10^11 non-higgs events
26 LHC Animation: The Bottle to Bang or
27 Detectors at the LHC Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS)
28 Detectors at the LHC ATLAS Detector
29 Anatomy of the CMS
30 Anatomy of the CMS
31 Higgs Candidate Event 1 2 photons
32 Higgs Candidate Event 2 2 electrons + 2 positrons
33 Discovery! [CERN Seminar, July ] Signal (Higgs events) Background (non-h events)
34 CERN Seminar, July 4, years after the theoretical prediction...
35 Future: Is This Really the SM Higgs? Mass is due to bumping into the Higgs field Different particles have different masses due to different strength of their interaction with the Higgs field ( charge ) Reflected in relative rates of various decay channels: 2 photon, WW, 2 quarks, etc.
36 Future: Is This Really the SM Higgs? Mass is due to bumping into the Higgs field Different particles have different masses due to different strength of their interaction with the Higgs field ( charge ) Reflected in relative rates of various decay channels: 2 photon, WW, 2 quarks, etc. Want to Measure These Rates Experimentally!
37 The Next Collider: ILC? ILC = International Linear Collider a.k.a. Higgs Factory : s of H s in clean environment Superconducting RF Cavities, developed at Cornell
38 Conclusions/Recap Standard Model of particle physics is an enormously successful theory of physics at distances down to ~10^(-18) cm Many predictions of the model verified experimentally over the last ~40 years, some with great precision The Higgs field permeating the Universe is necessary for the model to work, but not experimentally confirmed yet Search for the Higgs is a major focus for experiments at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN Particle discovered at CERN looks roughly consistent with the Higgs, but more work needed to test/confirm this hypothesis
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