The Relationship between Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory. (CLT) Factors and Project Success: A Case of Pakistan. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

Transcription

1 The Relationship between Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory (CLT) Factors and Project Success: A Case of Pakistan By Rizwan Amin Sheikh A thesis Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Strategy, Program and Project Management SKEMA Business School, Lille, France August 2012

2 Certificate of authorship/originality I certify that the work in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree, nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged within the text. I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis. Rizwan Amin Sheikh August 2012 Rizwan Amin Sheikh

3 Acknowledgement Looking back to the journey of PhD, I wish to express my most sincere thanks to everyone that helped me. My supervisor Professor Dr. Ralf Müller helped me immensely throughout the PhD process. During the course of the PhD I developed tremendous amount of respect and appreciation for him. I really admire his passion, dedication, and commitment to the PhD students. The quality and timeliness of his advice and feedback were invaluable. Without his guidance, help, and support it would have been impossible for me to complete my PhD. I also appreciate and would like to thank my Co-Supervisor Dr. Azhar Khan for his advice and motivation that he provided throughout my PhD. In addition, I want to thank Dr. Rodney Turner for his help, guidance, and support. Last, but not the least, I would like to thank my entire family including my mother (Mrs. Nasira), my wife (Huma), my daughters (Marryum and Sana), my son (Omar), and my brother (Imran) for their support and encouragement. They were a constant source of inspiration and kept me going throughout this long and tiring journey, especially at times when my motivation level was down. Again, thank you all! Rizwan Amin Sheikh

4 Abstract The existing literature on organizational behavior and general management theory frequently reports on the impacts of leadership and culture on organizations. Project management researchers have explored the relationship between leadership and project success and, to a minor extent, between national culture and project success; however, there seems to be a gap in research on the relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success. This study aims to investigate the relationship between culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) factors and project success from a CLT perspective in the context of Pakistan, which is a high power distance culture. In earlier studies, it has been shown that power distance is a national culture dimension that has a relationship with project management. Some researchers have stated that power distance is an important determinant of leadership styles. It has also been argued by researchers that projects can be managed more effectively by having the knowledge of power distance, which has led us to focus on relationship between culturally contingent leadership competencies and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. Our point of departure is national culture, leadership competencies, culturally contingent aspects of leadership, cultural dimensions of the GLOBE (Global Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) Research study, project success factors, and project success criteria. This study builds upon the research and theoretical framework of the GLOBE study and attempts to extend it to the project management arena. It provides direction for theory development from the CLT and project management perspectives. Through our proposed research model and a series of hypotheses, we investigate the relationship between six CLT factors (social sensitivity, face saving, bureaucratic, autonomous, internally competitive, and self-sacrificial) of the GLOBE study and project success criteria in the context of Pakistan, which can also have practical implications in the project Rizwan Amin Sheikh

5 management field. It can allow Pakistani organizations and senior managers to choose project managers with certain culturally contingent leadership competencies and possibly enhance the project success rate. Thus, millions of dollars can be saved by delivering projects successfully in Pakistan. The present cross-sectional study was conducted using an objective approach and quantitative methods under the positivism paradigm. The associated ontology, epistemology and methodology provide for an appropriate answer to the research questions. The unit of analysis was project manager. A worldwide web-based questionnaire was used to collect data from project managers working in Pakistan. Quantitative data analysis techniques including factor analysis and regression analysis were used to analyze 181 valid responses and to test the research model and hypothesized relationships mentioned in this study. This study has been conducted to: a) empirically test and extend culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) and its factors into project management area; b) help project managers in a high power distance culture like Pakistan to develop the required leadership competences consciously; c) help senior managers and organizations in Pakistan to choose appropriate candidates, in terms of their leadership competences, to fulfill the role of project managers. The results of our study indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain dimensions of national culture, leadership competencies, and project success in the context of Pakistan that has high power distance culture. Six research hypotheses pertaining to the seven CLT factors of the GLOBE study were tested through the research model. The social sensitivity Rizwan Amin Sheikh

6 factor was derived after the factor analysis. It is a combination of humane and status conscious CLT factors of the GLOBE study. The results of our study show that there is a linear and positive relationship between social sensitivity CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the social sensitivity leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. The second CLT factor is called face saving. There is a positive relationship between face saving CLT factor and project success, and the relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the face saving leadership competency (CLT factor) will have a positive relationship with project success. The third CLT factor is called bureaucratic. There is a linear and positive relationship between bureaucratic factor and project success, and the relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the bureaucratic leadership competency (CLT factor) will be able to contribute positively towards project success. The fourth CLT factor is called autonomous. There is a linear and negative relationship between autonomous CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the autonomous leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

7 The fifth CLT factor is called internally competitive. There is a linear and negative relationship between internally competitive CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the internally competitive leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. The sixth CLT factor is called self-sacrificial. There is a linear and positive relationship between self-sacrificial CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the self-sacrificial leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. The results of our study also indicated some nominal differences in leadership profiles of project managers by project type in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. However, when we performed a one-way ANOVA test, we found there were no statistically significant differences between leadership profiles of project managers by project type in Pakistan. The theoretical implications of the present study mainly focus on three key aspects: 1) verify the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT), contingency theory, and leadership competence based theories in the context of national culture; 2) enrichment of the leadership competency school; and 3) the development of the survey instrument in the specific context of Pakistan as it demonstrates the validity and reliability of the instrument, which can be used for future research on other high power distance cultures. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

8 There are four key managerial implications: 1) project managers in Pakistan must develop bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) as they are related to the national culture of Pakistan and they also have a positive relationship with project success; 2) senior managers and human resource managers in Pakistan should evaluate candidates based on their leadership competencies before appointing them to be project managers or bringing them into the pool of project managers; 3) Organizations in Pakistan through their training department or human resource department should design leadership training programs to help project managers develop their leadership competencies (CLT factors) with a specific focus on bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) as both factors have a positive relationship with project success; 4) Organizations in Pakistan can develop and initiate Leadership Development Programs through mentoring. Senior executives can act as mentors for young managers and future leaders. The main contributions of the present study are: 1) it has identified that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain dimensions of national culture, leadership, and project success in a country like Pakistan that has a high power distance culture; 2) it has identified and tested the relationship between the six CLT factors and project success criteria in the context of Pakistani culture; 3) there were no statistically significant differences between leadership profiles of Pakistani project managers by project type; 4) Finally, this study has empirically tested and extended the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory of the GLOBE study into project management arena. All these findings can be used for future research. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

9 Keywords: national culture; leadership; culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT); project success; and GLOBE study Rizwan Amin Sheikh

10 Table of Contents Certificate of authorship/originality... 2 Acknowledgement... 3 Abstract... 4 List of Tables Chapter 1 Introduction Background Research questions and unit of analysis Methodology of the study Summary of the research findings Structure of the thesis Summary of the chapter...32 Chapter 2 Literature Review General Management Literature on National Culture Organization Behavior and Project Management Literature on Leadership Literature on the Relationship between National Culture and Leadership Literature Review of the GLOBE Study The Literature on the Relationship between Leadership and Project Success Proposed Model for Future Research Summary of the Literature Review Chapter 3 Methodology Research Philosophy Paradigm Ontology Epistemology Methodology Research Models and Research Methods: Rizwan Amin Sheikh

11 3.1.6 Brief summary Research model execution Data collection instrument development Data collection and presentation Data analysis method Validity and reliability Summary of the Research Methodology Chapter 4 Quantitative Data Analysis and Results Variables Check for Performing Analysis Independent Variables Check-Up for Performing Analysis Dependent Variables Check-Up for Performing Analysis Identification of Underlying Structures of Concepts of CLT Factors CLT Factors Project Success Factor Reliability Test of Project Success Variables Research Model and Hypotheses Regression Analysis Pre-Examinations for Regression Analysis Rationalization of Data Analysis Method Adoption Data Analysis and Results Summary of Research Results Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion Summary of the research process Overview and discussion of the research findings Discussion and Identification of the CLT Factors through Factor Analysis Research Hypotheses Testing Answers to the research questions Answer to Research Question Answer to Research Question Answer to Research Question Theoretical implications Rizwan Amin Sheikh

12 5.6 Managerial implications Strengths and limitations Recommendations for future research Chapter summary Chapter 6 Appendices References Appendix A: Survey Form for Research on National Culture, Leadership, and Project Success Appendix B: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix Appendix C: Anti-Image Correlation Matrices of Original CLT Variables Appendix D: Communalities for the original factor analysis Appendix E: Multiple Comparisons of the Mean for CLT Factors by Project Type Appendix F: Summary of Research Questions, Research Hypotheses, Key Findings, Theoretical Contributions, and Managerial Contributions Rizwan Amin Sheikh

13 List of Figures Figure 2-1 A model of culture Figure 2-2 The integrated theory Figure 2-3 Summary of the GLOBE Study Figure 2-4 Timeframe of success dimensions Figure 2-5 Leadership competencies and project success criteria model Figure 2-6 Research Model and Theoretical Framework Figure 3-1 The research onion Figure 3-2 Ontology, Epistemology and Methods Figure 3-3A typology of approaches for studying organizational change Figure 4-1 Histogram: Regression Standardized Residual Figure 4-2 PP-Plot of Regression Standardized Residual 176 Figure 4-3 Scatter Plot. 177 Figure 4-4 Social Sensitivity CLT Factor by Project Type. 179 Figure 4-5 Face Saving CLT Factor by Project Type Figure 4-6 Bureaucratic CLT Factor by Project Type. 181 Figure 4-7 Autonomous CLT Factor by Project Type 182 Figure 4-8 Internally Competitive CLT Factor by Project Type 183 Figure 4-9 Self-Sacrificial CLT Factor by Project Type 184 Rizwan Amin Sheikh

14 List of Tables Table 2-1 Summary of Connotations of Power Distance Index Differences Found in Survey Research.. 38 Table 2-2 The Power Distance Societal Norms.. 39 Table 2-3 Fifteen leadership competencies Table 2-4 CLT dimensions and twenty-one primary factors Table 2-5 Nine cultural dimensions of GLOBE..59 Table 2-6 GLOBE s seven culturally contingent leadership factors including the range of country scores Table 2-7 The nine schools of project management and their antecedents 67 Table 2-8 Project success factors 69 Table 2-9 Project success criteria 70 Table 2-10 The five main dimension of project success.. 72 Table 2-11 Descriptions of success dimensions for various project types. 74 Table 2-12 Summary of literature review. 77 Table 3-1 Ontology, epistemology, methodology and method Table 3-2 Comparison of positivism and constructivism 88 Table 3-3 Alternative epistemologies in MOS research.. 92 Table 3-4 Ontology and Epistemology Table 3-5 Dimensions of contrast in research methods. 96 Table 3-6 Dimensions of contrast for this study 99 Table 3-7 Questionnaire Design Section A: Project Success Table 3-8 Questionnaire Design Section B: Project Manager / Leader Behavior Rizwan Amin Sheikh

15 Table 3-9 Questionnaire Design Section C: Project Type Table 3-10 Questionnaire Design Section D: Demographics. 106 Table 3-11 Questionnaire design implementations mapped to remedies for self-report issues..111 Table 3-12 Frequency Distributions of Industry Area of Project Managers. 116 Table 3-13 Frequency Distributions: Project Type of Last Project Table 3-14 Frequency Distributions of Complexity of Last Project. 118 Table 3-15 Frequency Distributions of Stages of Projects Managed By Project Managers. 119 Table 3-16 Frequency Distributions of Project Type By Strategic Importance Table 3-17 Frequency Distributions: Age of Project Managers 121 Table 3-18 Frequency Distributions: Gender of Project Managers. 122 Table 3-19 Frequency Distribution of Total Work Experience 123 Table 3-20 Frequency Distribution by Education 124 Table 4-1 Descriptive Statistics of CLT Factors (independent variables) Table 4-2 Descriptive Statistics of Project Success (dependent variable). 132 Table 4-3 KMO and Bartlett's Test Table 4-4 Factor Loadings, Eigenvalues, and Percent Variance Explained Table 4-5 Factor Loadings and Component Matrix Table 4-6 Rotated Component Matrix Table 4-7 Mapping of Final Six Factors to the GLOBE CLT Factors. 140 Table 4-8 Summary of Reliability Scale for all Six CLT Factors 143 Table 4-9 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Case Processing Summary Table 4-10 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-11 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Item Statistics.144 Rizwan Amin Sheikh

16 Table 4-12 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix Table 4-13 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Item-Total Statistics 145 Table 4-14 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Scale Statistics 146 Table 4-15 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Case Processing Summary..146 Table 4-16 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-17 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Item Statistics. 147 Table 4-18 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix. 147 Table 4-19 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Item-Total Statistics 148 Table 4-20 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Scale Statistics 148 Table 4-21 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Case Processing Summary 149 Table 4-22 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Reliability Statistics 149 Table 4-23 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Item Statistics. 149 Table 4-24 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix 150 Table 4-25 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Item-Total Statistics Table 4-26 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Scale Statistics Table 4-27 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Case Processing Summary.151 Table 4-28 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Reliability Statistics 152 Table 4-29 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Item Statistics 152 Table 4-30 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix Table 4-31 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Item-Total Statistics. 153 Table 4-32 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Scale Statistics. 154 Table 4-33 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Case Processing Summary Rizwan Amin Sheikh

17 Table 4-34 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-35 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Item Statistics Table 4-36 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix Table 4-37 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Item-Total Statistics 156 Table 4-38 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Scale Statistics Table 4-39 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Case Processing Summary 156 Table 4-40 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-41 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Item Statistics 157 Table 4-42 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix..158 Table 4-43 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Item-Total Statistics 158 Table 4-44 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Scale Statistics 159 Table 4-45 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Case Processing Summary 159 Table 4-46 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Reliability Statistics..160 Table 4-47 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Item Statistics 160 Table 4-48 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix..161 Table 4-49 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Item-Total Statistics..162 Table 4-50 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Scale Statistics 162 Table 4-51 Correlations Between Independent and Dependent Variables.168 Table 4-52 ANOVA 169 Table 4-53 Research Model Summary Table 4-54 Coefficients of our Research Model Rizwan Amin Sheikh

18 Table 4-55 Residual Statistics Table 4-56 One-Way ANOVA: CLT Factors and Project Type Table 4-57 Summary of Results of Research Hypotheses 186 Rizwan Amin Sheikh

19 Chapter 1 Introduction This introductory chapter describes the background of the study. The research questions and unit of analysis are presented. The methodology applied in the study and the research findings are also briefly introduced. The structure of the thesis is outlined at the end of the chapter. 1.1 Background According to McFarland, Senen, and Childress (1993), the 21st century would be known as the global world. In today s dynamic world, leaders need to be global and organizations need to cross societal, cultural, and physical boundaries to manage business operations and teams. Thus, the world has become a global village and businesses and organizations around the world need greater, effective, and cross-cultural communication, collaboration, and cooperation (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Alfred Zeien, the retired Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Gillette stated that his company lacked globally literate leaders (Ehrlich, 2002; House et al., 2004, p.5). It was stated in a survey of Fortune 500 firms that having competent global leaders was rated as the most important factor for business success (House et al., 2004, p. 5). In the same survey, 85% of executives stated that they do not think they have an adequate number of global leaders and more than 65% believe that their existing leaders needed additional skills and knowledge before they can meet or exceed the challenge of global leadership (Gregersen, Morrison, & Black, 1998; House et al., 2004, p.5). Researchers have also cited that there is a need for leadership in organizations (Gregersen, Morrison, & Black, 1998; House et al., 2004). Turner and Müller (2003, p. 7) have defined project as a temporary organization to which resources are assigned to undertake a unique, novel and transient endeavor managing the Rizwan Amin Sheikh

20 inherent uncertainty and need for integration in order to deliver beneficial objectives of change. Since a project is also an organization, although temporary, it also requires leadership. This leads to the significance of leadership competencies of project managers for project success. Some of the earlier studies have indicated a relationship between national culture and leadership. As per Javidan and Carl (2004), the relationship between national culture and leadership is an important and debatable subject. Due to the global nature of businesses, practitioners and researchers are keen to explain the impact of national culture on leadership attributes / competencies (Javidan & Carl, 2004). Other researchers have argued for a direct impact of culture on leadership styles, arguing that specific cultural traditions and norms are bound to differentiate leadership styles (Smith & Peterson, 1988). What may work in one culture may not work in another (House et al., 1999). Thus, projects that are successful in one cultural setting may not be successful in another culture as leadership competencies of project managers in different cultures and countries might be different. Geert Hofstede has conducted significant research on national cultural across various countries and cultures. Hofstede (1984, p.21) defines culture as: The collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one group or society from those of another. Culture includes systems of values; and values are among the building blocks of culture. Culture is to a human collectivity what personality is to an individual. It could be defined as the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influence a human group s response to its environment. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

21 Furthermore, examining leadership from a cultural perspective will enable researchers to fine tune theories and identify a broader range of variables and relationships (Dorfman, 1996; House et al., 1999; Triandis, 1993) and more robust theories. Triandis (1994), in a comprehensive review of the literature on national culture and leadership, stated that the optimum leadership in a country is strongly influenced by its cultural values. He showed that employees in individualistic countries prefer more freedom and autonomy while those in collective cultures favor security and in-group harmony (Javidan and Carl, 2005). It indicates that project managers leadership competencies / styles might also be influenced by national culture. In some cultures project managers might exercise freedom and autonomy while in other cultures they might have to practice collectivism. As per Hofstede (1980), collectivistic cultures are represented by individuals who can expect their relatives, clans, or other groups to look after them with unquestioning loyalty. This might mean that project managers working in collectivistic cultures might be expected to take care of their relatives, clans, or other family associations. Kanungo (2001) suggested that character development in leaders is a function of past experience, training, and socialization through their family, education, religious and other experiences. This means that the leader s cultural setting will have an important bearing on his or her motives and influence strategies (Javidan & Carl, 2004). It also indicates that national culture might have an influence or relationship with competencies of project managers. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

22 As per Javidan and Carl (2004), the more recent school of thought is that individuals view of leadership and their criteria for assessing leadership effectiveness are largely driven by their cultural background. As a result, culture is seen as a critical variable in defining leadership effectiveness and competencies. Thus, national culture might be a critical factor in determining leadership competencies of project managers. Hofstede and his colleagues (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede and Bond, 1988) have stated that power distance is as an important determinant of leadership styles. They further state that countries with a high power distance culture prefer autocratic leadership and a strong directive approach by supervisors. As per Javidan et al. (2006b), countries that score high on power distance cultural dimension are more stratified economically, socially, and politically. Those in position of authority expect and receive obedience. People in these cultures tend to have hierarchical decision making processes (Javidan et al., 2006b). This indicates that project managers working in high power distance cultures might adopt hierarchical decision making process, which might have a relationship with project success. On the other hand, countries with a low power distance culture prefer participatory management and a consultative approach by supervisors (Dorfman, 1996). In a study conducted by Nadeem (2010), Pakistan achieved the highest mean score of 5.86 on power distance dimension as compared to the original GLOBE (Global Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) Research study (House et al., 2004) where the highest mean value for power distance was 5.17 (range ). The GLOBE study and the underlying theories are described in the sections below. In addition, the comparison of Pakistan s power distance index score (PDI) with western countries is discussed in the forthcoming sections of this chapter. Pakistan has achieved the highest mean score on power distance cultural dimension among all Rizwan Amin Sheikh

23 the countries studied by the GLOBE project, which is the focus of our study; to investigate the relationship between national culture and leadership competencies of project managers working in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. While some earlier studies have investigated the relationship between national culture and leadership from an organization behavior perspective, there is a gap in research that explores the relationship between national culture and leadership from project management perspective. There is a further gap in research in terms of exploring this relationship in a high power distance country such as Pakistan. Thus, there is a gap and need to investigate the relationship between national culture and leadership from a project management perspective, especially in countries that score high on power distance dimensions as per Hosftede s 5-D model (Hofstede, 1980; 1984; 1991). According to Müller and Turner (2010), the competence of the project manager, including his or her leadership style is a contributor to project success and also, different types of projects require different profiles of competence. In their research, Müller and Turner (2010) have shown that the importance attached to project success criteria is different in different cultures; therefore, the evaluation of success is influenced by national culture, because the decision on project success criteria is determined by the weight assigned to different project success criteria. Thus, we also explore the relationship between leadership competencies and project success in a country like Pakistan that has a high power distance culture. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

24 We have chosen Pakistan for our research study to investigate the relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success because there have not been much literature and studies conducted on Pakistan in relation to the GLOBE study. Nadeem s (2010) study was the first one on Pakistan in relation to the GLOBE study and this is the second study from GLOBE s perspective on Pakistan. It might be noted that this study is the first research study that has attempted to extend GLOBE s culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) and its factors into project management with a focus on project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. Pakistan achieved the highest mean score of 5.86 as per Nadeem (2010) in relationship to the GLOBE study and it has scored (55) relatively high on power distance dimension as per Hofstede s (1980; 1984; 1991) 5-D model of national culture dimensions. Pakistan s score of 55 is high relative to the western countries like US (40), Canada (39), UK (35), Germany (35), and Sweden (31). According to Hofstede (1980), it means that Pakistan is a hierarchical society. It also means that people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This further leads us to explore the relationship between national culture and leadership competencies of project managers working in a culture like Pakistan. The theoretical base of our research is the GLOBE study and contingency theory. The GLOBE Research (House et al., 2004) has been one of the largest studies in recent times to link national culture and global leadership attributes. This study was a 10-year program based on quantitative Rizwan Amin Sheikh

25 data analysis of about 17,000 responses from managers working at 951 organizations, which were functioning in 62 societies throughout the world. The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) is significant because it focuses on global culture dimensions and leadership competencies that are contingent upon national culture. Both national culture dimensions and leadership attributes are directly related to our research topic. For a deeper and broader understanding of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004), we also explore the literature published by critics of the GLOBE study, including Hofstede (2006, 2010), Maseland and Van Hoorn (2009), and Brewer and Venaik (2010). The GLOBE study (House, et al. 2004, p. 15) has defined culture as: shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives that are transmitted across generations. Our study is helpful from a theoretical as well as a practical perspective. It has theoretical implications because it attempts to empirically test and extend the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory and the CLT factors into the project management arena with a focus on project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. It will provide future direction for theory development from CLT and project success perspectives. From a practical perspective, our research can help senior managers and organizations in Pakistan to recruit project managers with certain culturally contingent leadership competencies and profiles in order to deliver projects successfully. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

26 The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) has investigated the relationship between national culture and leadership with manager as its unit of analysis. We try to extend the GLOBE research into project management with project manager as a unit of analysis. Our research also builds upon the research that has been conducted by Müller and Turner (2007a; 2007b) on the relationship between leadership competencies and project success. Thus, there is a gap and need to bring the three bodies of knowledge together and to investigate the relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success in countries that have scored high on power distance dimension of culture. We have chosen Pakistan to conduct this study because Pakistan has scored relatively high on power distance dimension of culture as stated by Nadeem (2010) and Hofstede (1980). As mentioned earlier, the key objectives of our study are to: a) investigate the relationship between CLT factors and project success in a country like Pakistan, which has a high power distance culture; b) help project managers in Pakistan to develop the required leadership competences consciously; c) help senior managers and organizations in Pakistan to choose appropriate candidates, in terms of their leadership competences, to fulfill the role of project managers. This leads us to the next section that talks about the research questions and unit of analysis for this study. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

27 1.2 Research questions and unit of analysis We have derived the following research questions based on the background described in the previous section, the existing literature, and earlier studies conducted on national culture, leadership, and project success. 1. What is the relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan? 2. What is the relationship between culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) factors and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan? 3. What is the leadership profile (by project type) of a project manager working in Pakistan? The unit of analysis for this study is the project manager. 1.3 Methodology of the study In order to answer the series of research questions stated in the previous section, a cross-sectional quantitative study is conducted and positivism perspective is applied. A worldwide web-based questionnaire was used to collect information from project managers. There were a total of 181 valid responses that were collected. Factor analysis was performed to identify the six CLT factors (leadership competencies) of project managers working in Pakistan. Then, regression analysis was performed to test the research model and research hypotheses. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

28 The results derived from the quantitative study were cross validated with other researchers research results to draw credible conclusions. 1.4 Summary of the research findings The research findings of the present study are mainly in five parts, which are as follows. Verification of the relationship between national culture, leadership competencies, and project success There is a linear and positive relationship between some dimensions of national culture, leadership competencies, and project success. Identification of six CLT factors and their relationship with project success Six CLT factors that are identified through factor analysis in this study are: 1) social sensitivity; 2) face saving; 3) bureaucratic; 4) autonomous; 5) internally competitive; 6) self-sacrificial. Research hypotheses testing results The research hypotheses testing results show that the CLT factors bureaucratic and face saving have a linear and positive relationship with project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

29 Enrichment of leadership competency theory The GLOBE study (House, et. al., 2004) investigated the relationship between national culture dimensions and culturally contingent leadership competencies and Müller and Turner (2010) investigated the relationship between leadership competencies and project success. Thus, our study has built upon the earlier studies and enriched the leadership competency school. Extension of culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory into project management with a focus on project success The culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) and its factors are extended to project management area with a focus on project success. Since our research questions and findings are related to organization behavior and project success, this study has enhanced the Behavior and Success Schools of management (Turner, et al., 2010). 1.5 Structure of the thesis The structure of this thesis is as follows: Chapter 2 Literature review In this chapter, seven parts are reviewed. The first part is to describe the general management literature on national culture. The second part reviews organization behavior and project Rizwan Amin Sheikh

30 management literature on leadership. The third part reviews the literature on relationship between national culture and leadership. The fourth part reviews the literature on GLOBE study along with its critics. The fifth part reviews the literature on relationship between leadership and project success. The sixth part describes the proposed research model along with research hypotheses. Finally, based on the literature analyses in these six areas, the theoretical perspectives of the present study are clarified, the knowledge gaps are identified and the preliminary research hypotheses and research model are proposed. Chapter 3 Methodology In this chapter, the research methodology applied in the present study is discussed. It starts with the clarification of the underlying philosophy, that is, ontology, epistemology, methodology, and the research model applied in this study. This is followed by model execution through a quantitative study. The quantitative study is based on a worldwide web-based questionnaire. Chapter 4 Quantitative analysis In this chapter, the quantitative data collected through a worldwide web-based questionnaire are analyzed. By performing factor analysis, six CLT factors are identified. By using regression analyses, the research hypotheses and research model are tested. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

31 Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion In this chapter both the results of the study are discussed and the conclusions of the study are reported. The research findings of the present study are discussed through cross-validating with other researchers research findings, interpreting the possible reasons of the results, discussing the implications of the results. In addition, the research process and research findings are reviewed. Research questions of the study are answered. The theoretical and managerial implications of the research results are analyzed. The strengths and limitations of the study are discussed. Finally, recommendations for future research are given. Chapter 6 Appendices This chapter contains the following appendices: i. Appendix A contains the Survey Form for Research on National Culture, Leadership, and Project Success. ii. Appendix B contains the Inter-Item Correlation Matrix iii. Appendix C contains the Anti-Image Correlation Matrices of Original CLT Variables iv. Appendix D contains Communalities for the original factor analysis v. Appendix E contains Multiple Comparisons of the Mean for CLT Factors by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

32 vi. Appendix F contains Summary of Research Questions, Research Hypotheses, Key Findings, Theoretical Contributions, and Managerial Contributions 1.6 Summary of the chapter This chapter provided a brief overview of the research, starting from the motivation for the research to the applied methodology, and to the final research findings. Research questions of the study were raised in this chapter, which form the kernel of the entire study. All the work done was intended to answer these research questions. The next several chapters explain the research process chronologically. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

33 Chapter 2 Literature Review This chapter is organized in seven parts. The first part is to describe the general management literature on national culture. The second part reviews organization behavior and project management literature on leadership. The third part reviews the literature on relationship between national culture and leadership. The fourth part reviews the literature on GLOBE study along with its critics. The fifth part reviews the literature on relationship between leadership and project success. The sixth part describes the proposed research model along with research hypotheses. Finally, the summary of the chapter is presented. 2.1 General Management Literature on National Culture Social scientists have not agreed on a universal definition of culture (House et al., 2004, p. 15). Generally speaking, culture is reduced by researchers to a set of parameters of collectives that differentiate each collective in a meaningful way (House et al., 2004, p.57). One of the most notable and quantitative research studies on culture was done by Geert Hofstede. He is credited for his studies on culture and for exploring the differences among different cultures. The cultural dimensions model of Hofstede is popular for assessing and distinguishing between national cultures. Through research within a large multinational organization and its subsidiaries in 53 cultures, Hofstede & Bond (1988, p ) identified four major dimensions to explain the differences among cultures. The fifth dimension was added later on: Rizwan Amin Sheikh

34 1. Power Distance: The extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality that is defined from below, not from above; it suggests that a society s level of inequality is endorsed by its followers as much as by its leaders. Power and inequality are of course very fundamental aspects of any society, and any individual with some international experience is aware that all societies are basically unequal, but some are more unequal than others (Hofstede & Bond, 1988, p. 10). 2. Individualism versus Collectivism: This describes the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side, we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: Everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and the immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in groups; often their extended families (with uncles, aunts, and grandparents) continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word collectivism in this sense has no political meaning: It refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, involving all societies in the world (Hofstede & Bond, 1988, p ). 3. Masculinity versus. Femininity: The distribution of roles between the sexes is another fundamental issue for any society that may involve a range of solutions. Analysis of the IBM data revealed that women s values differ less among societies than do men s values. Further, if we restrict ourselves to men s values (which vary Rizwan Amin Sheikh

35 more from one country to another), we find that they contain a dimension from very assertive, competitive, and maximally different from women s values on the one side, to modest and nurturing and similar to women s values on the other. We have called the assertive pole masculine and the nurturing pole feminine. The women in the feminine countries have the same nurturing values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat more assertive and competitive, but not as much so as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men s values and women s values (Hofstede & Bond, 1988, p. 11). 4. Uncertainty Avoidance: It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are defined as novel, unknown, surprising, or different from usual. Uncertainty-avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by adhering to strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and (on the philosophical and religious level) a belief in absolute Truth: There can be only one Truth, and we have it. People in uncertainty-avoiding countries are also more emotional and are motivated by inner nervous energy. Uncertainty- accepting cultures are more tolerant of behavior and opinions that differ from their own; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist, allowing many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative; their environment does not expect them to express emotions (Hofstede & Bond, 1988, p. 11). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

36 5. Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation: The Long-Term Orientation is the fifth dimension, which was added in 1991 after the original four dimensions. This dimension was identified by Michael Bond and was initially called Confucian dynamism. Geert Hofstede added this dimension to his framework, and labeled this dimension long vs. short term. The long-term orientation dimension can be interpreted as dealing with society s search for virtue. Societies with a short-term orientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth. They are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results. In societies with a long-term orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results (Hofstede, 1991). It can be learned from Hofstede s definition of culture, as well as the five dimensions, that a project manager can be influenced by these cultural dimensions because he or she does not work in isolation. Hofstede and his colleagues (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede & Bond, 1988) have stated that power distance is as an important determinant of leadership styles. They further state that countries with a high power distance culture prefer autocratic leadership and a strong directive approach by supervisors. Since power distance is a key determinant of leadership style, it indicates that project managers working in high power distance culture might be impacted by the national culture. It also indicates that project managers leadership competencies might have a relationship with national culture, especially when they are working in a high power distance Rizwan Amin Sheikh

37 culture. Thus, a project manager would hold values and beliefs while living in a society or culture and executing projects. Different project managers would score differently on Hofstede s five dimensions. Table 2-1 below shows that connotations of power distance can be different across countries with low power distance index and high power distance index (Hofstede, 1984, p. 92). In addition, Table 2-2 shows that power distance societal norms can be different across countries with low power distance index and high power distance index ((Hofstede, 1984, p. 94). This shows that project managers working in high power distance cultures can have different management and leadership styles. As shown in Table 2-1 below, managers leadership and decision-making style can vary among countries with low and high power distance index. It indicates that project managers leadership style might also differ among countries with low and high power distance index. Table 2-2 below shows societal norms among countries with low and high power distance index can also differ. In high power distance cultures power holders are entitled to privileges while others are not. It indicates that project managers are entitled to privileges that other project team members might not enjoy in a high power distance culture. Thus, it indicates the need to conduct research from project management perspective in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

38 Table 2-1: Summary of Connotations of Power Distance Index Differences Found in Survey Research (Hofstede, 1984) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

39 Table 2-2: The Power Distance Societal Norms (Hofstede, 1984) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

40 Project managers working on international projects across various countries would acknowledge that project management is influenced by national culture, but most would find it difficult to answer how national culture influences project management (Shore & Cross, 2005). In their qualitative research of two case studies, Shore & Cross (2005) have shown that power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, humane treatment, and future orientation are dimensions of national culture that are linked to project management. They further state that these dimensions can help explain the decision-making as well as management s behavior. This indicates that the power distance cultural dimension can have an influence on leadership style of project managers, which in turn can have a relationship with project success. In another study by Tan and Chong (2003), they have shown the relationship between power distance and project management. They have shown that knowledge of power distance can enable project managers to manage project more effectively. Their study was specific to construction projects in Singapore, which has scored 74 on the power distance index (Hofstede, 1984). Research shows that differences in cultural values help explain the variance in job satisfaction and organizational commitment of employees. Because a project is also a temporary organization (Turner & Müller, 2003), it can also be impacted by national culture. Culture is an important antecedent to organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991; Wiener, 1982). Clugston, Howell, and Dorfman (2000) identify important relationships between individual measures of culture and the elements of a nine-factor commitment model to support the view that cultural socialization is antecedent to organizational commitment. As stated by Palich, Hom, and Griffeth Rizwan Amin Sheikh

41 (1995, p. 675), power distance may also calibrate the amount of bonding job scope induces. It indicates that project scope may adjust the amount of bonding of the project team, which might have an impact on project success. Kirkman and Shapiro (2001) build upon previous research and argue that cultures with low power distance scores show higher levels of organizational commitment. It means that cultures with high power distance might show lower level of organizational commitment. It also indicates that project managers working in high power distance culture might have lower commitment levels to their projects, which could have an association with project success. These studies mentioned above indicate a relationship, positive or negative, between national culture and organization, which means there can be a relationship between national culture and a project. However, these studies do not explain the nature of the relationship between national culture and project; therefore, we also reviewed the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) model of culture. According to a quantitative study of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998), culture consists of a number of layers: there is an outer layer (explicit products), which consists of the products and artifacts that represent the symbols of the deeper and more basic values and assumptions about life. Then there is the middle layer, which consists of the norms and values of an individual group. Norms are described as the mutual sense a group has of what is right and wrong. Values determine the meaning of good and bad, and are thus related to the ideas shared by a group (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). The core layer is the implicit layer, which represents the shared meanings that are integrated into people within a culture, yet go Rizwan Amin Sheikh

42 beyond the people in the culture (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). This model of culture is shown in Figure 2-1. Figure 2-1: A model of culture (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). As stated by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998), basic norms and values can vary across cultures and countries. Similarly, project managers norms and values can differ across cultures. Wang (2001a; 2001b) acknowledges that norms and value can differ across national cultures. He also states that project management culture can be a common factor between national culture and organizations. In his research studies later on, Wang (2002) states that there is a link between national culture dimension of power distance and project management. He states that people are more task-oriented and have low power distance in project management. It shows that there is a link between national culture and project management so project managers values and norms can be influenced by national culture. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

43 It is shown in the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) model that a project manager would be influenced by all three layers of the model because he or she would have basic assumptions about life, norms, and values and would believe in shared meanings and implicit assumptions about life. Employees use national culture as a key organizing principle in understanding their work, their approach of getting the work done, and the way they expect to be treated (Newman & Nollen, 1996). Thus, it indicates that a project manager can also use national culture as an organizing principle for understanding his/her work, getting the project tasks completed, the way he/she expects to be treated. Predictable behavior (Wright & Mischel, 1987), self-efficacy (Earley, 1994), and high performance (Earley, 1994) can be yielded by management practices that emphasize on national cultural values because similar management practices are consistent with existing behavioral expectations and routines that go beyond the workplace (Newman & Nolley, 1996). Therefore, it indicates that national culture can have an impact on the leadership style of a project manager. Before establishing a relationship between national culture and leadership through literature, it is important to understand leadership; therefore, the next section explores the literature on leadership. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

44 2.2 Organization Behavior and Project Management Literature on Leadership The importance of leaders for a global world has been identified, and leadership has also been a topic for researchers for decades, yet there is no universal consensus on the definition of leadership (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 2002; House et al., 2004, p. 15). Leadership has been defined in different ways by more than one authority on the subject. During the first GLOBE research conference, held at the University of Calgary in Canada in 1994, fifty-four researchers from 38 countries agreed to the following GLOBE definition of leadership: it is the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization of which they are members (House et al., p. 56). Bennis and Nanus (1985, p. 62) make an important distinction between management and leadership: To manage means to bring about, to accomplish, to have responsibility for, and to conduct. Leading is influencing, guiding in direction, course, action, and opinion. This distinction is crucial. Managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right things. The difference between leadership and management has also been identified by Kotter (1990, p. 45): leadership and management are two distinctive and complementary systems of action. Management is about coping with complexity. Leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change. Thus, leadership can be important on projects, because project managers have to deal Rizwan Amin Sheikh

45 with multiple facets of change on projects (i.e., employee turnover, economic conditions, environmental changes, organization change, and others). In a volatile and increasingly difficult business environment, both of these are essential for achieving success. Both strong leadership and strong management should be used to balance each other. Kotter (1990) emphasizes the role senior executives in an organization need to play in order to develop leaders. Leaders can be found by identifying and recruiting people who possess leadership qualities and have that potential early in their careers, and then working on nurturing and developing their skills over a period of time. However, as more people with leadership potential are needed, organizations also need more people to create the culture that creates that leadership. Institutionalizing a leadership-centered culture is the ultimate act of leadership (Kotter, 1990). The same can be true for projects in which leadership skills and competencies can be vital, and project managers may need to exhibit leadership qualities in order to deliver projects successfully. According to the International Project Management Association s (IPMA) Competencies Baseline, Leadership involves providing direction and motivating others in their role or task to fulfill the project s objectives. It is a vital competence for project managers. (IPMA, 2007, p. 86) Leadership Theories and Competencies The six schools of leadership theories, which have been around for the last seventy years, as summarized by Turner and Müller (2005), are: Trait school Rizwan Amin Sheikh

46 Behavior school Contingency school Visionary school Charismatic school Emotional intelligence school The trait school concentrates on the leadership traits people are born with, such as their physical appearance, capabilities, and personalities. Behavior school focuses on the styles adopted by leaders for their particular leadership tasks and in which the leadership and behaviors can be learned. Contingency school deals with the suitability of different leadership styles in different leadership situations. Visionary and charismatic schools are concerned with organizational change. Emotional intelligence emphasizes self-management and interaction management. Our research questions and findings are related to traits and leadership styles of project managers working in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. The leadership styles of project managers can also be contingent upon national culture because some researchers have argued for a direct impact and influence of culture on leadership styles (Smith & Peterson, 1988; Triandis, 1994). Thus, the trait, behavior, and contingency schools summarized by Turner and Müller (2005) are related to this research study. According to these schools of thought, leadership is considered as a combination of personal characteristics and areas of competency. It is seen as a combination of skills and knowledge, such as achievement and empowerment, with personal characteristics, such as conscientiousness, which make a leader (Geoghegan & Dulewicz, 2008). The theoretical framework and research Rizwan Amin Sheikh

47 model presented in this paper build upon the trait, behavior, contingency schools as described by Turner and Müller (2005) and the project success school by Turner, Huemann, Anbari, & Bredillet (2010). The competence school is well represented by Dulewicz and Higgs. Dulewicz and Higgs (2003) have identified 15 leadership competencies, which affect the performance of leaders. The competencies have been grouped into three types: intellectual (IQ), managerial (MQ), and emotional (EQ). The Fifteen Leadership Competencies (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003) are shown in Table 2-3 below. Table 2-3: Fifteen Leadership Competencies (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

48 As mentioned thus far, the literature on leadership makes it quite clear that leadership is an essential part of managing organizations and people. Because a project is also a temporary organization (Turner & Müller, 2003) and it entails managing people and tasks, it also requires leadership skills and capabilities. In the next section, we explore the literature on the relationship between national culture and leadership. 2.3 Literature on the Relationship between National Culture and Leadership We have mainly reviewed the journals and books related to organizational behavior, leadership, project management, and psychology, as they are directly related to our research questions. National cultures and their respective management practices differ, including strategic decisionmaking (Schneider & DeMeyer, 1991), leadership style (Dorfman & Howell, 1988; Puffer 1993), and human resource management (Newman & Nollen, 1996). The impact of leadership style on the management and success of an international and global business is an area of research that is gaining importance. A manager's national culture plays the central role in the eventual success of international and global businesses, through the mediation of his or her cultural values on leadership style (Byrne & Bradley, 2007). As stated earlier, some of the earlier studies have indicated a relationship between national culture and leadership. Javidan and Carl (2004) have stated the relationship between national Rizwan Amin Sheikh

49 culture and leadership is an important and debatable subject. This indicates a relationship between national culture and leadership. Other researchers have argued for a direct impact of culture on leadership styles, arguing that specific cultural traditions and norms are bound to differentiate leadership styles (Smith & Peterson, 1988). While some of the earlier studies have explored the relationship between national culture and leadership from an organization behavior perspective, there is a gap in research that investigates the relationship between national culture and leadership from a project management perspective in a high power distance culture. The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) is one of the popular studies conducted in this regard because it links national culture to leadership dimensions and competencies of managers. According to House et al. (2004), cross-cultural literature has shown a strong relationship between national culture and leadership styles. It indicates that there can be a relationship between national culture and leadership style of project managers as they are the leaders of their projects. House et al. (2004, p. 18) state that leadership affects organizational form, culture, and practice. The further state that organizational culture is influenced and maintained by founders and subsequent leaders (Bass, 1985; Miller & Droge, 1986; Schein, 1992; Thompson & Luthans, 1990; Yukl, 2002). This shows that projects manager s leadership style can be related to project success. House et al. (2004, p. 53) has stated that there is empirical evidence that shows leader attributes, status, behavior, and influence vary largely because of culturally unique forces in the country or Rizwan Amin Sheikh

50 regions in which the leaders function (House, Wright, & Aditya, 1997). This indicates that project managers leadership attributes, status, behavior and influence can also vary because of the national culture of the country that they are working in. Many researchers have argued that there is a direct impact of culture on leadership styles (House et al., 2004), arguing that specific cultural traditions, values, ideologies, and norms are bound to differentiate as much or even more than structural factors between societies. (Lammers & Hickson, 1979, p. 10). The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) investigated various leadership dimensions from national culture perspectives, which are directly related to our research questions. It indicates that national culture can have an impact on the leadership style of a project manager, which in turn can have an impact on the project success. Turner and Müller (2005) and the general management literature suggest that a manager s leadership style and competence are keys to successful performance in business, and some studies have confirmed a correlation between these and the performance of organizations and companies. Turner (1999) identified leadership as one of the project success factors in its seven forces model. Müller and Turner (2010) further described that competence of the project manager, including his or her leadership style, is a contributor toward project success. As per Javidan, Dorfman, Sully de Luque, and House (2006), the GLOBE study differentiates culture in terms of cultural practices (the way things are) and cultural values (the way things should be). Hofstede and his colleagues (Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayr, & Sanders, 1990) make a distinction between organizational and national culture by identifying the difference between values and practices. They summarized that organizational culture relates more directly to Rizwan Amin Sheikh

51 organizational practices, whereas culture at the country/national level relates to values rather than practices (Hofstede et al., 1990). Values are defined as broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Practices are more superficial and easy to change than values. (Hofstede, 1999, p. 36) Hofstede s work leads to the conclusion that organizational cultures can be managed because their controlling factors are management practices and other organizational and contextual factors. On the other hand, national cultures are normally firmly established and they are difficult to change because they are based on values (Dastmalchian, Lee, & Ng, 2000). 2.4 Literature Review of the GLOBE Study The GLOBE study of 62 societies/countries (House et al., 2004) and other empirical research (House et al., 1997) have shown that status and influence of leaders vary considerably as a result of the cultural forces in which the leaders function. The theoretical basis of the GLOBE Research study (House et al., 2004, p. 16) was the integration of: implicit leadership theory (Lord & Maher, 1991), value/belief theory of culture (Triandis, 1995), implicit motivation theory (McClelland, 1961; McClelland, 1985), and structural contingency theory of organizational form and effectiveness (Donaldson, 1993; Hickson, Hinings, McMillan, & Schwitter, 1974). The GLOBE study tries to link national culture dimensions with global leadership dimensions and competencies that are contingent upon culture. McClelland s (1961) research work on motivation can be applicable to project management as well. He said, Pay attention to the effects that your plans will have on the values, motives, and attitudes of people because in the long run it is these factors that will determine whether the plans are successful in speeding economic development (McClelland, 1961, p 393). Since Rizwan Amin Sheikh

52 planning is a critical activity in project management, it can have an influence on the values, motives, and attitudes of project managers as well as the project teams. McClelland (1961, p. 393) further states that economists, sociologists, and others have stressed the importance of values and motives in speeding up or slowing down the economic development. It indicates that values and motives can be importance for project success as well. Implicit Leadership Theory (ILT) Research on ILTs and their implications for leadership perception emerged 35 years ago in response to developments in social cognitive theory (Shondrick, Dinh, & Lord, 2010). Fiske and Taylor (1984, 2008) describe the social cognitive theory by saying that information is represented abstractly in the forms of cognitive categories called schemas. These schemas are used by people to symbolize the prototypical features of many categories like types of animals, cars, events, emotions, and people. All these different kinds of schemas have an impact on the social cognition and person s perception by shaping a person s interpretation, perception, and memory of social stimuli based on its categorical membership (Fiske & Taylor, 1984). ILTs can be seen as schemas for leaders, where perceptions of others can be guided by providing them with a set of basic assumptions and beliefs as what to expect and how to get accustomed to and interact with various individuals (Brown, Scott, & Lewis, 2004; Fiske & Taylor, 1984, 2008). This indicates that ILTs can be applied to project managers as well, because they can also be provided with basic set of assumptions as to how interact with project team members while working on different projects across various countries and cultures. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

53 An individual s implicit leadership theory refers to the beliefs held about how leaders behave in general and what is expected of them (Eden & Leviathan, 1975). Implicit leadership theories can be classified as prototypes or ideal instances of leadership (Lord, Foti, & De Vader, 1984). Lord and Maher (1991) give a detailed explanation of ILT. According to implicit leadership theory (ILT), individuals hold a set of beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and behaviors that contribute to or impede outstanding leadership. These belief systems (sometimes referred to as prototypes, cognitive categories, mental models, schemas, and stereotypes in the broader social cognitive literature) are assumed to affect the extent to which an individual accepts and responds to others as leaders (Lord & Maher, 1991). Although leadership perceptions might not be the reality, they are used by perceivers to assess and consequently differentiate leaders from non-leaders or effective from ineffective leaders. This kind of attribution process provides a foundation for social power and influence (Lord & Maher, 1991). A prototype can be perceived as a collection of characteristic traits or attributes. The more commonalities there are between the perceived individual and the leadership prototype, the better the chances of this person being considered as a leader (Offermann, Kennedy, & Wirtz, 1994; Foti & Luch 1992). According to Shondrick et al. (2010), the Globe study extended ILT to the cultural level of analysis by arguing that the structure and content of these belief systems will be shared among individuals in common cultures. This shared cultural level of analog of individual implicit leadership theory (ILT) is referred to as culturally endorsed, implicit leadership theory (CLT). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

54 Value Belief Theory Hofstede defines value as a broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others (Hofstede, 1980). As stated by House et. al. (2004, p. 17), Triandis (1995) defines the valuebelief theory and according to them, the values and beliefs held by the members of cultures influence the degree to which the behaviors of individuals, groups, and institutions within cultures are enacted and the degree to which they are viewed as legitimate, acceptable, and effective. Collectively, the nine dimensions mentioned in the GLOBE study reflect not only the dimensions of Hofstede s theory but also David McClelland s theory of human motivation (McClelland, 1961; McClelland, 1985). Implicit Motivation Theory According to House, et. al. (2004, p. 17), the implicit motivation theory is a theory of nonconscious motives, which was initially developed by McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell (1953). The implicit motivation theory asserts that the essential nature of human nature can be understood in terms of three implicit (non-conscious) motives: achievement, affiliation, and power (social influence). Three obvious motives that are predictive of short-term, non-complex, and related to achievement, affiliation, and power have been recognized by this theory (House et. al, 2004, p. 17). This shows that nature of project managers working in different cultures can be understood by their achievements, affiliation, and social influence (power). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

55 As stated by House et al. (2004, p. 17), behavioral intentions and conscious values predict distinct task behaviors for short periods of time under constant situational forces (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1970), but implicit motives predict (1) motive arousal in the presence of particular stimuli; (2) spontaneous behavior in the absence of motive-arousal stimuli; and (3) long-term individual global behavior patterns, such as social relationship patterns, citizenship behavior, child-rearing practices, and leadership styles. The GLOBE study attempted to test the theory of motivation in the context of national culture. However, the theory of motivation can be investigated in the context of project management and national culture. Structural Contingency Theory The central proposition of this theory is that there is a set of demands that are imposed on organizations that must be met if organizations are to survive and be effective. These demands are referred to as organizational contingencies. It is asserted that these contingencies influence organizational form and practice and that congruence between the demands of the contingencies and organizational form and practice is associated with organizational effectiveness (Donaldson, 1993; Hickson, Hinings, McMillan, & Schwitter, 1974). Hickson et al. (1974) declared the propositions of this theory to be universal and culture free on the grounds that the demands enforced on organizations by the organizational contingencies are so compelling that it becomes necessary for organizations to act accordingly so that they can perform in an efficient manner and survive in the competitive environment (Hickson et al., 1974). House et al. (1999) refer to this assertion as the task environment imperative. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

56 The Integrated Theory The GLOBE study used the integrated theory (Figure 2-2 shown below). The main proposition of the integrated theory is that the attributes and entities that distinguish a specified culture are predictive of organizational practices and leader attributes and behaviors that are most often endorsed and most successful in that culture (House et al., 2004). Economic Performance of Societies Physical & Psychological wellbeing of societies Societal Culture, Norms & Practices Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory (CLT) Organizational Form, Culture & Practices Leader Attributes & Behaviors Leader Acceptance Strategic Organizational Contingencies Leader Effectiveness Figure 2-2: The integrated theory (House et al., 2004). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

57 While the role of multinational companies, international supply chain, and other global organizations have been increasing and it has led to homogeneity of cultural practices and values, the national culture and values across countries and societies are still quite different Drenth and Den Hartog (1998). Research from the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) on leadership is an example of understanding the differences in cultural values and practices in the context of leadership. Even though charismatic leadership can have attributes that are universally accepted or valued but this does not mean they can enacted across cultures (Drenth & Den Hartog, 1998). The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) reports leadership attributes that are universally endorsed as contributing to outstanding leadership. As part of this study we would like to investigate whether the culturally contingent leadership attributes are related with project success, especially in a high power distance culture. Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory Dimensions (CLTs) House et al. (2004) stated that leadership is contingent upon national culture. They also stated that the importance of leadership varies across cultures. The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) empirically supported Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory (CLT). As part of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004), twenty-one primary leadership factors were explored. Out of these twenty-one primary factors, six global culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory dimensions (called CLTs) were derived through a second-order factor analysis (as shown in Table 2-4). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

58 Table 2-4: CLT dimensions and twenty-one primary factors (House et al., 2004). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

59 As part of the GLOBE study, nine global cultural dimensions were also studied (as shown in Table 2-5). Six of the nine cultural dimensions were based on Hofstede s (1980; 1984; 1991) study. Table 2-5: Nine cultural dimensions of GLOBE (House et al., 2004). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

60 The GLOBE study focused on the leadership dimensions that were clearly culturally contingent. Six global culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory dimensions were analyzed against nine global cultural dimensions. Resultantly, seven culturally contingent leadership (CLT) factors were derived out of the analysis and are shown in Table 2-6. The correlation between seven culturally contingent leadership factors and eight cultural dimensions was analyzed as part of the GLOBE study. The ninth cultural dimension (future orientation) was dropped from the regression analysis for an unexplained reason in the literature (House et al., 2004). Table 2-6: GLOBE s seven culturally contingent leadership factors including the range of country scores (House et al., 2004) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

61 The Anti-GLOBE Debate The GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) has been criticized by a few authors. It is important to mention and analyze this critique in order to get a deeper understanding of the issues and future research direction. Hofstede (2006) points out the similarities and differences between the GLOBE study and his work. According to Hofstede, GLOBE s operationalizations of values and practices are much different than those of his study. Hofstede s major concern about GLOBE is that the questionnaire items used may have not captured what the researchers wanted them to measure (Hofstede, 2006). In response to Hofstede s criticism of the GLOBE study, Javidan et al. (2006) emphasize that there is no theoretical or empirical basis for Hofstede s criticism that the GLOBE measures of values are too abstract or for his disagreement that national and organizational cultures are phenomena of a different order. Javidan et al. (2006) argue that GLOBE separated values and cultures, because the researchers felt that it was time to take a more meticulous approach to understanding and measuring national cultures. Hofstede s claim that the GLOBE s instruments reflect researchers psycho-logic is also refuted by Javidan et al., who identify that the GLOBE instruments are ecologically focused, not related at all to the researchers psychologic and pass very rigorous tests of validity, reliability, and aggregability across cultures. (Javidan et al., 2006, p. 900) Maseland and Van Hoorn (2009) point out the unexpected negative correlations between values and practices reported in the GLOBE study. They suggest that the negative correlations were due Rizwan Amin Sheikh

62 to the limitations of the self-report questionnaires. They proposed that the GLOBE study questionnaire measured marginal preferences as opposed to cultural values (Taras, Steel, & Kirkman, 2010a). Taras et al. (2010a) have called the GLOBE study one of the most ambitious and comprehensive studies in recent times. They also point out that this study is quite similar to other cultural comparison studies, because all of them measure culture using a series of selfreport survey questions with Likert-type scales. However, there are also critics of the GLOBE study, including Maseland and Van Hoorn (2009), Brewer and Venaik (2010), and Hofstede (2010). As stated by Taras et al. (2010a), marginal preferences could be useful for future research regardless of their status. As proposed by Maseland and Van Hoorn (2009), marginal preferences probably predict organizational behaviors and attitudes, which can help managers and project managers devise systems to improve organizational performance or project performance by matching marginal preferences and managerial practices (Tara et al., 2010a). Tara et al. (2010a) state that the GLOBE study, along with hundreds of others (Taras et al., 2010b), confirmed significant relationships between cultural variables and dozens of workplace-related outcomes. Cultural variables have been called marginal preferences by Maseland and Van Hoorn (2009); however, they also recognize that the problem is not unique to the GLOBE questionnaire. They state that other self-report value surveys also measure marginal preferences as opposed to values. They further emphasize their point and suggest that alternatives to the stated preferences approach, such as revealed preferences and experienced preferences need to be explored (Maseland & Van Hoorn, 2010). If the GLOBE study and other cultural value surveys are using marginal preferences rather than values, then marginal preferences have already been shown to be important (Tara et al., 2010). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

63 Hofstede (2010) has also questioned the cultural dimensions that were used by GLOBE. While criticizing GLOBE, Hofstede was not sure whether the GLOBE study would be remembered as a landmark study or disappear into oblivion (Hofstede, 2010). As stated by Brewer and Venaik (2010), the significant negative correlation between practices and values across seven of the nine GLOBE dimensions is one of the most interesting GLOBE findings, because it is so counterintuitive. Brewer and Venaik (2010) propose that the relationship between GLOBE cultural practices and values can lie in the nature of each cultural dimension, and in the specific content and meaning of the question used to measure each dimension in the GLOBE questionnaire Although Brewer and Venaik (2010) agreed that selfresponse questionnaires might not adequately capture cultural values, they also refuted the hypothesis of marginal preferences proposed by Maseland and Van Hoorn (2009). Although MH s diminishing marginal utility explanation is superficially appealing, after further examination we find that no generalizable, plausible explanation of the GLOBE values-practices can be provided my marginal utility theory. (Brewer & Venaik, 2010, p. 1318) Although the debate on the GLOBE study still continues, it has raised several questions but has not offered a conclusive solution; however, it provides a foundation for future research (Taras et al., 2010a). The GLOBE study established the relationship between national culture and leadership dimensions/competencies, but it did not explore the impact of CLT factors on project success. Since GLOBE has already empirically tested these seven CLT factors in 62 societies, we would like to extend this knowledge to project management and explore the relationship Rizwan Amin Sheikh

64 between CLT factors and project success criteria. The GLOBE study is summarized in Figure 2-3. Summary of GLOBE Study of 62 Societies Based Upon 17,000 Responses from Managers Working at 951 Organizations Around the World (House, et al, 2004) 9 Cultural Dimensions of GLOBE 21 Primary Leadership Factors Second Order Factor Analysis 6 Global Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory Dimensions / Competencies 7 Culturally Contingent Leadership Factors of GLOBE Correlation Between 8 Cultural Dimensions and 7 Culturally Contingent Leadership Factors Was Empirically Tested. Data Was Collected in 62 Societies from Across Three Industries including food processing, financial services, and telecommunications. Defined By House et al., 2004 Figure 2-3: Summary of the GLOBE Study Rizwan Amin Sheikh

65 The GLOBE study, despite its critical reviews, has established a relationship between national culture and leadership dimensions. This means that national culture can have an impact on the leadership styles of managers. Therefore, culturally contingent leadership (CLT) factors, including status conscious, bureaucratic, autonomous, face saving, humane, self-sacrificial/risk taking, and internal competition are worth exploring because they may have an impact on project success. Müller and Turner (2010) have pointed out that the importance attached to project success varies across cultures. They state that the evaluation of success is influenced by national culture because the decision on project success criteria is determined by the weight assigned to different project success criteria. Project managers working in their home countries are often considered to be more successful than those working abroad or as expatriates. The reason for this is that national culture influences the perceived importance of team satisfaction, end-user satisfaction, and other stakeholders on a project (Müller & Turner, 2010). Based on the GLOBE study and the research conducted by Müller and Turner (2010), it is clear that there is a relationship between national culture and the leadership style of a project manager. The next aspect that we explore in the literature is the relationship between leadership style and project success criteria. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

66 2.5 The Literature on the Relationship between Leadership and Project Success Like leadership, there is no universal agreement on the definitions of project success and project failure. (Ika, 2009) Project success has been a topic of discussion for many years now. There are different aspects on which project success is measured and many of them have been discussed but yet very rarely agreed on. Atkinson and Baccarnini state that project success today takes stakeholders satisfaction, product success, business and organization benefits, and team development as measures of project success (Atkinson, 1999; Baccarnini 1999). Baker, Murphy, and Fisher (1988) have given importance to planning as a key factor in boosting potential project success as compared with leadership. They define perceived project success as meeting the project s technical specification and/or the project s mission and attaining a high level of satisfaction from the client, the users, and the project team. (Baker et al., 1988, p. 680) However, much of the research indicates that in order to measure project success, it is important to take into account these two elements of project success: project success factors and project success criteria (Jugdev & Müller, 2005; Morris & Hough, 1987; Wateridge, 1998; Turner, 1999). Project success factors refer to those components or independent variables of a project that can be changed in such a way so as to increase the chances of success (Jugdev & Müller, 2005; Morris & Hough, 1987; Wateridge, 1998; Turner, 1999). Project success factors may refer more precisely to events, conditions, and circumstances that have an impact on the project results (Ika, 2009). Project success criteria refer to those components or dependent variables by which the successful outcome of a project can be judged (Jugdev & Müller, 2005; Morris & Hough, Rizwan Amin Sheikh

67 1987; Wateridge, 1998; Turner, 1999). Success criteria may refer to a set of principles or standards that are used to evaluate or establish project success (Ika, 2009). Project Management Schools of Thought Turner et al. (2010) identify nine schools of project management. Table 2-7 shows these nine schools and their antecedents. The schools are grouped into four sets, namely performance, business objective, people, and solution. These schools refer to nine different perspectives, which can be applied in projects to devise methodologies to managing them. Table 2-7: The nine schools of project management and their antecedents (Turner et al., 2010). Nine schools Frank Anbari (1985) Jonas (2002) Soderlund Christophe Bredillet (2004) Performance Optimization Management science Optimization Optimization Modeling (Contingency) Contingency Contingency Contingency Business Success Functional Success Success Governance Transaction cost Transaction cost Marketing Marketing Marketing People Behavior Behavior Behavior Behavior Solution Process Decision Decision Decision Decision Rizwan Amin Sheikh

68 According to the behavior school, the project is treated as a temporary organization and this temporary organization is seen as a social system. It also includes other areas concentrating on organizational behavior, team building and leadership, communication, and human resource management (Turner et al., 2010). The behavioral and success schools explored by the various authors mentioned above are related to our research topic, which justifies exploration and investigation of the topic. Pinto and Slevin (1988) identified the 14 project success factors, of which ten were internal and four were external to the project; however, researchers often refer to the ten project success factors shown in Table 2-8. Pinto and Prescott (1988) undertook a quantitative test of the ten factors and found that three of them were insignificant. Therefore, there were only seven real factors. Their empirical research showed that these success factors were strongly related to project success. The various factors become more important to project success at different points in the project life cycle; therefore, it is important for the project manager to make use of a multi-factor model, first to understand the variety of factors impacting on project success and then to be aware of their relative importance across stages in the implementation process. (Pinto & Slevin, 1988) Pinto and Prescott (1988) in their later study, found that out of the ten critical factors, only eight of them were important. However, their results also indicate that the relative importance of several of the critical factors change significantly based on the project life cycle stages. Chua, Kog, and Loh (1999) identified critical success factors for construction projects based on accumulative knowledge and judgment of experts in the industry. They employed an analytical hierarchal process (AHP) to come up with 67 factors pertaining to four main project Rizwan Amin Sheikh

69 aspects, namely project characteristics, contractual arrangements, project participants, and interactive processes. The various factors contribute differently to different project objectives (Jaselskis & Ashley, 1991). Critical success factors for the objectives of budget, schedule, and quality were identified through a survey with experts from leading construction-related organizations. Chua, Kog, and Loh s (1999) research concluded that the likelihood of project success can be increased if inherent characteristics of the project can be thoroughly understood, appropriate contractual arrangements are adopted, competent management team is assigned, and a sound monitoring and control system is established. However, the success criteria identified by Müller and Turner (2007a), shown in Table 2-9, are more elaborative and practical in nature from the project management perspective. Thus, the dependent variables of our proposed research model are based on the success criteria of Müller and Turner (2007a). It can also be deciphered from these studies that the competence and leadership styles of the project management team, including the project manager, are important. Table 2-8: Project success factors (Pinto & Slevin, 1988). Success Factor Description 1. Project Mission Clearly defined goals and direction 2. Top management support Resources, authority and power for implementation 3. Schedule and plans Detailed specification of implementation process 4. Client consultation Communication with and consultation of all stakeholders 5. Personnel Recruitment, selection and training or competent personnel 6. Technical tasks Ability of the required technology and expertise 7. Client acceptance Selling of the final product to the end users 8. Monitoring and feedback Timely and comprehensive control 9. Communication Provision of timely data to key players 10. Trouble-shooting Ability to handle unexpected problems Rizwan Amin Sheikh

70 Table 2-9: Project success criteria (Müller & Turner, 2007a). Success Criteria End-user satisfaction Supplier satisfaction Team satisfaction Other stakeholders satisfaction Performance in terms of time, cost, quality Meeting user requirements Project achieves its purpose Customer satisfaction Reoccurring business Self-defined criteria Most of the literature on project success fails to recognize the importance of the project manager and his or her leadership and competence for project success (Müller & Turner, 2005). Müller and Turner (2006) in later studies have shown, by using different models, that the competence and leadership styles of the project manager are vital factors in determining the success of a project. According to Crawford (2007, p. 680), project competence is a combination of knowledge (qualification), skills (ability to do a task), and core personality characteristics (motives + traits + self-concepts) that lead to superior results. Project success and the competence of the project management personnel, according to Crawford, are strongly interrelated. Crawford also states that the project manager is a factor for the effective delivery of a project; nevertheless, Crawford also noted that among the project manager competence factors, Rizwan Amin Sheikh

71 leadership appears constantly in the highest-ranking category, but it hasn t been seen in the highest-ranking category for project success factors (Crawford, 2007). Another often cited model on project success is the one proposed by Shenhar, Levy, and Dvir. They developed a universal multidimensional framework for the assessment of project success (Shenhar et al., 1997). Such a framework represents multiple interests and points of view. They mention that different people will assess the concept of success in different ways. This view is well represented by Freeman and Beale (1992): Success means different things to different people. An architect may consider success in terms of aesthetic appearance, an engineer in terms of technical competence, an accountant in terms of dollars spent under budget, and a human resource manager in terms of employee satisfaction. Chief executive officers rate their success in the stock market. In their study, Shenhar et al. treat project success as a strategic concept. The main premise for their study was that, in order to cope with the rapid changes and global competition, organizations have to be much more efficient and competitive. Thus, projects must be perceived as powerful strategic weapons, initiated to create economic value and competitive advantage, and project managers must become the new strategic leaders, who must take on responsibility for project business results. (Shenhar, Levy, Dvir, & Maltz., 2001, p.703) Shenhar and Dvir s study resulted in the development of five success dimensions and the Rizwan Amin Sheikh

72 measures against which project success can be determined. These dimensions are described in Table 2-10 (Shenhar & Dvir, 2007). Table 2-10: The five main dimension of project success (Shenhar & Dvir, 2007). Success dimension Measures 1. Project efficiency Meeting schedule Meeting budget Yield Other efficiencies 2. Impact on the customer Meeting requirements and specifications Benefit to customer Extent of use Customer satisfaction and loyalty Brand name recognition 3. Impact on team Team satisfaction Team morale skill Skill development Team member growth Team member retention No burnout 4. Business and direct success Sales Profits Market Share ROI, ROE Cash flow Service quality Cycle time Organizational measures Regulatory approval 5. Preparing for future New technology New market New product line New core competency New organizational capability Rizwan Amin Sheikh

73 As pointed out by Shenhar and Wideman (2000), the success measures mentioned above should be differentiated from the critical success factors mentioned earlier. Success factors are managerial variables, not outcomes, and may be defined as: Those managerial factors, listed in order of importance, that when present in the project s environment are most conducive to the achievement of a successful project. (Shenhar & Wideman, 2000, p. 4) Some important features of Shenhar s study are: different dimensions are more important at different times with respect to the moment of project completion; the conceptual timeframes of the different success dimensions are shown in Figure 2-4. The project success dimensions depend on project type. The study also shows that the level of project technological uncertainty affects the importance of success dimensions. Table 2-11 describes the likely success dimensions for different project types and the typical expectations from each dimension (Shenhar et al., 2001). Figure 2-4: Time frame of success dimensions (Shenhar et al., 2001) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

74 Table 2-11 Description of success dimensions for various project types (Shenhar et al., 2001) Success dimension Project type: level of technological uncertainty Low-tech Medium-tech High-tech Super high-tech Project efficiency Critical Important Overruns acceptable Overruns most likely Impact on customer Standard product Functional product, added value Significantly improved capabilities Quantum leap in effectiveness Business success Reasonable profit Profit, return on investment High profits, market share High, but may come later Preparing for the future Almost none Gain additional capabilities New product line, New markets Leadership core and future technologies It is interesting to note that team satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and performance (time, cost, and quality) have been cited by both Müller and Turner (2007) and Shenhar and Dvir (2007) as project success criteria. However, the success criteria qualitatively derived and empirically tested by Müller and Turner (2007) are more elaborate and practical to use for project managers as well as researchers. Turner and Müller (2006) and Müller and Turner (2007) researched how project managers, through their leadership competencies, lead their team to achieve project success. According to Müller and Turner (2010), leadership competence of the project manager is a contributor to project success (Figure 5), and also different types of projects require different profiles of leadership competence. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

75 Project Manager s Personality Project Success Leadership Dimensions (EQ, IQ, MQ) Project Success Criteria Figure 2-5: Leadership competencies and project success criteria model (Müller & Turner, 2010) Dulewicz and Higgs (2005) define the leadership competencies as: The Managerial Leadership Cluster (MQ): This cluster is similar to the behavioral perspective of leadership, which deals with the generic leadership styles that lead to excellent results. This competency deals with the basic leadership behavior. The Intellectual Leadership Cluster (IQ): This cluster deals with the rational and cognitive sides of leadership. The historical roots of this cluster relate to the early leadership theories like the trait perspective, which perceives intelligence as a trait of successful leaders. The Emotional Leadership Cluster (EQ): This cluster deals with the social and interpersonal aspects of leadership. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

76 The research conducted by Müller and Turner (2010) on the relationship between the project manager s leadership style and project success shows that across all projects, regardless of the type of project and the performance of the project, the EQ competency of motivation and the MQ competency of managing resources are significantly related to the success of a project. They found that 9% of the success of a project is explained by EQ and MQ competencies (Turner & Müller, 2006; Müller & Turner, 2007a). Dulewicz and Higgs (2003), in their study found out that EQ accounts for 36% of the variation on leadership performance, IQ accounts for 27% and MQ accounts for 16%. Thus, emotional competence is the most significant (Turner, Müller, & Dulewicz, 2009). Even though Turner et al. (2009) mentioned that EQ competency was the most important, the literature supports the idea that all three competencies are critical for a project manager to lead and deliver projects successfully. As can be seen from the current literature on leadership and project management, the leadership style of a project manager and his or her competencies can be a contributing factor to project success (Müller & Turner, 2010). In their research, Müller and Turner (2010) have also shown that the importance attached to project success criteria is different in different cultures; therefore, the evaluation of success is influenced by national culture, because the decision on project success criteria is determined by the weight assigned to different project success criteria. In addition, Müller et al. (2012) have shown in earlier studies that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain leadership competencies and project success. However, there is a gap in research that explores the relationship between leadership and project success in a high power distance culture. Thus, it supports our research question of exploring the relationship between leadership and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

77 We have reviewed the literature on the three bodies of knowledge and have tried to bring them together in order to find a direction for future research. Table 2-12 provides a summary of our literature review. Table 2-12: Summary of literature review. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

78 2.6 Proposed Model for Future Research We have proposed a research model called CLT Factors and Project Success Model (Figure 2-6) to fill the gap in research. Our proposed research model can be used to investigate the relationship between CLT factors of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) and the project success criteria developed by Müller and Turner (2010) in high power distance culture. Figure 2-6: Research Model and Theoretical Framework Rizwan Amin Sheikh

79 Following hypotheses have been derived based on the literature review, CLT factors of the GLOBE study (House, et al 2004), and earlier studies on national culture, leadership, and project success (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede and Bond, 1988; Nadeem, 2010; Javidan et al., 2006b; Javidan & Carl, 2004; Kanungo, 2001; Triandis, 1994; Müller & Turner, 2007a; Müller and Turner, 2010; Müller et al., 2012). The GLOBE study (House, et al 2004) has shown a relationship between certain dimensions of national culture and leadership competencies. Müller and Turner s (2010) research have shown a relationship between certain leadership competencies and project success. Within national culture, the literature has supported the relationship between power distance and project management (Tan & Chong, 2003; Shore & Cross, 2005). Thus our research hypotheses are supported by earlier studies and the literature on national culture, leadership, and project success. In addition, the research questions and methods support our research hypotheses. Thus, based on earlier studies, literature review, and the proposed research model, the following six research hypotheses are proposed to be empirically tested: H1: The social sensitivity CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H2: The face saving CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H3: The bureaucratic CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H4: The autonomous CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H5: The internally competitive CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H6: The self-sacrificial CLT factor is positively associated with customer satisfaction. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

80 2.7 Summary of the Literature Review Gaps in research have been identified in terms of relationship between national culture, leadership, and projects in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. The literature on the three bodies of knowledge (national culture, leadership, and project success) and GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004) has been reviewed. Thus, we have proposed a research framework, model, and hypotheses based upon the literature review and earlier studies. Our research philosophy, paradigm, and methods are described in Chapter 3. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

81 Chapter 3 Methodology The purpose of this chapter is to explain the research methodology that was adopted for this study. It starts out by describing the underlying research philosophy that covers ontology, epistemology, methodology, and the research model that is used in the study. It also explains why a particular research philosophy was chosen by the researcher and why quantitative methods were used to test the research model. It further describes the design and development process of the survey instrument that is used in the study. In addition, following sections unfold and provide explanation on research variables and constructs used in this study. Data collection strategy and statistical techniques used by the researcher are also explained. The chapter ends with a brief summary. 3.1 Research Philosophy Research philosophy is critical as it is the foundation for any research study and it is also a reflection of a researcher s philosophical perspective. Research design and results interpretation are driven by the underlying philosophy of the researcher. Having the philosophical knowledge can help the researcher in selecting and clarifying the type of research design that will work for a particular study (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991). Easterby-Smith et al., (1991) further state that having philosophical knowledge can even help the researcher in creation of research designs that are outside of researcher s experience. The underlying philosophical knowledge can help the researcher in understanding the nature of the reality that is being investigated. It can also help the researcher in determining the research methods and analysis techniques that can be used in the Rizwan Amin Sheikh

82 study. As Bergman (2010) stated that quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques do not necessarily depict a specific view of the nature of reality, present an explicit research theme and method, or determine the true value of data or the relationship a researcher and his/her research subjects. It is the underlying philosophy including ontology and epistemology and not the research methods that can lead to good social science (Alvesson &Sköldberg, 2009; Shao, 2010, p. 88). The research methodology and approach are based upon the research onion developed by Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, and Adrian Thromhill (2006), which is shown in Figure 3-1. Figure 3-1: The research onion (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2006) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

83 The underlying philosophy, ontology, epistemology, and research methods that are used in this study are shown in Figure 3-2. Each element is then defined and reasons of their selections by the researcher are also explained in the following sections. Figure 3-2: Ontology, Epistemology and Methods Rizwan Amin Sheikh

84 3.1.1 Paradigm As stated by Shao (2010, p. 88), research paradigms became popular after Kuhn (1996). They are a way to overarch researchers ontological, epistemological and axiological underpinning with their efforts to create knowledge. It shows that clear understanding of research paradigms is critical to conduct research. According to Kuhn, a paradigm is defined as: an organizing framework that contains the concepts, theories, assumptions, beliefs, values, and principles that inform a discipline on how to interpret the subject matter of concern (Bergman, 2010, p.172). The concept of paradigm can be understood or described in various ways. Morgan (2007) summarized four basic versions of the paradigm concept. He started out with the most general concept of a paradigm and then summarized to very specific perspectives of paradigm. These four concepts are summarized below (Shao, 2010, p. 89): Paradigms as worldviews: According to this concept or perspective, paradigms are viewed as a way to think about the world and nature of the reality from an ontological perspective. Paradigms as epistemological stances: According to this concept or perspective, a researcher shows his/her epistemological stance i.e. positivisim, realism, pragmatism, and constructivism. The epistemological stance is used by the researcher to pose and answer the research questions. This concept Rizwan Amin Sheikh

85 of epistemological stance boils down to a researcher s worldviews or ontology to knowledge inquiring. Meaning, this concept links the nature of knowledge and inquiring about the knowledge. Paradigms as shared beliefs among members of a specialty area: According to this concept or perspective, paradigms are viewed as common beliefs within a community of researchers that agree on the most appropriate methodologies that can be deployed in a given area of research specialty. This could include the most appropriate questions to ask, the most suitable research frameworks to be used, research protocols to be followed, and so on and so forth. Paradigms as model examples of research: According to this concept or perspective, paradigms are treated as model examples to show how research should be done in a specific field. This perspective helps new researchers and provides them an opportunity to learn how they can tackle issues in a specific field. The four perspectives that are discussed above complement each other. They are intertwined in a way that one complements the other from ontology, epistemology, and methodology perspective. They all help the researcher to understand a specific phenomenon (Shao, 2010). From an ontological perspective, the first concept of the paradigm is to explore the nature of the subject that is being studied. The second concept of paradigm clarifies how to acknowledge the knowledge of the subject that is being studied from an epistemological perspective. The third Rizwan Amin Sheikh

86 concept of the paradigm deals with methodology. Meaning, how a research framework can be designed and what process should be followed to inquire about the knowledge on the subject that is being studied. The fourth concept of the paradigm deals with a given research model and it also discusses how research questions of the study should be addressed (Shao, 2010, p. 90). Keeping these four perspectives in mind, the ontology, epistemology, and methodology used in the study are discussed. It is also explained how these key elements are applied to test the research model Ontology Ontology is defined as the science or study of being and is often used synonymously with Metaphysics. It analyses and organizes all concepts that are not the exclusive property of any special science like nature, space, time, history and society (Bunge, 1996; Shao, 2010, p. 90). Smith, Thorpe, & Lowe (2002) have described ontology as the assumptions that are made about the nature of reality. They further explained epistemology, methodology, and methods of research that are summarized in Table 3-1. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

87 Table 3-1: Ontology, epistemology, methodology and method (Smith, Thorpe, & Lowe, 2002) Positivism and constructivism There are two extremes of ontological choices in the social and behavioral sciences. As stated by Shao (2010, p. 90), these extremes are similar to positivism and constructivism in Figure 3-2 (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009; Rousseau et al., 2008; Easterby- Smith et al., 1991; Bechara & Van de Ven, 2007): Positivism: the social world exists externally, is objective and its properties should be measured through objective methods, not inferred subjectively (Easterby-Smith et al. 1991). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

88 Constructivism: reality or at least selected parts thereof is not something naturally given. The existence of a reality is socially constructed (Bechara & Vande Ven, 2007; Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009). As mentioned by Shao (2010, p. 91), these two stances are widely debated in social sciences. Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998) ascribed several axioms to them. Table 3-2 summarizes the comparisons of the two philosophical stances along the axioms. Table 3-2 Comparison of positivism and constructivism (after Lincoln & Guba, 1985 and Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998) Positivism Constructivism Ontology (nature of reality) There is a single reality. There are multiple, constructed realities. Epistemology (the relationship of the knower to the known) Axiology (role of values in inquiry) Generalizations Causal linkages Logic The knower and the known are independent. Inquiry is value-free. Time- and context-free generalizations are possible. There are real causes that are temporally precedent to or simultaneous with effects. Deductive: there is an emphasis on arguing from the general to the particular, or an emphasis on a priori hypotheses (or theory). The knower and the known are inseparable. Inquiry is value-bound. Time- and context-free generalizations are not possible. It is impossible to distinguish causes from effects. Inductive: there is an emphasis on arguing from the particular to the general, or an emphasis on grounded theory. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

89 Postivism is also defined by Atkinson & Hammersley (1994, p. 251) as, social research should adopt scientific method, that this method is exemplified in the work of modern physicists, and that it consists of the rigorous testing of hypotheses by means of data that take the form of quantitative measurements. According to positivism, data or facts already exist in nature. They are already there and can be observed by researchers or anybody else that is interested in them. The researcher s job is to collect the data or facts, organize them, and analyze them. From positivism point of view, whatever can be observed can be measured or can possibly be registered through some kind of instrument. Positivist researchers reliance on existing theories is proposed by some philosophers as ensuring the required precision in defining the research (Bunge 1998). But, it is also criticized by opponents as preservation of older theories and not necessarily better theories (Feyerabend1975). At the opposite side of positivism is constructivism, where no universal reality is presumed. Reality is socially constructed. Approaches of constructivism mainly focus on the many explanations or narratives of the human experience using text or words as basic data. In constructivism, evidence refers to any theme or mode of expression actors repeatedly convey. Constructivists interpret these repeated expressions through the viewpoints of social actors and their associated social setting (Rousseau et al., 2008). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

90 Both positivism and constructivism cannot underpin the research problems in social science individually. They have their own pitfalls. As Rousseau et al. (2008, p. 485) indicated: Positivism s emphasis on universality leads its advocates to make assumptions that limit the research questions they ask. The question under what conditions will individuals resent the use of reinforcement systems is unlikely to come up since resent is an emotional state, not a behavior, and an individual s viewpoint falls outside positivism s chosen domain. Positivism downplays the role of context and history, making it less compatible to the study of organizational practices and workplace experiences. It has limited applicability in MOS (management and organization science) where research often focuses on subjectivity, including individual and collective interpretations of events, not objective observation per se. There is also similar criticism for pure constructivism ontology in social science. Under constructivism, the assumption of reality is socially constructed that leads to the research questions, which are limited to Why do people construct society in the way they do or How do these constructions function, as patterns of social reality, once they have been constructed (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009, p. 37). Society and its institutions have multiple facets. There are many issues noteworthy of being studied, not necessarily being confined to study how society is constructed. Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009, p. 37) took an example of building a house to explain the opinion: Rizwan Amin Sheikh

91 we can research into many other things than how the house was built, for example, architecture, strength of materials, plumbing, ventilation, price of the house, rents, how people behave in the house, etc. While there are pros and cons of both positivism and constructivism, the researcher has chosen positivism for this study because the researcher believes that the data and facts already exist for this type of research. As shown in Table 3-1 of Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), the knower (researcher) and the known (data and facts) will be kept independent for this study. Meaning, the researcher is detached from the research object and he does not influence the phenomenon. The data and facts are collected and analyzed using a survey instrument and statistical techniques that are explained in subsequent sections Epistemology According to Bunge (1996), the main concepts of Epistemology are knowledge, science, model and testability. It provides answers to the question of how do researchers know the world or how do they get knowledge? The core of epistemology is knowledge and it is a key concept in epistemology. Audi (1998, p.214) identified knowledge as: knowledge arises in experience. It emerges from reflection. It develops through inference. It exhibits a distinctive structure. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

92 The quest of researchers to gain knowledge is attained by searching and answering their research questions. Research questions and its type are directly connected with the ontological stance that a researcher takes. The approach of positivists is to look and search for facts and causes and be able to answer the what questions. Whereas, constructivists approach is to analyze and describe human behaviors by answering Why and How questions (Yin, 2003). Table 3-3 summarizes the two main epistemologies (positivism and constructivism) in management and organizational research. Table 3-3 Alternative epistemologies in MOS research (Rousseau et al., 2008, p. 486) Positivism Relativism (constructivism) Reality Objective Socially constructed Application of Evidence Confirmatory, only what is observable exists Critical Data Concrete and Quantitative Text-Spoken or Written Focus Observation as Reality The sense people make of the social world Key elements of positivism and constructivism from an ontological and epistemological perspective are summarized in Table 3-4 (Beevan, 2000). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

93 Table 3-4 Ontology and Epistemology (Bevan, 2000) Positivism Realism Constructivism Ontology Objective, external reality. Driven by natural laws. Cause and effect laws. Social phenomena exist both in the mind and the objective world. Lawful and stable relationships exist. Social structures are invisible but real. Reality is socially constructed; takes form of multiple, intangible mental constructions that are local and specific in nature, although they may be shared across groups or cultures. Realities may change. Epistemology Researcher and research object are independent entities. Researcher capable of studying object without influencing /being influenced. Replicable findings are true facts. Objectivity remains the ideal, but separation of researcher / Object largely abandoned. Replicated findings are probably true but can be falsified. Researcher seeks to transcend subjectivity by building theory that reflects setting and thorough testing. Researcher as research instrument; researcher and object are interactively linked so research findings are literally created as the research process proceeds Besides the ontological underpinnings, the epistemological stance of this study is positivism because this study tries to answer the What questions and explores facts and causes. The research methodology has been determined for the present study based upon the basic knowledge of ontology and epistemology. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

94 3.1.4 Methodology Methodology defines the parameters, framework and guidelines within which a certain research is carried out. It explains the framework, process and approach for conducting the research work (Remenyi et al.,1998). Positivism ontology and epistemology determine the pluralism of methodology applied in the present study. The research methodology (approach and method) will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections Research Approach The two types of distinguished research approaches are: (i) Inductive Approach and (ii) Deductive Approach. Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009) define these approaches as: Inductive approach: proceeds from a number of single cases and assumes that a connection that has been observed in all these is also generally valid. Deductive approach, on the contrary, proceeds from a general rule and asserts that this rule explains a single case. As these approaches have advantages there are some shortcomings attached with them as well. Inductive approach involves an uncertain leap from a set of single facts to a general truth (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009). On the other hand, deductive approach just applies the general rules in an already existing case. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

95 Deductive approaches do not allow for leapfrog progress in science, but it is a step-by-step and safe approach that builds on existing and tested theory and develops them gradually forward Since the theories and facts already exist, general rules will be applied to the current study. In addition, existing theories will be developed further as part of this study. Therefore, deductive research approach has been determined by the researcher to be appropriate for this study Research Method In this study quantitative research method is used. Quantitative research methods may be simply defined as the techniques associated with the gathering, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numerical data and information (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009, p. 5). Teddlie & Tashakkori (2009) further explained that the quantitative researchers subscribe to positivism philosophy as shown in Table 3-5. Therefore, based upon the ontology and epistemological stance, the researcher has determined that the quantitative research method is the most appropriate for this study. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

96 Table 3-5: Dimensions of contrast in research methods (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

97 3.1.5 Research Models and Research Methods: A 2x2 matrix for studying organizational change was developed by Van de Ven and Poole (2005). The two dimensions ontologically view organizations as things or processes, and epistemologically view organizational research as variance or process method (see Figure 3-3). Figure 3-3 A typology of approaches for studying organizational change (Van de Ven & Poole, 2005) In this typology, the present study of relationship between CLT factors and project success criteria is viewed as variance method oriented studies in which a project is considered a real entity type of research. Therefore, the Approach I mentioned in Figure 3-X is justified. The research model of the present study is shown in Figure 2-6 in Chapter 2. Quantitative methods are used to test the research model. Leadership constructs are developed based upon the instruments used in the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) and constructs for Rizwan Amin Sheikh

98 project success criteria are developed based upon the instruments used by Müller and Turner (2007a). These constructs were used to develop a web-based questionnaire. Details on how the survey instrument was developed and administered are provided in subsequent sections. The quantitative study collects data on respondents psychometrical profiles and information on CLT factors and projects success criteria from project managers. This is done through professional organizations such as PMI (Lahore, Islamabad, and Karachi Chapters), Rausing Executive Development Center (REDC) at Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS), and Social Enterprise Development Center (SEDC) at LUMS. Responses are quantitatively analyzed using factor analysis, correlation, and regression to test the research model and research hypotheses. Data analysis techniques including factor analysis, correlation, and regression are discussed briefly in subsequent sections and details are provided in Chapter 4 / Chapter 5 along with the rational to choose these techniques. The details on execution of the research model are described in Section Brief summary The research philosophy including ontology and epistemology and research methods chosen for this study are summarized in Table 36. The Table 3-6 has been adopted from Dimensions of Contrast in Research Methods (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009), Ontology and Epistemology (Bevan, 2000), and Alternative epistemologies in MOS research (Rousseau et al., 2008). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

99 Table 3-6 : Dimensions of contrast for this study: Adopted from Teddlie & Tashakkori (2009), Bevan (2000), and Rousseau et al., (2008). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

100 3.2 Research model execution The research model described in Chapter 2 is tested through quantitative methods. The research process followed for this study is explained in the following sections: Data collection instrument development Sampling Data collection and presentation Data analysis method Validity and reliability Data collection instrument development The data is collected through a world-wide-web-based questionnaire. The questionnaire is distributed using one of the commercial survey companies for ease of use and efficient distribution. Plus the cost of using one of the commercial survey companies is relatively low. The questionnaire has five main sections: (i) The Introduction section briefly explains the study, assures the participants that the survey is anonymous, explains that it is voluntary to fillout the survey, and further states that the information will be kept confidential. This section is adopted from the GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004); (ii) Section A is related to Project Success Criteria, which was developed and tested by Müller & Turner (2007a). This constitutes the dependent variable in the research model; (iii) Section B is related to Project Manager / Leader Behavior, which was developed and tested by GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004). This constitutes the independent variable in the research model; (iv) Section C is related to Project Rizwan Amin Sheikh

101 Type, which was developed and tested by Müller & Turner (2007a); (v) Section D is related to Demographics, which was adopted from Müller & Turner (2007a) and GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004). Details on how questions are developed for each section of the questionnaire are explained in the following sections Development of Project Success Constructs and Questions for Section A of the Questionnaire The project success criteria and questions used in this study have been adopted from Müller & Turner (2007a). These constructs and questions have been developed and tested by Müller & Turner (2007a). The ten success criteria dimensions listed in Table 4 of Chapter 2 have been developed using qualitative and quantitative methods. Müller & Turner (2007a) undertook a qualitative study to test their research model and before formulating a web-based questionnaire. They conducted semi-structured interviews with line managers that were responsible for assigning project managers to projects. The objectives of the interviews were to identify factors applied by managers for selecting project managers for different project types, and to test the validity of their research model. They interviewed fourteen people from several companies. They interviewed people from eight countries, the USA and Australia and six in Europe in order to improve the generalizability of the results. They interviewed people from several industries, including, engineering, information, telecommunications and aerospace, and clients, contractors and consultancy firms. Firms ranged in size from 50 personnel to 35,000, and projects ranged $50,000 $500 million. They pilot tested the questionnaire before distributing to approximately 300,000 people. They received 400 responses to analyze the data. The reliability and validity of Rizwan Amin Sheikh

102 project success constructs and questionnaire are assured through the study conducted by Müller & Turner (2007a). Therefore, the researcher has decided to use the project success constructs and questionnaire developed by Müller & Turner (2007a). Table 3-7 provides a summary of the project success construct and questions. Table 3-7 Questionnaire Design Section A: Project Success Construct Questions Overall, the project performed well in terms of functionality, budget and timing. Overall, the project met the users requirements. Overall, the project achieved its purpose. Client satisfaction with project results Reoccurring business with this client End-user satisfaction with project product or service Project Success Suppliers' satisfaction Project team's satisfaction Other stakeholders' satisfaction with the project Your own success factor you entered above Rizwan Amin Sheikh

103 Development of Project Manager / Leader Behavior Constructs and Questions for Section B of the Questionnaire The project manager / leader behavior questionnaire (Section B) was adopted from the GLOBE Study (House, et al., 2004). The leadership constructs and questions were developed and tested by the GLOBE research team in 62 societies / countries using quantitative research methods. They developed the constructs and questionnaire based upon various leadership theories including Implicit leadership theory (Lord & Maher, 1991), Value/Belief theory of culture (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1995), Implicit motivation theory (McClelland, 1961; McClelland, 1985), and Structural contingency theory of organizational form and effectiveness (Donaldson, 1993; Hickson, Hinings, McMillan, & Schwitter, 1974). These theories are also described in Chapter 2. A total of 17,370 middle managers from 951 organizations in three industries (financial services, food processing, and telecommunications) completed the culture and leadership questionnaires in both Phases 1 and 2 of the GLOBE study. Specifically, 1943 respondents participated in the Phase 1 pilot studies and 15,427 respondents participated in Phase 2. The researcher assessed other models on culture by Hofstede (1984), Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (1998) and others that are discussed in the literature review Chapter 2 and has decided that the GLOBE study is the most comprehensive assessment of cultural dimensions. Therefore, we have decided to use the leadership constructs and questions developed and tested by the GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004). Table 3-8 provides a summary of these constructs and questions. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

104 Table 3-8 Questionnaire Design Section B: Project Manager / Leader Behavior Bureaucratic Construct Questions Proceeded / performed with great care and did not take risks Followed a routine Followed established rules and guidelines Acted in accordance with rules, convention, and ceremonies Used a prescribed order to carry out procedures Autonomous Acted independently, did not rely on others Did not rely on others; self-governing Exhibited characteristics of behaviors that were different from most others Behaved in a different manner than peers Humane Self-Sacrificial / Risk Taking You were willing to give time, money, resources, and help to others Had empathy for others; inclined to be helpful or show mercy Was willing to invest major resources in endeavors that did not have high probability of success Was unusually able to persuade others of his/her viewpoint Status Conscious Did Forego my self-interests and made personal sacrifices in the interest of a goal or vision You were aware of others' socially accepted status Face Saving Internally Competitive You were conscious of class and status boundaries and acted accordingly Did not go straight to the point; used metaphors and examples to communicate Avoided saying no to another when requested to do something, even when it could not be done Refrained from making negative comments to maintain good relationships and save face Tried to exceed the performance of others in my group Rizwan Amin Sheikh

105 Tended to conceal information from others Behaved according to the norms of my group Development of Project Type Constructs and Questions for Section C of the Questionnaire The project type questions were adopted from Müller & Turner (2007a). These constructs and questions have been developed and tested by Müller & Turner (2007a). The methodology to develop these questions has already been explained in previous sections. The Table 3-9 provides a summary of the questions. Table 3-9 Questionnaire Design Section C: Project Type Construct Project Type Project Complexity Stage of Project Lifecycle Questions My last project was of the following type: Construction & Engineering Information Technology / Telecom Business or organizational change Other (Please specify): My last project was of the following complexity: High Medium Low In my last project I managed the following stages of the project life-cycle: Feasibility Planning Design Execution & Control Close-out Commissioning / Operations Rizwan Amin Sheikh

106 Project Importance Strategic My last project was of the following strategic importance: Mandatory (a project required e.g. by law) Repositioning (e.g. a project for entirely new products or services) Renewal (e.g. further development of an existing system) Project Location Contract Type In my last project I worked: in my home country on a project outside my home country abroad as an expatriate My last project was based on the following contract type: Fixed-price Remeasurement (e.g. cost reimbursement, time & material etc.) Alliance (e.g. joint-venture or partnership where risk is shared) Other: Please specify Development of Demographic Questions for Section D of the Questionnaire The last section of the questionnaire, Section D, contains questions related to demographics. These questions were adopted from the GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004) and Müller & Turner (2007a). Table 3-10 provides a summary of these questions. Table 3-10 Questionnaire Design Section D: Demographics Construct Contact Information Questions Your Address (optional) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

107 Age Gender Total Work Experience Current Designation Experience as Project Manager PMP Certification Level of Education Formal Project Management Training Industry Number of Employees How Old Are You? years years years years Over 60 years What is your gender? Male Female How many years of full-time work experience have you had after your Bachelor s degree? What is your current job title / designation? How many years have you been a project manager? Are you a certified Project Management Professional (PMP)? Yes or No? What is the highest level of education that you have received? B.A (2 years after FSc/A-levels) BSc (2 years after FSc/A-levels) Four-year Bachelor Degree Masters PhD Other (Please specify) Have you received any formal training in management / project management practices? Please indicate the industry your organization belongs to: Information Technology Telecom Financial Services (Banking) Insurance Government Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Academics Food Processing Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) / Consumer Business Manufacturing Construction Engineering Healthcare Social Sector Energy Other: Please specify My Organization / Company has: employees Rizwan Amin Sheikh

108 Size of Organization approximate revenue / budget of my Organization/Company is: USD Project Size My last project had: Team Members Project Cost The cost of my last project was: USD Questionnaire administration In the present study, a web-based survey method is used to administrate the questionnaire for its advantages of low cost and efficiency of data collection (Czaja & Blair, 2005). Online survey tool from one of the commercial companies was used to administer and distribute the survey. Following sections discuss some major issues of the survey administration. Common method bias As stated by Shao (2010, p. 118) and Podsakoff & Organ (1986), self-report is a ubiquitous form of data collection method in management and organizational research. Social science research can hardly be conducted without self-reporting surveys. Using self-report method we can collect data on scaling the psychological states of respondents, such as attitudes, tension or motivation etc., and soliciting respondents perceptions of the subjects of interest. However, Podsakoff and Organ (1986) and Shao (2010, p. 118) also indicated several problems associated with the method: (1) self-report measures of such variables that cannot be verified by other means. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

109 Because there is no direct means for cross-validating people s descriptions of their feelings or intentions; (2) the data obtained by self-report are already abstracted by the informants from the discrete stimuli and responses. Because, we do not generally ask people to report a specific fact or a finite event. We ask people to go beyond that and to engage in a higher-order cognitive process a process that involves not only recall but weighting, inference, prediction, interpretation and evaluation; (3) the common method variance problem arises when multiple measurements collected from the same respondents and the attempt is made to interpret any correlations among them. Respondents apparently have an urge to maintain a consistent line in a series of answer or at least what they regard as a consistent line according to theories lying in their minds, which will distort the empirical relationships; (4) when obtaining self-report measures from a person at one sitting for several variables, there certainly is a risk that one s transient mood state will contribute a consistent but artifactual bias across the measures. To mitigate the problems caused through self-reporting, methodologists proposed several approaches (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986; Conway & Lance, 2010). Podsakoff and Organ (1986) and Shao (2010, p. 119) suggest that: 1) Multiple measures of the conceptually crucial variables should be obtained from multiple sources using multiple methods; 2) Try to obtain the independent and dependent variables from different sources, thus avoiding the potential confounding effects of common method variance; Rizwan Amin Sheikh

110 3) Using different scaling formats for conceptually crucial variables; 4) The scale trimming procedure should be employed to eliminate obvious overlap in items. Conway & Lance (2010) and Shao (2010, p. 119) suggest that: 1) An argument for why self-reports are appropriate; 2) Construct validity evidence, such as acknowledge the scale development citation and perhaps provide supplementary corroborative evidence of the scale s internal consistency and factor structure; 3) Lack of overlap in items for different constructs; 4) Evidence that authors took proactive design steps to mitigate threats of method effects. These remedial measures are taken into considerations in the questionnaire design of the present research study. We incorporate these proposed remedial measures and map our implementations according to these remedies in Table We cannot say the issues about self-report have been smoothed completely, but at least we have tried our best to mitigate any anticipated threats. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

111 Table 3-11 Questionnaire design implementations mapped to remedies for self-report issues Proposed Remedies Implementations Multiple measures of the conceptually crucial variables should be obtained from multiple sources using multiple methods Try to obtain the independent and criterion variables from different sources, thus avoiding the potential confounding effects of common method variance Using different scaling formats for conceptually crucial variables The scale trimming procedure should be employed to eliminate obvious overlap in item An argument for why selfreports are appropriate The questions used to measure constructs are adopted from multiple sources through multiple methods, e.g. Müller & Turner (2007a) used existing theory, literature review, and both qualitative and quantitative methods to develop the survey questionnaire for project success. The independent and criterion variables are obtained through different sources for the present study, e.g. the independent variables, CLT factors, are adopted from The independent variables are obtained from the GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004) and the dependent variable (project success criteria) is adopted from Müller & Turner (2007a). In addition, respondents were asked to answer questions on project success, then were led to questions on CLT factors. The sequence of questions is designed aforehand to try to reduce the common method variance (see Appendix for Questionnaire). See Table 3-7, Table 3-8, Table 3-9, and Table A scrutiny of the questionnaire is done by supervisors before distribution. A pilot testing of the questionnaire is done as well to mitigate this problem. Using self-report with project managers is because they are the ones who are best aware of the subtleness in program management practices. Construct validity evidence Acknowledge the scales development citations, see Table 3-7, Table 3-8, Evidence that authors took proactive design steps to mitigate threats of method effects Table 3-9, and Table All the measures described above show that the proactive thoughts of design have been considered. Pilot testing The purpose of pilot testing is to generate comments on individual questionnaire items and to see how well the process is working (Czaja & Blair, 2005; Shao, 2010, p. 121). In the present Rizwan Amin Sheikh

112 research study, we pilot tested the questionnaire that was adopted from GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004) and Müller & Turner (2007a) research studies. Ten project managers were invited to participate in the pilot testing. Participants in the pilot testing were not only asked to fill out the questionnaire, but also to comment on understandability of the questions, order of questions, time consumed on the questions etc. Responses to the pilot testing resulted in a few changes in wording of the initial version of questionnaire. The responses obtained from the pilot testing were not used in the final data analyses. Ethical considerations Besides the considerations of technical and theoretical aspects of work conduction, a good and serious researcher must also take into consideration the ethical issues related to the study. Two critical issues in treatment of the respondents are informed consent and protection of confidentiality (Czaja & Blair, 2005; Shao, 2010, p. 121). In the present research, voluntary participation and confidentiality assurance were committed to the respondents and indicated on the first page of the questionnaire, see Appendix A Sampling There are two major types of sampling designs: probability and non-probability sampling. In probability sampling, all elements in the population have some known chance or probability of being selected as sample subjects. In non-probability sampling, the elements do not have a Rizwan Amin Sheikh

113 known or predetermined chance of being selected as subjects (Sekaran, 2003; Shao, 2010, p. 122). In non-probability sampling, there is a sampling method called snowball sampling method, or referral sampling method. This sampling method is applied in the present study. The snowball sampling method refers to the method where initial respondents typically are chosen using nonprobability methods and these respondents then identify others in the target population (Collins, 2010; Shao, 2010, p. 122). In this research study, project managers were accessed through PMI Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad Chapters. To a large extent, the questionnaire was distributed by PMI Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad Chapters. In addition, questionnaire was distributed to project managers that completed project management training at Rausing Executive Development Center (REDC) and Social Enterprise Development Center (SEDC) of Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS). The snowball sampling method makes it difficult to estimate the questionnaire response rate. The questionnaire was kept open from September 2011 till February In the end, we received 184 responses. Three out of the 184 respondents did not complete the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses for Project Success and Leadership dimensions, and demographics sections of this study. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

114 Sample size Sample sizes for multiple regressions should be at minimum five observations per independent variable. However, 15 to 20 observations per independent variable are desired for results to be generalizable (Hair et al. 1998, p. 166). In our research model (Figure 2-6), there were a total of seven independent variables (i.e. bureaucratic, autonomous, face saving, humane, self-sacrificial, status-conscious, internally-competitive) and one dependent variable (project success). However, after the factors analysis two of the independent variables were combined into one, which brought the total of independent variables to six. Therefore, with seven predictors, 120 to 160 cases would be satisfactory. In the present study, we received 181 valid responses, which are used for regression analyses. Valid 181 responses also meet the requirements of sample size for generalizability of the regression analysis results Sampling error As stated by Teddlie & Yu (2007), Sekaran (2003) and Shao (2010, p. 123), potential sampling errors arise from (1) inadequate coverage of target population; (2) or targeting the wrong population. The strategy of mitigating the sampling error problems is to use the professional project management organizations. A large number of project managers have project management backgrounds (Partington et al., 2005; Shao, 2010, p. 123), either educational or practical, and many of them have memberships in the profession project management organizations. So contacting professional project management organizations helps to reduce sampling errors. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

115 3.2.2 Data collection and presentation One questionnaire with five key sections was used to collect the data. All sections have already been described above. Key demographic data along with frequency tables are described in the following sections. 1. Data on projects The project type section of the questionnaire was used to collect data on project information. We received 181 valid responses. Three out of 184 people did not complete this section of the survey questionnaire. Table 3-12 shows the frequency distributions and industry area of project managers that responded to the survey. From Table 3-12, we find that in our sample, various industries were represented by the project managers. Therefore, it was a diverse sample across various industries. This gives us the confidence to generate our results in general projects across different industries, rather than to a specific industry. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

116 Table 3-12 Frequency Distributions of Industry Area of Project Managers Table 3-11 shows the frequency distributions of project managers by the type of their last project. Four people out of 184 did not fill out this section of the survey. Therefore, we received 180 valid responses. The type of project that a project manager last worked on helps us understand the leadership profile of project managers by project type. We have also performed ANOVA tests to see if leadership profiles of project managers were significantly different by project type. Results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

117 Table 3-13 Frequency Distributions: Project Type of Last Project Table 3-14 shows frequency distribution of project complexity on the last project. Three people out of 184 did not fill out this part of the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses. As indicated in the Table 3-14, our sample has a mix of high, medium, and low complexity projects, which shows diversity in the sample. Even though the percentage of projects with low complexity is only 3.9%, it still gives us the confidence that all three types of complexities of projects were represented in our sample as opposed to just one or two. It allows us to analyze the impact of project manager s leadership style on project success in relation to the complexity of the project. Results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

118 Table 3-14 Frequency Distributions of Complexity of Last Project Table 3-15 shows frequency distribution of different stages of project management lifecycle that projects managers managed. Three people out of 184 did not fill out this part of the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses. As indicated in the Table 3-15, our sample has a good mix of all stages of the project management lifecycle including feasibility, planning, design, execution & control, close-out, and commissioning / operations. This gives us the confidence that all key stages of the project management lifecycle are represented in our sample as opposed to just one or two. In addition, it adds to the depth and breadth of our data analyses. It allows us to analyze the impact of project manager s leadership style on project success during various stages of the project management lifecycle. Results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

119 Table 3-15 Frequency Distributions of Stages of Projects Managed By Project Managers Table 3-16 shows frequency distribution of project type by strategic importance. Three people out of 184 did not fill out this part of the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses. As indicated in the Table 3-16, our sample has a good mix of strategic projects including mandatory (e.g. required by law), re-positioning (e.g. project for entirely new products), and renewal (e.g. further development of an existing product). This gives us the confidence that key strategic project types are represented in our sample as opposed to just one or two. In addition, it adds to the depth and breadth of our data analyses. It allows us to analyze the impact of project manager s leadership style on project success for projects with strategic importance. Results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

120 Table 3-16 Frequency Distributions of Project Type By Strategic Importance 2. Demographics of project managers Table 3-17 shows frequency distribution of age of project managers in our sample. Three people out of 184 did not fill out this part of the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses. As indicated in the Table 3-17, people from various age groups were represented on our sample including: 15.5% of fell in the range of years of age; 55.8% in the range of years; 23.8% in the range of 40-49%; 5% in the range of 50-59%, and 0% were over the age of 60 years. However, we used age as a control variable in our analyses because we believe that age might cause noise in the data and leadership varies by age as shown in Müller & Turner (2010). Therefore, the age variable was controlled. Detailed results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

121 Table 3-17 Frequency Distributions: Age of Project Managers Table 3-18 shows frequency distribution of gender of project managers in our sample. Three people out of 184 did not fill out this part of the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses. As indicated in the Table 3-18, majority (82.8%) of the respondents is male and only 17.1% is female. Even though the percentage of female respondents is quite low as compared to the male respondents, it is still a good representation because there are very few female project managers working in Pakistan due to culture norms and barriers. Therefore, it gives us a good mix to analyze the impact of project manager s leadership style and then on project success by gender. We have also performed ANOVA tests to see if leadership profiles of project managers were significantly different by gender. Results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

122 Table 3-18 Frequency Distributions: Gender of Project Managers Table 3-19 shows frequency distribution by total work experience of respondents in our sample. Three people out of 184 did not fill out this part of the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses. The total work experience was used as a control variable during statistical analysis because we believe that work experience might generate noise in the data and it might skew the data and results. Therefore, the total work experience variable was controlled. Detailed results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

123 Table 3-19 Frequency Distribution of Total Work Experience Table 3-20 shows frequency distribution by education of respondents in our sample. Three people out of 184 did not fill out this part of the survey. Therefore, we received 181 valid responses. As shown in Table 3-20, majority (59.1%) of the survey respondents has master s Rizwan Amin Sheikh

124 degree. This shows effectiveness of using professional PM organizations to reach out to project managers. Detailed results are explained in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. Table 3-20 Frequency Distribution by Education Data analysis method Data analysis was performed after the data was collected. Since there are a total of twenty-two variables that are used in Section B (Leader / Project Manager s Behavior) of the questionnaire, factor analysis technique is used to reduce the number of CLT factors to six. Factor analysis is used to identify the underlying structures of Culturally Endorsed Leadership Theory (CLT) factors (House, et al., 2004). Factor analysis is a technique for identifying groups of variables. It can be used to understand the structure of a set of variables and to reduce a data set to a more manageable size while retaining as much of the original information as possible (Field, 2005). In addition it can be used to purify the measures by identifying variables that should be dropped from a conceptual and statistical perspective in order to improve the reliability and validity of Rizwan Amin Sheikh

125 measurement constructs (Churchill, 1979). It is an interdependence technique, which considers all variables and their relationships simultaneously (Hair et al., 1998). The other purpose of the quantitative study is to test the research model and hypotheses mentioned in Chapter 2, that is, to test the relationship between CLT factors and project success. Correlation and regression analysis techniques are used to test the model. Both Pearson s Correlation and regression analysis techniques are often used in hypotheses testing (Licht, 1995). Pearson s correlation was developed by Karl Pearson, the geometry mathematician turned statistician (Stigler,1986), who in 1896 created a method of calculating the coefficient of correlation r (Porter, 1986). It measured the strength of the relationship between two continuous variables (Pallant, 2005). It was assumed with Pearson s r that the two variables were symmetrical, so that the correlation between A and B was the same as the correlation between B and A. High correlations among the variables indicate that the variables can be grouped into underlying dimensions (Sharma, 1996). Based upon the results of correlation analysis, researcher decides the appropriateness for doing factor analysis (Hair et al. 1998, p. 99). The coefficient r has been generally classified using the terms strong, moderate, fair, and weak. Pearson correlation values from 0.75 to 1.00 or from 0.75 to 1.00 are considered strong; values from 0.5 to 0.75 or from 0.5 to 0.75 are considered moderate; values from 0.25 to 0.5 or from 0.25 to 0.5 are considered fair; and values from 0 to 0.25 or 0 to 0.25 are considered weak (Colton, 1974). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

126 The final step in the data analysis is the regression. It is used when the research interest is not only the measure of association of two variables, as in correlation, but also in predicting the value of one variable from the value of another variable (Rees, 1995). By convention, the value y represents the dependent variable and x the independent variable so that the relationship is described as the regression of y on x. The formula for regression is both dependent on and includes the value for Pearson s r, depicted as β1, in the regression equation: y =βo + β1x + ε In this equation, B0 is the intercept, B1 the slope, and ε the statistical error Validity and reliability Validity shows how well the concept is defined by the measure, whereas reliability shows the consistency of the measure (Hair et al., 1998; Shao, 2010, p. 127). It measures how accurately the survey instrument measures what it is supposed to measure (Churchill 1979; Shao, 2010, p. 127). Validity measures of interest for this study are concept and construct validity. Concept validity focuses on how credible the research results are. In this study the concept validity is achieved through literature review, that is, the research model is built on the existing theories developed by the GLOBE Study (House, et al., 2004) and project success criteria of Müller and Turner (2007a). Construct validity focuses on how instruments really reflect the concept they measure. In this study, the questions used to represent constructs are carefully examined, and adopted from previous research studies. The questionnaire is pilot tested to assure construct validity. In addition, descriptive statistics are performed on the variables to check skewness and Rizwan Amin Sheikh

127 kurtosis of the data in order to ensure normal distribution of the data. The skewness and kurtosis of all variables should be within thresholds of ±1.96 and ±3.29 (Field, 2005, p. 72). Item statistics, Item-to-Item statistics, and Item-to-Total statistics are also performed to ensure data validity. It is also checked that the threshold of Item-to-Item correlations are greater than.30; and the threshold of Item-to-Total correlations are higher than.50 (Hair et al., 1998). Reliability measures stability of values over several measures (Hair et al., 1998). It is measured by calculating the internal consistency of the set of items which form the constructs. Internal consistency was measured by Cronbach Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) through calculating the average of the inter-correlations. Cronbach s Alpha is the most common measure of scale reliability (Field, 2005). Churchill (1979) recommends using Cronbach s Alpha to purify the measures for each factor. Following Churchill s recommendations, the Cronbach s Alpha measure of.70 is acceptable for a factor in confirmatory research. Nunnally (1978) has also indicated that Cronbach s Alpha measure of 0.70 is an acceptable reliability test, but lower thresholds have sometimes been used. Therefore, the scale reliability tests are performed on all six CLT factors of the research model mentioned in Chapter Summary of the Research Methodology This chapter presented the philosophical underpinning of the study as that of positivism. Based on that a research design was developed, which uses deductive logic and quantitative research method. Then the quantitative study was described in more detail, such as development of data collection instruments, sampling, data collection, validity, scale reliability, item-item Rizwan Amin Sheikh

128 correlations, item-total statistics, and data analysis methods including correlation analysis, factor analysis, and regression. The methodology described in this chapter provides basis for next two chapters that present the data analysis, results, and discussion on this study. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

129 Chapter 4 Quantitative Data Analysis and Results The objectives of this chapter are to describe the quantitative data analysis and the results. The research hypotheses are tested in this chapter, and the chapter ends with a regression model. As described in chapter 3, a multi-section questionnaire was used in this quantitative study. Section A of the questionnaire was adopted from Müller and Turner (2007a), which was used to measure project success (dependent variable). There were 181 valid responses that were collected for this part of the questionnaire. Section B of the questionnaire was adopted from the GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004), which was used to measure the CLT factors (independent variables). There were 181 valid responses that were collected for this part of the questionnaire. Both the GLOBE study (House, et al., 2004) and Müller and Turner s (2007a) research used Likert scale and had tested the construct validity. Thus, the researcher decided to utilize the same Likert scale for this study as was used by earlier research studies. This chapter starts with factor analysis on the total sample of 181 valid responses. As per Field (2009, p 647), there are many rules of thumb for sample size of factor analysis but the common one is to suggest that a researcher has at least participants per variable. There are a total of seven variables (six independent and one dependent) in my study, and I have collected 181 valid responses, which are well above the recommendations of Field (2009). Demographic information is listed in Tables 3-12 through 3-20 in Chapter 3. The factor analysis technique identifies the underlying dimensions of CLT factors and examines to what extent Rizwan Amin Sheikh

130 individual variables contribute to these dimensions. This is followed by a correlation and regression analysis between CLT factors (independent variables) and project success (dependent variable). Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis are also performed on independent and dependent variable before performing the factor analysis to ensure data validity and reliability. All quantitative data analysis is performed using SPSS 17.0 software package. 4.1 Variables Check for Performing Analysis The first step before performing data analysis is to check the normality of the data. The data has to be normally distributed in order to perform statistical analysis (Field, 2005) Independent Variables Check-Up for Performing Analysis The minimum requirement for the sample size of doing factor analysis is 5 observations per variable (Hair et al., 1998). In this study, the ratio of observation-to-variable in doing factor analysis for CLT factors is to 1, and exceeded the minimum requirement. The underlying conceptual assumption of doing factor analysis and regressions analysis is that the data are metric and normally distributed. Table 4-1 shows the means, the ranges, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis of these CLT factors variables. The full expressions of these variables can be seen in the questionnaire in Appendix A. The mean scores of all variables are between 3.81 and 4.13 with the Likert scale range of 1-5, except three variables: (i) tried to exceed the Rizwan Amin Sheikh

131 performance of others in my group, which is 1.90, close to the minimum value,which means disagree ; (ii) tended to conceal information from others, which is 1.91, close to the minimum value, which means disagree ; and (iii) behaved according to the norms of my group, which is 1.77, close to the minimum value, which means disagree Therefore, these variables were kept in mind for skewness and kurtosis checks. The inspection of skewness and kurtosis showed that all variables are within their respective thresholds of ±1.96 and ±3.29 (Field, 2005, p. 72). There are no outliers in the data. No missing values are found in the data either. Therefore, all variables meet the requirements of normality, which is one of the criteria for factor analysis. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

132 Table 4-1 Descriptive Statistics of CLT Factors (Independent Variables) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

133 4.1.2 Dependent Variables Check-Up for Performing Analysis As stated earlier, the underlying conceptual assumption of performing factor analysis and regression analysis is that the data are metric and normally distributed. Table 4-2 shows the means, the ranges, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis of the project success variable. The full expressions of these underlying variables can be seen in the questionnaire in Appendix A. The mean scores of all variables are between 3.94 and 4.27 with the Likert scale range of 1-5. The inspection of skewness and kurtosis shows that all variables are within their respective thresholds of ±1.96 and ±3.29 (Field, 2005, p. 72). There are no outliers in the data. No missing values are found in the data either. Therefore, all the underlying constructs of the project success variable meet the requirements of normality, which is one of the criteria for regression analysis. Table 4-2 Descriptive Statistics of Project Success (dependent variable) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

134 4.2 Identification of Underlying Structures of Concepts of CLT Factors Factor analysis is used to identify the underlying structures of Culturally Endorsed Leadership Theory (CLT) factors (House et al., 2004). Factor analysis is a technique for identifying groups of variables. It can be used to understand the structure of a set of variables and to reduce a data set to a more manageable size while retaining as much of the original information as possible (Field, 2005). In addition it can be used to purify the measures by identifying variables that should be dropped from a conceptual and statistical perspective in order to improve the reliability and validity of measurement constructs (Churchill, 1979). It is an interdependence technique, which considers all variables and their relationships simultaneously (Hair et al., 1998). The factor analysis technique is used to explore the dimensions of CLT factors based on the sample of 181 respondents. It identifies which and how many variables contribute to form the CLT factors. There are a total of 22 variables so factor analysis is performed to reduce the number of variables to a manageable size. Factor scores derived from factor analysis are saved as new variables replacing the original, larger set of variables for subsequent multivariate analysis CLT Factors Two main types of factor analysis need to be distinguished. Confirmatory factor analysis confirms a priori hypothesized structures by imposing a particular factor structure on the data and see how well the structure explains the data. One the other hand, exploratory factor analysis searches for unknown underlying structures in the data which best fits the data (Grimm & Rizwan Amin Sheikh

135 Yarnold, 2005). Since CLT factors have been developed based upon culturally endorsed implicit theory of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) and project success criteria have been adopted from Müller and Turner (2007a), exploratory factor analysis is performed on the data to test the model and research hypotheses proposed in Chapter 2 of this study Factor analysis Assessments of the appropriateness of the data for factor analysis were done by analyzing correlation matrix, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test, Anti-image correlation matrix, and communalities. All these aspects are explained in the following sections: Correlation matrix The original correlation matrix is shown in Appendix B. The description of variables B1_1 thru B1_22 is listed in Table 4-1. High correlations among the variables indicate that the variables can be grouped into underlying dimensions (Sharma, 1996). Inspection of the correlation matrix revealed that 117 of the 484 correlations (24.17%) were at or above the.3 level. This suggests appropriateness for doing factor analysis (Hair et al. 1998, p. 99). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

136 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test KMO measures inter-correlations between the variables through the Measure of Sampling Adequacy (MSA). The KMO statistics vary between 0 and 1. A value close to 1 indicates that patterns of correlations are relatively compact and factor analysis should yield distinct and reliable factors (Field, 2005). Kaiser (1974) recommends accepting values should be greater than.5, values between.5 and.7 are mediocre, values between.7 and.8 are good, values between.8 and.9 are great and values above.9 are superb. Table 4-3 shows the KMO statistics of the CLT factor variables. The KMO value in our sample is.781, indicating adequacy to conduct factor analysis. Table 4-3 KMO and Bartlett's Test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy..781 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square Df 231 Sig..000 Anti-image correlation matrix Partial correlations are the correlations between variables when the effects of other variables are taken into account and the anti-image matrix is just the negative value of the partial correlation. Anti-image correlations should be small to allow variables to be explained by the factors and to make factor analysis more appropriate (Hair et al., 1998). The diagonal elements in the antiimage matrix should all be greater than.5 at a bare minimum if the sample is adequate for a given pair of variables. If any pair of variables has a value less than.5, consider dropping one of Rizwan Amin Sheikh

137 them from the analysis (Field, 2005). Appendix C shows the anti-image correlation matrix of the original data. The description of variables B1_1 thru B1_22 is listed in Table 4-1. Inspection of the anti-image correlation matrix shows that all values along the diagonal line are higher than.5, which indicates strength of the interrelationships among the variables and their appropriateness for factor analysis. Communalities The communality is the total amount of variance an original variable shares with all other variables included in the analysis. If it is lower than.5, the factors contain less than half of the variance in the original variable, so it might be an indicator to exclude that variable from the factor analysis and use it in its original form in subsequent analysis (Field, 2005). However, just going by the communality is not statistically adequate to exclude any variables. The communalities statistics in our sample is shown in Appendix D. Inspection of the communalities table in Appendix D shows that all variables are with communalities in the.5 ranges, indicating appropriateness of the factor analysis (Field, 2005, p. 654). Factor analysis solution A principal component analysis with Varimax rotation was performed, with minimum Eigenvalue of 1.0 for factor acceptance. Six CLT factors were extracted in the initial analysis. Factor loadings, Eigenvalues and Percent Variance Explained are listed in Table 4-4 below. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

138 Table 4-4 Factor Loadings, Eigenvalues, and Percent Variance Explained Factor loadings at or above.45 are considered significant for a sample size of 150 to 200 (Hair et al., 1998). Table 4-5 below shows that the factor loadings are greater than.45 so they are appropriate for our sample size of 181. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

139 Table 4-5 Factor Loadings and Component Matrix a Rizwan Amin Sheikh

140 There are six final factors that have been derived after performing principal component analysis and Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization. Table 4-6 below shows the final six factors. Table 4-6 Rotated Component Matrix a Rizwan Amin Sheikh

141 The final six factors have been mapped to the seven CLT factors of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004). Table 4-7 shows mapping of these factors. Table 4-7 Mapping of Final Six Factors to the GLOBE CLT Factors Rizwan Amin Sheikh

142 As shown in Table 4-7 above, the CLT factor Humane and Status Conscious of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) were both mapped to the same factor Component 1. Since Component 1 represents two CLT factors (Humane and Status Conscious) of the GLOBE study, the researcher has decided to call Component 1 social sensitivity factor. The final six valid factors mapped to the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) are: (i) Social Sensitivity (ii) Face Saving (iii) Bureaucratic (iv) Autonomous (v) Internally Competitive (vi) Self-Sacrificial As stated in Chapter 2, all the final six factors stated above are supported by the literature, existing theories, Müller & Turner s (2007a) research studies, CLT factors of the GLOBE study (House, et, al., 2004) and Hofsete s 5-D model of culture (Hofstede, 1980; 1984; 1991). Therefore, the researcher has decided to use these final six factors in the regression analysis to test the research model (Chapter 2). The validity and reliability tests for all six factors are shown in the next section. With Eigenvalue greater than 1 for each factor and % variance (shown in Table 4-6) explained in the final solution, this factor model can be accepted on a quantitative basis. We further checked the interpretability of the factors against the CLT factors of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004), and they can be interpreted using the CLT factors. Therefore, the six final Rizwan Amin Sheikh

143 factors derived from our factor analysis directly map to the CLT factors of the GLOBE study, which have already been explained in Chapter 2. In the final round of factor analysis, factor scores were saved for each respondent. The factor score is the estimate of a person s score on a factor, based on their scores for the constitute variables (Field, 2005). Factor scores for each respondent were saved because these factors are used for further regression analysis Reliability Test For every round of factor analysis, the reliability of the scales was checked. Reliability means that a scale should consistently reflect the construct it is measuring. Cronbach s Alpha is the most common measure of scale reliability (Field, 2005). Churchill (1979) recommends using Cronbach s Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) to purify the measures for each factor. Following Churchill s recommendations, the Cronbach s Alpha measure of.70 is acceptable for a factor in confirmatory research. Nunnally (1978) has also indicated that Cronbach s Alpha measure of 0.70 is an acceptable reliability test, but lower thresholds have sometimes been used. The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations should be greater than.30; and the threshold of Item-to- Total correlations should be higher than.50 (Hair et al., 1998). The summary of scale reliability for all six CLT factors (independent variables) and the number of items in each of the six factors are shown in Table 4-8. The Cronbach's Alpha for all six factors is greater than Therefore, the data is reliable to perform regression analysis. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

144 Table 4-8 Summary of Reliability Scale for all Six CLT Factors Detailed results of scale reliability of each of the six CLT factors are shown in Tables 4-9 thru 4-40 in the following sections Reliability Test for Social Sensitivity factor Table 4-9 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Case Processing Summary Rizwan Amin Sheikh

145 Table 4-10 shows Cronbach s Alpha of for Social Sensitivity factor, which is higher than the minimum recommended value of Therefore, this factor passes the reliability test. Table 4-10 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-11 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Item Statistics The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations is checked (Table 4-12 below) and all correlations are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.30 (Hair et al., 1998), which suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

146 Table 4-12 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix The threshold of Item-to-Total statistics is checked (Table 4-13 below) and all values of Item- Total statistics are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Table 4-13 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Item-Total Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

147 Table 4-14 Reliability Scale Test of Social Sensitivity Factor: Scale Statistics Reliability Test for Face Saving Factor Table 4-15 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Case Processing Summary Table 4-16 shows Cronbach s Alpha of for Face Saving factor, which is higher than the minimum recommended value of Therefore, this factor passes the reliability test. Table 4-16 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Reliability Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

148 Table 4-17 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Item Statistics The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations is checked (Table 4-18 below) and all correlations are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.30 (Hair et al., 1998). Therefore, the data are reliable for regression analysis. Table 4-18 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix Rizwan Amin Sheikh

149 The threshold of Item-to-Total statistics is checked (Table 4-19 below) and all values of Item- Total statistics are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998). Therefore, the data are reliable for regression analysis. Table 4-19 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Item-Total Statistics Table 4-20 Reliability Scale Test of Face Saving Factor: Scale Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

150 Reliability Test for Bureaucratic Factor Table 4-21 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Case Processing Summary Table 4-22 shows Cronbach s Alpha of for Bureaucratic factor, which is higher than the minimum recommended value of Therefore, this factor passes the reliability test. Table 4-22 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-23 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Item Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

151 The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations is checked (Table 4-24 below) and all correlations are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.30 (Hair et al., 1998) except two correlations where the values are Inspection of the Item-Item correlation matrix has revealed that 23 of the 25 correlations (92.00%) were at or above the.3 level. This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Table 4-24 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix The threshold of Item-to-Total statistics is checked (Table 4-25 below) and all values of Item- Total statistics are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998) except two items. Sixty percent (60%) of the items are at or above the minimum value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

152 Table 4-25 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Item-Total Statistics Table 4-26 Reliability Scale Test of Bureaucratic Factor: Scale Statistics Reliability Test for Autonomous Factor Table 4-27 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Case Processing Summary Rizwan Amin Sheikh

153 Table 4-28 shows Cronbach s Alpha of for Autonomous factor, which is higher than the minimum recommended value of Therefore, this factor passes the reliability test. Table 4-28 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-29 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Item Statistics The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations is checked (Table 4-30 below) and all correlations are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.30 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

154 Table 4-30 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix The threshold of Item-to-Total statistics is checked (Table 4-31 below) and all values of Item- Total statistics are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998) except one item. Seventy five percent (75%) of the items are at or above the minimum value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Table 4-31 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Item-Total Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

155 Table 4-32 Reliability Scale Test of Autonomous Factor: Scale Statistics Reliability Test for Internally Competitive Factor Table 4-33 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Case Processing Summary Table 4-34 shows Cronbach s Alpha of for Internally Competitive factor, which is higher than the minimum recommended value of Therefore, this factor passes the reliability test. Table 4-34 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Reliability Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

156 Table 4-35 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Item Statistics The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations is checked (Table 4-36 below) and all correlations are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.30 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Table 4-36 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix The threshold of Item-to-Total statistics is checked (Table 4-37 below) and all values of Item- Total statistics are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

157 Table 4-37 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Item-Total Statistics Table 4-38 Reliability Scale Test of Internally Competitive Factor: Scale Statistics Reliability Test for Self-Sacrificial Factor Table 4-39 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Case Processing Summary Table 4-40 shows Cronbach s Alpha of for Self-Sacrificial factor, which is higher than the minimum recommended value of Therefore, this factor passes the reliability test. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

158 Table 4-40 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Reliability Statistics Table 4-41 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Item Statistics The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations is checked (Table 4-42 below) and all correlations are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.30 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for doing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

159 Table 4-42 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix The threshold of Item-to-Total statistics is checked (Table 4-43 below) and all values of Item- Total statistics are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998) except one item. Sixty seven percent (67%) of the items are at or above the minimum value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Table 4-43 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Item-Total Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

160 Table 4-44 Reliability Scale Test of Self-Sacrificial Factor: Scale Statistics 4.3 Project Success Factor As stated earlier, the questionnaire and underlying variables for project success (dependent variable) are adopted from research studies conducted by Müller & Turner (2007a). The project success factor is used as a single dependent variable in our research model by taking the mean of all the underlying variables in the questionnaire. The descriptive statistics and scale reliability tests are performed on project success (dependent variable) to ensure normality and reliability. Results of these tests are shown in Table 4-45 through Table 4-50 below Reliability Test of Project Success Variables Table 4-45 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Case Processing Summary Rizwan Amin Sheikh

161 Table 4-46 shows Cronbach s Alpha of for Project Success factor, which is higher than the minimum recommended value of Therefore, this factor passes the reliability test. Table 4-46 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Reliability Statistics Table 4-47 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Item Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

162 The threshold of Item-to-Item correlations is checked (Table 4-48 below) and all correlations are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.30 (Hair et al., 1998) except six correlations. Inspection of the Item-Item correlation matrix has revealed that 94 of the 100 correlations (96.00%) are at or above the.3 level. This suggests appropriateness for doing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Table 4-48 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix Rizwan Amin Sheikh

163 The threshold of Item-to-Total statistics is checked (Table 4-49 below) and all values of Item- Total statistics are greater than the minimum threshold value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998) except two items. Eighty percent (80%) of the items are at or above the minimum value of 0.50 (Hair et al., 1998). This suggests appropriateness for performing regression analysis (Hair et al. 1998). Table 4-49 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Item-Total Statistics Table 4-50 Reliability Scale Test of Project Success: Scale Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

164 4.4 Research Model and Hypotheses Based upon the literature review and the research model (Figure 2-6) explained in Chapter 2, following research hypotheses have been derived and tested using the sample data of 181 valid observations: H1: The social sensitivity CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H2: The face saving CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H3: The bureaucratic CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H4: The autonomous CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H5: The internally competitive CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. H6: The self-sacrificial CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. 4.5 Regression Analysis This section is split into three sub-sections: (i) the pre-examinations to check the adequacy of performing regression analysis; (ii) explanation of why regression analysis method is appropriate to test the research hypotheses; and (iii) the report of the data analysis results. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

165 4.5.1 Pre-Examinations for Regression Analysis Two examinations are performed prior to regression analysis. The first one is to clarify the sample size for the regression analysis. The second one is to check the variable adequacy in terms of their normal distributions for performing regression analysis Clarification of Sample Size for Regression Analysis If a researcher needs to use multiple regression analysis, the ratio of observations to independent variables should not fall below five (Bartlett, et. al. 2001). If this minimum is not followed, there is a risk for overfitting,... making the results too specific to the sample, thus lacking generalizability (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995, p. 105). A more conservative ratio of ten observations for each independent variable was reported optimal by Miller and Kunce (1973) and Halinski and Feldt (1970). Since there are six independent variables derived after factors analysis for this study, a conservative minimum requirement for sample size is 60 observations with a ratio of ten to one. The researcher has collected 181 valid observations for this study making the ratio to 1, which is well above the recommended conservative estimates of 10:1 by Miller and Kunce (1973) and Halinski and Feldt (1970). Therefore, our sample size meets the requirements to perform regression analysis. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

166 Normal Distribution Check for Variables in the Research Model 1. Normality of the Independent Variables Descriptive statistics analysis is performed to check the normal distribution for the independent variables in the research model, which are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Social Sensitivity Face Saving Bureaucratic Autonomous Internally Competitive Self-Sacrificial Table 4-1 above shows the descriptive statistics for all six independent variables mentioned. All independent variables are normally distributed. Therefore, regression analysis can be performed on the data. 2. Normality of the Dependent Variable Descriptive statistics of project success, a dependent variable, in our research model, are listed in the Table 4-44 above. The descriptive statistics of project success show that the data is normally distributed. Therefore, it is suitable to perform regression analysis. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

167 4.5.2 Rationalization of Data Analysis Method Adoption As stated in the previous chapter, regression analysis technique is used when the researcher is interested in predicting the value of one variable from the value of another variable (Rees, 1995). Multiple regression technique is used when a metric dependent variable is predicted by several metric independent variables (Hair, et al., 2004). The researcher is interested in predicting the value of project success by changes in CLT factors. Therefore, multiple regression analysis technique is used for this study. Since there are six independent variables (mentioned in the previous sections) and one dependent variable in this study, multiple regression analysis is performed. The formula for regression is both dependent on and includes the value for Pearson s r, depicted as β1, in the regression equation 1 below (Hair et al., 2004): y = α + β1x + ε.. (1) In this equation, B0 is the intercept, B1 the slope, and ε the statistical error. Since there are six independent and one dependent variable for this study, our multiple regression equation is as follows: Y = α + β1x1 + β2x2 + β3x3 + β4x4 + β5x5 + β6x6 + ε (2) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

168 In the equation 2 above, α is the intercept: β1, β2, β3, β4, β5, and β6 are the slope; X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, and X6 are the independent variables; and ε is the statistical error Data Analysis and Results Main Effects and Correlations Bivariate correlations analysis is performed to analyze the correlations between independent variables (CLT factors) and dependent variables (project success. Table 4-51 shows the results of the bivariate analysis. Table 4-51 shows that significant and positive correlations exist between independent and dependent variables. Therefore, regression analysis is performed to assess the research model, which is explained in subsequent sections. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

169 Table 4-51 Correlations Between Independent and Dependent Variables Rizwan Amin Sheikh

170 Regression Model Assessment When performing regression analyses, several diagnostic measures have to be checked to make sure: 1) whether the regression model fits the observed data well; and 2) whether this model can be generalized to other samples. We follow the instructions and procedures suggested by methodologist (Filed, 2005) and adopted by prior empirical study (Müller, 2003). Results of Regression Model The results of regression are shown in Table 4-52 through Table 4-55 and Figure 4-1, Figure 4-2, and Figure 4-3 below. Table 4-52 shows the ANOVA table of our research model. Since the p value of is less than 0.05, the model is significant. The variable age is a control variable in our model as explained in Chapter 3. Table 4-52 ANOVA Rizwan Amin Sheikh

171 Table 4-53 below shows the summary of our research model. The adjusted R 2 in the model represents the amount of variance in the dependent variable explained by a one-unit change in the independent variable (Field, 2009, p. 202). The adjusted R 2 in our research model is Meaning, our model explains 15.9% of the change in variance. Table 4-53 Research Model Summary Table 4-54 below shows Coefficients of our research model. Table 4-54 Coefficients of our Research Model Rizwan Amin Sheikh

172 Based upon our research model shown in Table 4-54 above, following regression equation is derived: Y = (social sensitivity) (bureaucratic) 0.031(autocratic) (face saving) (self-sacrificial) (internally competitive) + ε (3) After further examination of coefficients of our research model (Table 4-54), it is observed that there are only two variables that are statistically significant in the model: bureaucratic and face saving. Meaning, the p value of bureaucratic variable is significant at less than and the p value of face saving variable is significant at less than Therefore, following regression equation (4) is derived after removing statistically insignificant variables from equation 3 above. Y = (bureaucratic) (face saving) + ε (4) 1. Model fit To answer the question of whether the model fits the observed data well, or if it is influenced by a small number of cases, we need to look for outliers and influential cases. Outliers and residuals We use standard residuals as an indicator to examine the errors caused by outliers in the model. If a model fits the sample data well, then the standard residuals will be small. The general rules Rizwan Amin Sheikh

173 for standard residuals are: (1) the absolute value should be lower than 3; (2) no more than 5% of cases have absolute values above 2; and (3) no more than 1% cases have absolute values above 2.5 (Field, 2005). We inspect the value of the standard residuals in our regression model, and they all meet these requirements. Influential cases Except for outliers, we should also look at whether certain cases exert undue influence on the parameters of the model. Field (2005) and Shao (2010, p. 194) suggests five measures to inspect influential cases. The detailed theoretical explanations of these five measures are discussed well in Field s book (Shao, 2010, p. 194). Here we list these five measures and their thresholds. The results of these five measures in relation to our research model are shown in Table Each measure is also explained below. Table 4-55 Residual Statistics Rizwan Amin Sheikh

174 As per Field (2005) and Shao (2010, p. 194): i. Cook s distance If the value of Cook s distance is above 1, then the case might be an influential case. Since the value of Cook s distance is less than one for our model (Table 4-55), there is no influential case. ii. Leverage or hat value The average leverage value is defined as (K+1)/N. In this mathematical expression, K is the number of independent variables and N is the sample size. The investigated cases with values greater than twice or three times of the average leverage value will be identified as influential cases. Table 4-55 shows that leverage values are within normal range. iii. Mahalanobis distance The value of 15 is the threshold for small sample size. Table 4-55 shows that Mahalanobis values are less than 15. iv. DFBeta The absolute values of DFBeta for each case should not be greater than 1. We have examined our regression test results and DFBeta values are less than 1. v. CVR (Covariance ratio) The CVR value of a single case can be accepted if it falls into the interval of 1-3(K+1)/N Rizwan Amin Sheikh

175 and 1+3(K+1)/N. Here K is the number of independent variables and N is the sample size. All values for our research model fall within the normal range. The measures mentioned above are used to detect influential cases. After careful examination, we did not find any cases failing to meet most of the measurement thresholds so our research model fits the sample data. 2. Generalization In this section, we will answer the question of how generalizable our model is. Meaning, we will see whether the results from our sample can be generalized to a wider population. Check Regression Assumptions: Homoscedasticity At each level of the predictor variable, the variance of the residual terms should be constant (Shao, 2010, p. 195). We use plots of *ZRESID against *ZPRED generated by SPSS to test homoscedasticity. If the points are randomly and evenly dispersed throughout the plot, the assumption of homoscedasticity is met. In our sample, all these plots in Figure 4-1, Figure 4-2, and Figure 4-3 below show that assumption of homoscedasticity is met. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

176 Figure 4-1 Regression Standardized Residual Rizwan Amin Sheikh

177 Figure 4-2 PP-Plot of Regression Standardized Residual Rizwan Amin Sheikh

178 Figure 4-3 Scatter Plot Rizwan Amin Sheikh

179 Independent errors This assumption means that the residual terms of any two observations should be independent. This assumption is tested by Durbin-Watson value (Durbin & Watson, 1950; Shao, 2010, p. 195). A rule of thumb is that this value should be close to 2 (Durbin & Watson, 1950). We have examined our regression model (Table 4-53) and the Durbin- Watson value is 1.875, which is close to 2. Therefore, this assumption is also met. Multicollinearity Multicollinearity can reduce the predictive power to the extent an independent variable is correlated with one or more of the other independent variables included in the model (Shao, 2010, p. 195). We use Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) to identify multicollinearity problems. Acceptable levels of VIF are usually 10 (Field, 2005). In our sample, the greatest value of VIF is so we have no multicollinearity issues. Therefore, our model is generalizable to a wider population in Pakistan. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

180 CLT Factors by Project Type Figure 4-4 shows that social sensitivity CLT factor varies by project type. Figure 4-4 Social Sensitivity CLT Factor by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

181 Figure 4-5 shows that face saving CLT factor varies by project type. Figure 4-5 Face Saving CLT Factor by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

182 Figure 4-6 shows that bureaucratic CLT factor varies by project type. Figure 4-6 Bureaucratic CLT Factor by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

183 Figure 4-7 shows that autonomous CLT factor varies by project type. Figure 4-7 Autonomous CLT Factor by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

184 Figure 4-8 shows that internally competitive CLT factor varies by project type. Figure 4-8 Internally Competitive CLT Factor by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

185 Figure 4-9 shows that self-sacrificial CLT factor varies by project type. Figure 4-9 Self-Sacrificial CLT Factor by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

186 One-Way ANOVA Analysis for CLT Factors by Project Type One-Way ANOVA analysis was performed on the six CLT factors by project type. The ANOVA table is shown in Table 4-56 below. Table 4-56 One-Way ANOVA: CLT Factors and Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh

187 The Post Hoc Test with Multiple Comparisons of the Mean for CLT factors is shown in Appendix E. The Multiple Comparisons of the Means show that the CLT factors vary by project type but they are not statistically significant. 4.6 Summary of Research Results There are six main hypotheses in this study. Out of the six hypotheses, two of them are supported and four of them are not supported. The results are summarized in Table 4-57 below. Table 4-57 Summary of Results of Research Hypotheses A summary of the research questions, hypotheses, key findings, theoretical contributions, and managerial contributions is placed at Appendix F. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

188 Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion This chapter gives an overview of the research process and research findings. Results shown in Chapter 4 are discussed. Research hypotheses, theoretical and managerial implications of the research findings are also highlighted. The strengths and limitations of the research are described, and finally recommendations for future research are offered. This chapter unfolds through the following sections: i. Summary of the research process ii. iii. iv. Overview and discussion of the research findings Discussion and conclusion of research hypotheses testing Answers to the research questions v. Theoretical implications vi. vii. viii. ix. Managerial implications Strengths and limitations Recommendations for future research Chapter summary 5.1 Summary of the research process An objective approach using quantitative research methods is applied under a positivism paradigm. Careful scrutiny of the philosophical underpinning and literature review leads the researcher to decide for positivism. This provides for a fit with the researcher s philosophical perspective. The associated ontology, epistemology and methodology provide for an appropriate Rizwan Amin Sheikh

189 answer to the research questions. The essence of positivism is that the social world exists externally, is objective and its properties should be measured through objective methods, not inferred subjectively (Easterby-Smith et al. 1991). This is linked to ontology and epistemology as stated by Bevan (2000): The ontology under positivism is objective and is related to external reality. It is driven by natural laws that deal with cause and effect (Bevan 2000). Under positivism, researcher and research objects are independent entities. Researcher is capable of studying objects without influencing /being influenced (Bevan 2000). After the philosophical perspective is clarified, the research is executed through quantitative methods. A world-wide web-based questionnaire is used. The questionnaire is adopted from the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) and Müller and Turner (2007a). The aim of the quantitative study is to statistically test the research model (Figure 2-6) and research hypotheses of the present study. The detailed results from the quantitative study are presented in Chapter 4. Summarized above is the main line of the research. From a broader perspective it is a linear process, however, there are many loops and iterations throughout the research process. For example, the preliminary research model and research hypotheses are developed after the literature review, but the CLT factors are derived through factor analysis and then they are again compared against the existing literature and theories to ensure theoretical support. These loops and iterations help to ensure the credibility of the research results (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

190 5.2 Overview and discussion of the research findings The research findings of the present study are mainly in three parts. The first part is identification and discussion on the six CLT factors, which are derived through the factor analysis (Chapter 4). The second part is the discussion and findings of results of the research hypotheses testing. The last part is the discussion and findings of the results of the research model, which are tested through regression analysis Discussion and Identification of the CLT Factors through Factor Analysis One of the main findings of this study is the six CLT factors, which are identified through our sample data by performing factor analysis. We expected that we would be able to identify seven CLT factors same as the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004), but six CLT factor were identified through the factor analysis (Chapter 4). The six CLT factors are supported by the existing literature including the GLOBE study. After performing the factor analysis, following six CLT factors are identified (Chapter 4): 1. Social Sensitivity 2. Face Saving 3. Bureaucratic 4. Autonomous 5. Internally Competitive 6. Self-Sacrificial Rizwan Amin Sheikh

191 Our results show that certain leadership competencies (bureaucratic and face saving) that are contingent upon national culture are related to project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. These results are supported by earlier studies (House et al., 1999, 2004; Javidan and Carl, 2004, 2005; Dorfman, 2004; Javidan, Dorfman, Sully de Luque, and House, 2006; Müller and Turner, 2010). The results of our study also indicate that there is a linear, positive, and statistically significant relationship between face saving and bureaucratic CLT factors and project success. There is a linear, positive, but statistically insignificant relationship between social sensitivity and self-sacrificial CLT factors and project success. In addition, there is a linear, negative, but statistically insignificant relationship between autonomous and internally competitive CLT factors and project success. House et al. (2004) have shown a linear relationship between seven leadership competencies of the GLOBE study and nine dimensions of national culture including the six cultural dimensions of Hofstede (1980). Six CLT factors (humane, status conscious, face saving, bureaucratic, internally competitive, self-sacrificial) of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004) show a linear and positive relationship with nine dimensions of culture including the six cultural dimensions of Hofstede (1980). On the other hand, autonomous CLT factor of the GLOBE study shows a linear and negative relationship with nine dimensions of culture. This indicates that there is a relationship (positive or negative) between national culture and leadership competencies. Then, there are a number of studies that have shown a relationship between leadership competencies and success. For example, at the Royal Airforce (Wren and Dulewicz, 2005), the Royal Navy (Young and Dulewicz, 2006), the British Police (Hawkins and Dulewicz, 2007). There are also examples in project management including agile projects (Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007) and projects in the financial industry Rizwan Amin Sheikh

192 (Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008) that show a relationship between leadership competencies and project success. Thus, the results of our study and earlier research studies (mentioned above) indicate that there is a relationship between certain dimensions of national culture, leadership competencies, and project success, which leads into further discussion of the results of our study. Following sections discuss the relationship between the six CLT factors and project success The Social Sensitivity CLT Factor The social sensitivity factor is a combination of humane and status conscious factors of the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004). We expected to identify humane and status conscious as two separate factors. However, the results of our study are different after performing the factor analysis. The factor analysis (shown in Chapter 4) has combined the two factors, humane and status conscious, into one factor that is called the social sensitivity factor. We discuss the two underlying factors that make up the social sensitivity factor (humane and status conscious) before moving further into the discussion. As defined in Chapter 2, humane leadership competency is related to someone who is kind, has empathy for others, and assists others (House et al., 2004). The humane CLT factor, part of the social sensitivity CLT factor, resembles by definition the humane orientation dimension of culture as stated by Hofstede and Bond (1988), Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck (1961), Putna (1993), and McClleland (1985). As stated by Geoghegan & Dulewicz (2008), leadership is considered as a combination of personal Rizwan Amin Sheikh

193 characteristics and areas of competency. The humane CLT factor is considered a personal characteristic of leadership. These personal characteristics are related to national culture because these are basic norms and values that can vary across cultures and countries (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and positive relationship between humane (CLT factor) and humane orientation cultural dimension of Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck (1961), Putna (1993), and McClleland (1985). Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture and leadership competencies. We also reviewed the underlying factor status conscious that made up the social sensitivity factor. As defined in Chapter 2, status conscious relates to someone s position in the society and it reflects an elitist view that some members of the society deserve more privileges than others (House et al., 2004). The status conscious factor, which is part of the social sensitivity CLT factor, resembles the definition of power distance by Hofstede (1980) as defined in Chapter 2. House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and positive relationship between status conscious (CLT factor) and uncertainty avoidance and power distance cultural dimensions of Hofstede (1980). Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture and leadership competencies. Earlier studies have also shown that there is a linear and positive relationship between leadership competencies and project success (Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008; Müller and Turner, 2007a). Therefore, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture, leadership competencies (CLT factors) and project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

194 The results of our study in Chapter 4 show that there is a linear and positive relationship between social sensitivity CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the social sensitivity leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. Meaning, they may or may not be able to contribute positively towards project success. The results of our study are different than some of the earlier studies (mentioned above), which have shown that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain leadership competencies and project success The Face Saving CLT Factor The second factor is called face saving. As defined in Chapter 2, the face saving leadership competency is related to people who don t want to embarrass their followers, try to maintain good relationships, and avoid blunt language (House et al., 2004). These characteristics are contingent upon national culture because it is an essential organizing principle of employees' understanding of work and the way in which they expect to be treated (Newman & Nollen, 1996). Similarly, the face saving factor is also contingent upon basic norms and values that can vary across cultures and countries (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and positive relationship between humane (CLT factor) and humane orientation cultural dimension of Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck (1961), Putnam (1993), and McClleland (1985). Leadership is seen as a combination of achievement and empowerment along with personal characteristics, such as conscientiousness, which make a leader (Geoghegan Rizwan Amin Sheikh

195 & Dulewicz, 2008). As mentioned above, earlier studies have also shown that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain leadership competencies and project success (Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008; Müller and Turner, 2007a). Therefore, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain dimensions of national culture, leadership competencies (CLT factors) and project success. The results of our study in Chapter 4 show that there is a positive relationship between face saving CLT factor and project success, and the relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the face saving leadership competency (CLT factor) will have a positive relationship with project success. Meaning, they will be able to contribute positively towards project success. Thus, it indicates that project managers with face saving leadership competency working in a high power distance culture like Pakistan will lead to project success. The results of our study are also supported by some of the earlier studies (mentioned above), which have shown a linear and positive relationship between certain leadership competencies and project success. Thus, the results of our study indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain dimensions of national culture, leadership competencies, and project success The Bureaucratic CLT Factor The third factor is called bureaucratic. As defined in Chapter 2, the bureaucratic leadership competency is related to people that follow established norms, rules, policies, and procedures. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

196 They habitually follow regular routines (House et al., 2004). The bureaucratic leadership competency is part of national culture because it is part of basic values, norms, and beliefs that vary across cultures and societies (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and positive relationship between bureaucratic leadership competency (CLT factor) and uncertainty avoidance and power distance cultural dimension of Hofstede (1980). Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain dimensions of national culture and leadership competencies. As mentioned above, earlier studies have also shown that there is a linear and positive relationship between leadership competencies and project success (Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008; Müller and Turner, 2007a). Therefore, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture, leadership competencies (CLT factors) and project success. As per the results of our study, project managers in Pakistan possess bureaucratic leadership competency (CLT factor). Meaning, project managers with bureaucratic leadership competency in a high power distance culture take a bureaucratic approach towards projects and their approach is related to national culture, because national culture is an essential organizing principle of employees' understanding of work and their approach to it (Newman & Nollen, 1996). Since bureaucratic approach towards work is a management practice related to national culture and it is an essential organizing principle, it is more likely to yield predictable behavior (Wright & Mischel, 1987) and high performance (Earley, 1994). Thus, it indicates that project Rizwan Amin Sheikh

197 managers with bureaucratic leadership competency working in a high power distance culture like Pakistan will lead to project success. The results of our study in Chapter 4 show that there is a linear and positive relationship between bureaucratic factor and project success, and the relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the bureaucratic leadership competency (CLT factor) will be able to contribute positively towards project success and will more likely yield predictable behavior (Wright & Mischel, 1987) and high performance (Earley, 1994). The results of our study are also supported by some of the earlier studies (mentioned above), which have also shown a linear and positive relationship between leadership competencies and project success. Thus, the results of our study indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain dimensions of national culture, leadership competencies, and project success The Autonomous CLT Factor The fourth factor is called autonomous. As defined in Chapter 2, the autonomous leadership competency is related to people that follow established norms, rules, policies, and procedures. They habitually follow regular routines (House et al., 2004). As stated by Geoghegan & Dulewicz (2008), leadership is considered as a combination of personal characteristics and areas of competency. The autonomous CLT factor is considered a personal characteristic of leader or a project manager. The autonomous leadership competency (CLT factor) is part of national culture because it is part of basic values, norms, and beliefs that vary across cultures and societies (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and Rizwan Amin Sheikh

198 negative relationship between autonomous leadership competency (CLT factor) and institutional collectivism (Hofstede, 1980), performance orientation (McClleland, 1961), and in-group collectivism (Hofstede, 1980) cultural dimensions. Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and negative relationship between leadership competencies and three out of nine national cultural dimensions of the GLOBE study. On the other hand, House et al. (2004) have also shown that there is no relationship between autonomous leadership competency and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1980), power distance (Hofstede, 1980), assertiveness (Hofstede, 1980), gender egalitarianism (Hofstede, 1980), future orientation (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961; Hofstede and Bond, 1988), and humane orientation (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961; Putnam, 1993; McClleland, 1985). Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and negative relationship between three dimensions of national culture and autonomous leadership competency, but it shows that there is a relationship between national culture and leadership competencies (CLT factors). As mentioned above, earlier studies have also shown that there is a linear and positive relationship between leadership competencies and project success (Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008; Müller and Turner, 2007a). Therefore, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture, leadership competencies (CLT factors) and project success. The results of our study in Chapter 4 show that there is a linear and negative relationship between autonomous CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the autonomous leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. Meaning, Rizwan Amin Sheikh

199 they may or may not be able to contribute positively towards project success. The results of our study are different than some of the earlier studies (mentioned above), which have shown a linear and positive relationship between leadership competencies and project success The Internally Competitive CLT Factor The fifth factor is called internally competitive. As defined in Chapter 2, the internally competitive leadership competency is related to people that have the tendency to encourage competition within a group and may include concealing information in a secretive manner (House et al., 2004). Management practices and national cultures differ in terms of leadership styles (Dorfman & Howell, 1988; Puffer 1993) and human resource management (Newman & Nollen, 1996). House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and positive relationship between internally competitive leadership competency (CLT factor) and power distance and assertiveness national culture dimensions of Hofstede (1980). Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture and leadership competencies. As mentioned above, earlier studies have also shown that there is a linear and positive relationship between leadership competencies and project success (Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008; Müller and Turner, 2007a). Therefore, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture, leadership competencies (CLT factors) and project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

200 As per the results of our study, project managers in Pakistan with internally competitive leadership competency may not lead to project success. The results also indicate that project managers in Pakistan do not emphasize on internally competitive leadership competency as it is not related to project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. The results of our study in Chapter 4 show that there is a linear and negative relationship between internally competitive CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the internally competitive leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. Meaning, they may or may not be able to contribute positively towards project success. These results are different than some of the earlier studies (mentioned above), which have shown a linear and positive relationship between certain leadership competencies and project success The Self-Sacrificial CLT Factor The sixth factor is called self-sacrificial. As defined in Chapter 2, the self-sacrificial leadership competency is related to a leadership competency under which a leader indicates an ability to convince followers to invest their efforts in activities that do not have a high probability of success, to forego their self-interest, and make personal sacrifices for the goal or vision (House et al., 2004). It means that a project manager with self-sacrificial leadership style has the ability to convince his/her team members to forego their self-interests and make personal sacrifices for the good of the project and achieve the goal and vision of the project. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

201 House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and positive relationship between self-sacrificial leadership competency (CLT factor) and institutional collectivism (Hofstede, 1980), performance orientation (McClleland, 1961), and in-group collectivism (Hofstede, 1980) dimensions of national culture. Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture and leadership competencies. As mentioned above, earlier studies have also shown that there is a relationship between leadership competencies and project success (Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008). Therefore, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture, leadership competencies (CLT factors) and project success. The results of our study in Chapter 4 show that there is a linear and positive relationship between self-sacrificial CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, project managers in Pakistan having the self-sacrificial leadership competency (CLT factor) may or may not have any relationship with project success. Meaning, they may or may not be able to contribute positively towards project success. These results are different than some of the earlier studies (mentioned above), which have shown a linear and positive relationship between certain leadership competencies and project success. Summary of discussion on results of our study Based upon the results of our study and earlier studies on national culture (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998; Hofstede, 1980; McClleland, 1961; Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961; Rizwan Amin Sheikh

202 Putnam, 1993; Smith & Peterson, 1988), leadership (House et al., 2004; Javidan et al., 2006b; Nadeem, 2010; Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan & Dulewicz, 2008), project success (Wren and Dulewicz, 2005; Young and Dulewicz, 2006; Hawkins and Dulewicz, 2007; Müller and Turner, 2007a; Müller et al., 2012), it is indicated that there is a linear and positive relationship between seven dimensions (humane orientation, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, assertiveness, institutional collectivism, performance orientation, and in-group collectivism) of national culture (House et al., 2004), two leadership competencies / CLT factors (bureaucratic and face saving), and project success. Thus, the results of our study indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between some dimensions of national culture, leadership competencies, and project success. The results of our study, theoretical framework and research model (Figure 2-6) are also supported by earlier studies (mentioned above). 5.3 Research Hypotheses Testing There are six research hypotheses that are tested through our research model. These research hypotheses and their status are shown in Table 4-57 in Chapter 4. The result of each research hypothesis is discussed in the following sections: H1: The social sensitivity CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. The results in Chapter 4 do not support that the social sensitivity CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. As per the results of our study, there is a linear and positive relationship between social sensitivity CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is Rizwan Amin Sheikh

203 statistically insignificant. Thus, project managers in Pakistan having the social sensitivity CLT factor may or may not have any relationship with project success. As per the results of our study, project managers in Pakistan with social sensitivity leadership competency may not lead to project success. The results also indicate that project managers in Pakistan do not emphasize on social sensitivity leadership competency as it is not related to project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. H2: The face saving CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. The results in Chapter 4 support this hypothesis that the face saving CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. As per the results of our study, there is a linear and positive relationship between face saving CLT factor and project success and the relationship is statistically significant. Thus, project managers having the face saving CLT factor will have a positive relationship with project success. The results of our study indicate that project managers in a high power distance culture Pakistan emphasize on the importance of face saving factor and they believe that it is essential for project success. It means that project managers in Pakistan possess the face saving leadership competency and they don t embarrass project team members and their colleagues in the public. It also shows that project managers in Pakistan avoid blunt language in a professional environment and they believe in maintaining good relationships with their peers and subordinates. Face saving leadership competency is considered to be part of the basic norms and values, which are Rizwan Amin Sheikh

204 dependent upon national culture. Thus, it indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain dimensions of national culture and leadership competencies. H3: The bureaucratic CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. The results in Chapter 4 support this hypothesis that the bureaucratic CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. As per the results of our study, there is a linear and positive relationship between the bureaucratic CLT factor and project success and the relationship is statistically significant. Thus, project managers having the bureaucratic CLT factor will have a positive relationship with project success. As per the results of our study, project managers in Pakistan possess bureaucratic leadership competency. The results also indicate that project managers in Pakistan emphasize the importance of bureaucratic leadership competency, which is linked to project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. H4: The autonomous CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. The results in Chapter 4 do not support that the autonomous CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. As per the results of our study, there is a linear and negative relationship between autonomous CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is statistically insignificant. Thus, project managers having the autonomous CLT factor may or may not have any relationship with project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

205 As per the results of our study, project managers in Pakistan with self-sacrificial leadership competency may not lead to project success. The results also indicate that project managers in Pakistan do not emphasize on self-sacrificial leadership competency as it is not related to project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. H5: The internally competitive CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. As per the results of our study, project managers in Pakistan with internally competitive leadership competency may not lead to project success. The results also indicate that project managers in Pakistan do not emphasize on internally competitive leadership competency as it is not related to project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. The results in Chapter 4 do not support that the internally competitive CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. As per the results of our study, there is a linear and negative relationship between internally competitive CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is statistically insignificant. Thus, project managers having the internally competitive CLT factor may or may not have any relationship with project success. H6: The self-sacrificial CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. The results in Chapter 4 do not support that the self-sacrificial CLT factor is positively correlated with project success. As per the results of our study, there is a linear and positive relationship Rizwan Amin Sheikh

206 between self-sacrificial CLT factor and project success, but the relationship is statistically insignificant. Thus, as per results of our study, project managers having the self-sacrificial CLT factor may or may not have any relationship with project success. As per the results of our study, project managers in Pakistan with self-sacrificial leadership competency may not lead to project success. The results also indicate that project managers in Pakistan do not emphasize on self-sacrificial leadership competency as it is not related to project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. 5.4 Answers to the research questions The research questions are answered in the following sections: Answer to Research Question 1 The first research question was: Q1. What is the relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan? Most of the answer to this question has already been addressed earlier in this chapter, but I will recap and provide a summary in this section. Two CLT factors (bureaucratic and face saving) are related to national culture because they are related to basic norms, values, and beliefs (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). They are also related to employees' understanding of work and the way in which they expect to be treated Rizwan Amin Sheikh

207 (Newman & Nollen, 1996). As mentioned in earlier sections, House et al. (2004) have shown a linear and positive relationship between bureaucratic leadership competency (CLT factor) and uncertainty avoidance and power distance cultural dimension of Hofstede (1980). They have also shown a linear and positive relationship between humane (CLT factor) and humane orientation cultural dimension of Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck (1961), Putnam (1993), and McClleland (1985). Thus, there is a linear and positive relationship between some dimensions of national culture and leadership competencies, as mentioned earlier in this Chapter. As per Hofstede et al. (1990), culture at the country/national level relates to values rather than practices. They also state that values are defined as broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Practices are more superficial and easy to change than values (Hofstede, 1999, p.36). Therefore, bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) are related to Pakistani cultural values and are difficult to change. Thus, project managers in Pakistan will continue to have bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies as they are part of the Pakistani culture. Since Pakistan is a high power distance culture (Hofstede, 1980; Nadeem(2010), our results indicating that bureaucratic CLT factor has linear and positive correlation with project success are also supported by Javidan et al (2006b). Javidan et al. (2006b) have stated that people in high power distance cultures tend to have hierarchical decision making processes; those in position of authority expect and receive obedience. According to Hofstede (1980), Pakistan is a hierarchical society and people in Pakistani culture accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, and subordinates expect to be told what to do (Hofstede, 1980). It means project managers in a Rizwan Amin Sheikh

208 high power distance culture like Pakistan tend to be bureaucratic, believe in hierarchy, direct the subordinates in terms of what to do on projects. The results of our study are beneficial for organizations and projects because different types of projects require different types of leadership competencies (Crawford, 2001; Crawford, 2005; Dainty et al., 2005; Müller and Turner, 2007a; and Müller et al., 2012). On the other hand, the bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies might be detrimental for projects that require leadership competencies other than these two. Porthouse and Dulewicz (2007), Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008), Müller and Turner (2007a), and Müller et al. (2012) have shown in earlier studies that there is a linear and positive relationship between certain leadership competencies and success / project success. The results of our research model in Chapter 4 also show that there is a linear and positive relationship between bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) and project success. Therefore, our research model (Figure 2-6) and theoretical framework are supported by earlier studies (mentioned above) and the results of our study indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between some dimensions of national culture, leadership, and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan Answer to Research Question 2 The second research question was: Q2. What is the relationship between culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT) factors and the project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan? Rizwan Amin Sheikh

209 The answer to this question has already been addressed in the earlier sections so we will just present a summary of the relationship between the six CLT factors and project success. The relationship between the social sensitivity CLT factor and project success The conclusion is that the social sensitivity CLT factor shows a linear and positive relationship with project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, it indicates that project managers in Pakistan possessing characteristics of social sensitivity CLT factor will have no relationship with project success. The relationship between the face saving CLT factor and project success The conclusion is that the face saving CLT factor shows a linear and positive relationship with project success, and the relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, it indicates that project managers in Pakistan possessing characteristics of face saving CLT factor will have a positive relationship with project success. The relationship between the bureaucratic CLT factor and project success The conclusion is that the bureaucratic CLT factor shows a linear and positive relationship with project success, and the relationship is statistically significant. Therefore, it indicates that project managers in Pakistan possessing characteristics of bureaucratic CLT factor will have a positive relationship with project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

210 The relationship between the autonomous CLT factor and project success The conclusion is that the autonomous CLT factor shows a linear and negative relationship with project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, it indicates that project managers in Pakistan possessing characteristics of autonomous CLT factor will have no statistically significant relationship with project success. The relationship between the internally competitive CLT factor and project success The conclusion is that the internally competitive CLT factor shows a linear and negative relationship with project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, it indicates that project managers in Pakistan possessing characteristics of internally competitive CLT factor will have no statistically significant relationship with project success. The relationship between the self-sacrificial CLT factor and project success The conclusion is that the self-sacrificial CLT factor shows a linear and positive relationship with project success, but the relationship is not statistically significant. Therefore, it indicates that project managers in Pakistan possessing characteristics of self-sacrificial CLT factor will have no statistically significant relationship with project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

211 Summary of Answer to Research Question 2 Project managers working in a high power distance culture like Pakistan possess leadership competencies (CLT factors) of bureaucratic and face saving, which means they believe in policies, procedures, and routine work but at the same time they care about maintaining good relationships with their coworkers and they do not like to embarrass their subordinates and peers. As shown in the results in Chapter 4, project managers in Pakistan with bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) have a linear and positive relationship with project success, which indicates that the more bureaucratic and face saving a project manager is, the more he/she will contribute towards project success. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, both CLT factors, bureaucratic and face saving, are related to national culture because they are related to basic norms, values, and beliefs (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998; Javidan et al., 2006b). They are also related to employees' understanding of work and the way in which they expect to be treated (Newman & Nollen, 1996). As per Hofstede et al. (1990), culture at the country/national level relates to values rather than practices. This indicates that bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) are related to national culture. Since Pakistan is a high power distance culture (Hofstede, 1980; Javidan et al., 2006b; Nadeem, 2010), the project managers tend to be bureaucratic / hierarchical. It indicates that Pakistani project managers will have a positive relationship with project success on projects that require bureaucratic / hierarchical leadership competency because Müller and Turner (2010) have stated that the competence of the project manager, including his or her leadership style is a contributor to project success and also, different types of projects require different profiles of competence. As per House et al. (2004), leadership competencies including bureaucratic and face saving are Rizwan Amin Sheikh

212 contingent upon national culture. They have also shown a linear and positive relationship between bureaucratic and face saving CLT factors and some dimensions of the national culture (mentioned earlier). Thus, there is a relationship between national culture and leadership competencies (CLT factors). Porthouse and Dulewicz (2007) and Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008) have shown in earlier studies that there is a linear and positive relationship between leadership competencies and project success. Therefore, this again indicates that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success. It can be summarized that project managers working in a high power distance culture like Pakistan are bureaucratic but they also believe in face saving, and these characteristics are part of the Pakistani culture, which is difficult to change (Dastmalchian, Lee, & Ng, 2000). Therefore, project managers in Pakistan have a leadership profile of bureaucratic and face saving characteristics that have a positive and linear relationship with project success. The results of our study are supported by earlier studies on leadership and success / project success (Wren and Dulewicz, 2005; Young and Dulewicz, 2006; Hawkins and Dulewicz, 2007; Porthouse and Dulewicz, 2007; Geoghegan and Dulewicz, 2008; Müller and Turner, 2007a; and Müller et al., 2012). This indicates that national culture has a relationship with leadership competencies and project success. It further indicates that bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) have a linear and positive relationship with some dimensions of national culture as mentioned earlier in this Chapter. Therefore, organizations in Pakistan must focus on leadership competencies of project managers in the context of national culture while recruiting project managers for their projects. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

213 5.4.3 Answer to Research Question 3 The third research question was: Q3. What is the leadership profile by project type of a project manager working in Pakistan? We wanted to explore if leadership profiles (i.e. social sensitivity, face saving, bureaucratic, autonomous, internally competitive, and self-sacrificial) differed by project type in Pakistan. When we reviewed the mean values of the six CLT factors by project type (Chapter 4), we found some nominal differences in leadership profiles of project managers by project type. However, when we performed a one-way ANOVA test, we found there were no statistically significant differences between leadership profiles of project managers by project type in Pakistan. Therefore, the leadership profile of project managers working in Pakistan do not change by project type. Meaning, there is no statistically significant difference in leadership profile of a project manager working on a construction and engineering project than a project manager working on IT & Telecom project or a project manager working on a business or organizational change project. Therefore, project managers working in Pakistan will have bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies regardless of the project type. Senior managers and organizations must pay attention to this finding because different types of projects require different types of leadership competencies as stated by Crawford (2001), Crawford (2005), Dainty et al., (2005), Müller and Turner (2007a), and Müller et al., (2012). Rizwan Amin Sheikh

214 5.5 Theoretical implications The theoretical implications of the present study mainly focus on two aspects: 1) verify the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT), contingency theory, and leadership competence based theories in the context of a high power distance national culture; 2) enrichment of the leadership competency school. Verification of culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory, contingency theory and leadership competence based theory Culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT), contingency theory, and leadership competence based theory constitute the theoretical perspectives of the present study. These three theories are developed in the organizational behavior and general management areas. They have been tested successfully in permanent organizations. However, projects are temporary organizations and have their unique characteristics, which we have discussed in Chapter 2. Whether these theories are still valid in a high power distance national culture and project success context is a concern of our study. House et al. (2004) have tested the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory in the context of national culture while taking into account nine dimensions of national culture including six dimensions of Hofstede (1980). Porthouse and Dulewicz (2007), Geoghegan and Dulewicz (2008), Turner and Müller (2006), Müller and Turner (2007a), and Müller et al., (2012) have tested the contingency theory and leadership competence based theory in the project management world with a specific focus on project success. However, there is still a knowledge Rizwan Amin Sheikh

215 gap of whether the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory, contingency theory, and leadership competency based theory still holds in the context of high power distance culture and project success. This is because of the different paradigms for project management and project success, which are also discussed in Chapter 2. Therefore, the present study takes the perspective of culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory, contingency theory, and leadership competence based theory into project management field with a specific focus on high power distance culture and project success. The research results show that these three theories are valid in the project success and national culture context. Therefore, the applicability of the three theories is extended into project management area in a high power distance culture. Enrichment of the leadership competency school Referring to culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory of House et al. (2004), leadership competence based theory of project performance Müller and Turner s (2010b), and project success criteria of Müller and Turner s (2007a), a theoretical framework and research model (Figure 2-6) are developed and tested. Our theoretical framework and research model (Figure 2-6) extend the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory of House et al. (2004) into project management arena, which enriches the theoretical system of the leadership competency school. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

216 5.6 Managerial implications The managerial implications address project managers, senior managers, and organizations. Implications for project managers Following are the key implications for project managers in Pakistan: Develop leadership styles / competencies (CLT factors) consciously Project managers in Pakistan should be concerned about developing their leadership competencies (CLT factors) in the context of national culture as they are key success factors for implementation of projects. Bureaucratic and face saving CLT factors are important for project managers in Pakistan as they are related to the national culture of Pakistan and they also have a positive relationship with project success. Implications for senior managers Following are the key implications for senior managers and organizations in Pakistan: Recruitment of project managers Senior managers and human resource managers in Pakistan should evaluate candidates based on their leadership competencies before appointing them to be project managers or bringing them into the pool of project managers. It is indicated through the results of our study that candidates with bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) have a positive and linear relationship with project success. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

217 Implications for organizations Following are the key implications for organizations in Pakistan: Design leadership training programs Organizations in Pakistan through their training department or human resource department should design leadership training programs to help project managers develop their leadership competencies (CLT factors) with a specific focus on bureaucratic and face saving leadership competencies (CLT factors) as both factors have a positive relationship with project success. Design leadership development programs Organizations in Pakistan can also design and initiate Leadership Development Programs through mentoring. They can ask senior executives to provide mentoring to young managers that has the potential to become leaders. 5.7 Strengths and limitations Strengths of the study The present study addresses the gap in project management research, i.e. what is the relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan? To address this gap in research and to answer our research questions, we adopted Rizwan Amin Sheikh

218 constructs from earlier studies. These constructs were developed based on established theories and a careful research process. We have followed a normative research process, which is another strength of this study. A sequential research method is applied in the present study. The instruments that are adopted in this quantitative study were carefully scrutinized by supervisors and supported by existing theories. Data analyses followed a structured approach suggested by methodologists. The quality check measures such as validity, reliability and generalizability are embedded in the data analysis processes. For example, in the questionnaire design stage, the construct validity was assured by selecting survey items through literature review and pilot testing; in the quantitative data analysis, the reliability was achieved through purification and achievement of accepted thresholds for Cronbach Alpha. Results generalizability was achieved by reaching an acceptable level of sample size, representativeness of the sample for the wider project managers population, as well as clear statistical results. Except for the applied rigor in the research process, the research results were also provided to the research community for scrutiny. A paper based on the literature review was accepted and presented in a peer-review research conference. The paper will be submitted to refereed journals after receiving the feedback from peers. Limitations of the study Rizwan Amin Sheikh

219 The major limitation is the questionnaire distribution method. We resorted to project management professional institutions to distribute the questionnaire. Thus the questionnaire distributions in terms of geography and industrial areas cannot be controlled. This approach might have impacted the results in terms of biased respondents. Beside this, the response rate cannot be calculated with this approach. Another limitation is a highly volatile and turbulent business and economic environment along with a very challenging security situation in Pakistan. Since the business environment has become very challenging and stressful in Pakistan due to high security alerts, it might have triggered respondents (project managers) to answer questions differently than they would have otherwise in a somewhat normal business environment. Since this study used a self-reported survey, the respondents might have been influenced by the challenging and stressful environment in Pakistan while answering the questions. Thus, it might have impacted the results. 5.8 Recommendations for future research There are several recommendations for the future research: Verification of the results through other research methods This was the first of its kind research study in Pakistan that explored the relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success. We tested the research model through Rizwan Amin Sheikh

220 quantitative methods. Therefore, it is recommended to use other research methods i.e. qualitative methods to verify the results and make sure that the results are stable. Testing the relationships between the six CLT factors and ten individual items of the Project Success Criteria The project success criteria comprising of ten items was used a single dependent variable. It is recommended to explore the relationship between six CLT factors and individual items of the project success criteria i.e. client satisfaction, team satisfaction, end-user satisfaction, and others. It will help the researchers to delve deep into project success criteria items and explore if any of the ten items of the project success criteria are more or less important or any of the ten items has a stronger or weaker relationship with the six CLT factors identified in this study. Testing the relationships between the nine cultural dimensions and project success criteria It is recommended to explore the relationship between nine dimensions of national culture and project success. It will help researchers to delve deep into national culture and project success area. Future research in this area could help researcher, practitioners, and organizations to explore the relationship and impact of national culture on project success. Investigating risk perceptions of project managers working in a high power distance culture In understanding the relation between national culture, leadership, and project outcomes, future studies investigate certain proximal outcomes such as risk perceptions of project managers. For Rizwan Amin Sheikh

221 example, given that certain leadership competencies are characteristic of project managers working in high a power distance culture such as Pakistan, how does it influence their perceptions of project risks at different stages of the project? Investigating the project outcomes when project manager and project team are from different cultures Future research studies can be conducted on investigating the project outcomes when project manager (leader) and project team come from different national culture. Explore the influence of national culture on project-programs Another direction for research can be to know the influence of national culture or projectprograms. Perform both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis I have performed exploratory factor analysis. It is recommended to perform confirmatory factor analysis as well and then analyze the results. 5.9 Chapter summary This chapter concludes the study by summarizing the research process and research findings, discussing the research results, answering the research questions, discussing the theoretical and Rizwan Amin Sheikh

222 managerial implications, analyzing the strengths and limitations, and finally offering the recommendations for the future research. Our theoretical framework and research model (Figure 2-6) has built on the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (House et al., 2004), and the research conducted by Müller and Turner (2010) on leadership and project success. It has extended the CLT factors of the GLOBE study into the project management arena in a high power distance culture, which could provide insights for future research and theory development. Through the research model and series of hypotheses, researchers can explore the relationship between CLT factors and project success criteria in a high power distance culture, which can have practical implications in the project management field. For example, it could allow organizations to choose project managers with certain culturally contingent leadership traits, while implementing projects in high power distance cultures and possibly enhancing the project success rate. This study provides direction for theory development from CLT and project management perspectives. It can also explore the practical implications of national culture and leadership on project success. It also provides key insights and guidelines to both public and private sector organizations globally to recruit projects managers with culturally contingent leadership traits, so that projects can be delivered successfully around the world and millions of dollars can be saved. The contributions of the present study mainly lie in four aspects: firstly, it has identified that there is a linear and positive relationship between national culture, leadership, and project success in a high power distance culture like Pakistan, which can be used as a basis for future Rizwan Amin Sheikh

223 research; secondly, it has identified and tested the relationship between the six CLT factors and project success criteria in a high power distance culture like Pakistan. The results have shown that there is a linear and positive relationship between two CLT factors (bureaucratic and face saving) and project success, which can be used as a basis for future research; third, there were no statistically significant differences between leadership profiles of Pakistani project managers by project type. Finally, this study has extended the culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory and its factors into project management arena in a high power distance culture like Pakistan, which again can be used as a basis for future research and it enriches the theory of leadership competency school. Follow-up studies on leadership and project success in high power distance cultures are strongly recommended to continue in this area of research. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

224 Chapter 6 Appendices This chapter contains the following appendices: i. Appendix A contains the Survey Form used in this study. The title of the form is Survey Form for Research on National Culture, Leadership, and Project Success. ii. Appendix B contains the Inter-Item Correlation Matrix iii. Appendix C contains the Anti-Image Correlation Matrices of Original CLT Variables iv. Appendix D contains Communalities for the original factor analysis v. Appendix E contains Multiple Comparisons of the Mean for CLT Factors by Project Type vi. Appendix F contains Summary of Research Questions, Research Hypotheses, Key Findings, Theoretical Contributions, and Managerial Contributions Rizwan Amin Sheikh

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239 Sale E.M. J., Lohfeld L.H. & Brazil K. (2002). Revisiting the quantitative-qualitative debate: Implications for mixed-methods research. Quality & Quantity, 36(1), Schein E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership: A dynamic view (2 nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schneider S. C. & De Meyer A. (1991). Interpreting and responding to strategic issues: The impact of national culture. Strategic Management Journal, 12(4), Secker J., Wimbush E., Watson J. & Milburn K. (1995). Qualitative methods in health promotion research: Some criteria for quality. Health Education Journal, 54: Sekaran U. (2003). Research methods for business: a skill building approach (4 th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NJ. Sharma S. (1996). Applied Multivariate Techniques. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Shenhar A. J., Tishler A., Dvir D., Lipovetsky S. & Lechler T. (2002). R&D Management, 32(2), Shenhar A. J., Levy O. & Dvir D. (1997). Mapping the dimensions of project success. Project Management Journal, 28(2), Shenhar A. J. & Wideman R. M. (2000). Optimizing success by matching management style to project type. The original version of this paper first published on the Project Management Forum website, September, (Updated presentation, April, 2002) Shenhar A. J., Levy O., Dvir D. & Maltz A.C. (2001) Project success: A multidimensional strategic concept. Long Range Planning Journal 34(6), Shenhar A. J. & Dvir D. (2007). Reinventing project management: The diamond approach to successful growth and innovation. Harvard Business School Press: Boston, Massachusetts. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

240 Shao J. (2010). The impact of program managers' leadership competences on program success and its moderation through program context (Doctoral dissertation) Shondrick S. J., Jessica E. D. & Robert G. L. (2010). Developments in implicit leadership theory and cognitive science: Applications to improving measurement and understanding alternatives to hierarchical leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(6), Shore, B. & Cross, B. J. (2005). Exploring the role of national culture in the management of largescale international science projects. International Journal of Project Management 23, Smith M.L. (2006). Overcoming theory-practice inconsistencies: critical realism and Information systems research. Information and Organization 16, Smith P. B. & Peterson, M. F. (1988). Leadership, Organizations and Culture: An Event Management Model, London: Sage Smyth H.J. & Morris P.W.G. (2007). An epistemological evaluation of research into projects and their management: methodological issues. International Journal of Project Management 25, Stigler S. M. (1986). The history of statistics: The measurement of uncertainty before Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Straub D.W. Validating Instruments in MIS Research, MIS Quarterly, June 1989, pp 160. Tan, W., Chong, E. (2003). Power distance in Singapore construction organizations: implications for project managers. International Journal of Project Management 21(2003) Taras V., Steel P. & Kirkman B. (2010a). Negative practice-value correlations in the GLOBE data: Unexpected findings, questionnaire limitations and research directions. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(8): Rizwan Amin Sheikh

241 Taras V., Kirkman B. L. & Steel P. (2010b). Examining the impact of culture s consequences: A three-decade, multi-level, metaanalytic review of Hofstede s cultural value dimensions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(3), Taylor G.R. (2005). Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in research. Lanham, MD: University Press of America Teddie C. & Tashakkori A. (2009). Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavorial Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Thompson K. R. & Luthans F. (1990). Organizational culture: A behavioral perspective. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate and culture (pp ). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Trompenaars F. & Turner H. C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding the diversity in global business (2 nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. Triandis H. C. (1993). The contingency model in cross-cultural perspective. In Chemers, M. M. and Ayman, R. (Eds), Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Triandis H. C. (1994). Cross-cultural Industrial and Organizational Psychology, in Triandis, H. C., Dunnette, M. D., Hough, L. M., (eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,V ol. 4, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press 1994, pp Triandis H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Turner J. R. (1999). Handbook of project-based management: Improving the process for achieving strategic objectives. (2 nd ed.). London: McGraw-Hill. Turner, J. R., & Müller, R. (2003). On the nature of the project as a temporary organization. Rizwan Amin Sheikh

242 International Journal of Project Management 21(1), 1 8. Turner J. R. & Müller R. (2005). The project manager s leadership style as a success factor on projects: A literature review. Project Management Journal 36(2), Turner J. R. & Müller R. (2006). Choosing appropriate project managers: Matching their leadership style to the type of project. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Turner J. R., Müller R. & Dulewicz V. (2009). Comparing the leadership styles of functional and project managers. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business 2(2), Turner R., Huemann M., Anbari F. & Bredillet C. (2010). Perspective on projects. New York: Routledge. Van de Ven A.H. & Johnson P.E. (2006). Knowledge for theory and practice. Academy of Management Review 31(4), Wang X. (2001a). Identification and Evaluation of the Key Attributes of Project Management Culture: An Investigation into the Work-Related Values and Beliefs of Project Management Professionals (Doctoral dissertation) Wang X. (2001b). Dimensions and current status of project management culture. Project Management Journal 32(4), Wang X. (2002). Developing a true sense of professional community: an important matter for PM professionalism. Project Management Journal 31(1), Wateridge J. (1998). How can IS/IT projects be measured for success? International Journal of Project Management 16(1), Weiner Y. (1982). Commitment in organizations: A normative view. Academy of Rizwan Amin Sheikh

243 Management Review, 7(3), Wright J. C. & Mischel W. (1987). A conditional approach to dispositional constructs: The local predictability of social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), Yin R. K. (2003). Case study research: design and methods (3 rd ed.). California: Sage publications Yukl G. A. (2002). Leadership in organizations (5 th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Zwick William R. & Velicer Wayne F. (1986). Comparison of five rules for determining the number of components to retain. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 99(3), May 1986, Appendix A: Survey Form for Research on National Culture, Leadership, and Project Success Introduction The purpose of this research is to learn about national culture, project manager s / leader s behaviors, and project success. The questionnaire that you are asked to complete will take about minutes of your time. This information may be used for PhD dissertation, classroom instruction of students and managers in universities, technological institutes, and other organizations throughout the world. Hopefully, this information will be helpful to better understand national culture, leader behaviors, and project success in other countries. This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. We are mainly interested in your opinion. The questionnaire is anonymous and voluntary. The data will be analyzed at the aggregate level only. All personal information will be removed from the questionnaire before data analysis. No reported results will be possible to be traced back to individuals or their companies. If you wish, we can you the feedback on the survey. Section A Project Success Rizwan Amin Sheikh

244 The following questions ask about how you measured success and how successful the project was. A1. In my last project, the following factors were important for overall project success: Please choose the appropriate response for each item Not at all Not Slightly Very Important Important Important Important Important (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) A1.1 Client satisfaction project results with A1.2 Reoccurring business with this client In my last project, the following factors were important for overall project success: A1.3 End-user satisfaction with project product or service A1.4 Suppliers satisfaction A1.5 Project team's satisfaction A1.6 Other stakeholders' Please choose the appropriate response for each item Not at all Not Slightly Very Important Important Important Important Important (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

245 satisfaction with the project A2. Another main factor (if any) that determined success in my project was (please specify): Please write your answer here: A3. How important was the factor, (if any) that you just entered in Question A2, for project success? Please choose only one of the following: (1) Not at all Important (2) Not Important (3) Slightly Important (4) Important (5) Very Important A4. Please give your opinion about the results of your last project. A4.1 Overall, the project performed well in terms of functionality, budget and timing. A4.2 Overall, the project Please choose the appropriate response for each item Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

246 met the users requirements. A4.3 Overall, the project achieved its purpose. A5. My last project was successful in terms of : A5.1 Client satisfaction with project results A5.2 Reoccuring business with this client A5.3 End-user satisfaction with project product or service Please choose the appropriate response for each item Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) My last project was successful in terms of : Please choose the appropriate response for each item Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) A5.4 Suppliers' satisfaction A5.5 Project team's Rizwan Amin Sheikh

247 satisfaction A5.6 Other stakeholders' satisfaction with the project A5.7 Your own success factor you entered above Section B Project Manager / Leader Behaviors B1. Please give your opinion on HOW YOU BEHAVED ON YOUR LAST PROJECT. All questions in this section are RELATED TO YOUR LAST PROJECT. Please choose the appropriate response for each item B1.1 I proceeded / performed with great care and did not take risks Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) HOW YOU BEHAVED ON YOUR LAST PROJECT Please choose the appropriate response for each item Rizwan Amin Sheikh

248 Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) B1.2 I was unusually able to persuade others of his/her viewpoint B1.3 I did not go straight to the point; I used metaphors and examples to communicate B1.4 I did not rely on others; selfgoverning B1.5 I followed established rules and guidelines B1.6 I tended to conceal information from others B1.7 I refrained from making negative comments to maintain good relationships and save face B1.8 I did forego my self-interests and made personal sacrifices in the interest of a goal or vision Rizwan Amin Sheikh

249 HOW YOU BEHAVED ON YOUR LAST PROJECT B1.9 I behaved in a different manner than peers B1.10 I was willing to give time, money, resources, and help to others B1.11 I followed a routine B1.12 I exhibited characteristics of behaviors that were different from most others B1.13 I behaved according to the norms of my group B1.14 I was aware of others' socially accepted status B1.15 I avoided saying no to others when requested to do something, even when it could not Please choose the appropriate response for each item Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

250 be done B1.16 I used a prescribed order to carry out procedures HOW YOU BEHAVED ON YOUR LAST PROJECT B1.17 I was willing to invest major resources in endeavors that did not have high probability of success B1.18 I tried to exceed the performance of others in my group B1.19 I had empathy for others; inclined to be helpful or show mercy B1.20 I acted in accordance with rules, convention, and ceremonies B1.21 I was conscious of class and status Please choose the appropriate response for each item Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Disagree Disagree Nor Disagree Agree Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

251 boundaries and acted accordingly B1.22 I acted independently. I did not rely on others. Section C Project Types The following questions ask about the types of projects you manage. Please click on those categories that best represent your project. C1.1 My last project was of the following type: Please choose the appropriate response for each item Construction & Engineering Information Technology / Telecom Business or organizational change Yes Uncertain No Yes Uncertain No Yes Uncertain No Other (Please specify): C1.2 My last project was of the following complexity: Rizwan Amin Sheikh

252 Please choose only one of the following: High Medium Low C1.3 In my last project I managed the following stages of the project life-cycle Please Choose All that apply Feasibility Planning Design Execution & Control Close-out Commissioning / Operations C1.4 My last project was of the following strategic importance: Please Choose ALL that apply Mandatory (a project required e.g. by law) Repositioning (e.g. a project for entirely new products or services) Renewal (e.g. further development of an existing system) C1.5: In my last project I worked: Please choose only one of the following: in my home country on a project outside my home country abroad as an expatriate Rizwan Amin Sheikh

253 C1.6: My last project was based on the following contract type: Please choose only one of the following: Fixed-price Remeasurement (e.g. cost reimbursement, time & material etc.) Alliance (e.g. joint-venture or partnership where risk is shared) Other (Please specify) Section D Demographic Questions Following are questions about you, your background, and qualifications. These questions are important because they help us to see if different types of people respond to the questions on this questionnaire in different ways. They are NOT used to identify any individual. DI. Questions about your personal background D1.1 address: D1.2 How old are you? Please choose only one of the following: years years years years Over 60 years D1.3 What is your gender? (check one) Male Female D1.4 What language do you speak at home? Rizwan Amin Sheikh

254 D2. Questions about your work background D2.1 How many years of full-time work experience have you had after your Bachelors degree? years D2.2 What is your current job title / designation? D2.3 How many years have you been a project manager? years D2.4 Are you a certified Project Management Professional (PMP)? D3. Questions about your educational background D3.1 What is the highest level of education that you have received? B.A (2 years after FSc/A-levels) BSc (2 years after FSc/A-levels) Four-year Bachelor Degree Masters PhD Other (Please specify) YES NO D3.2 Have you received any formal training in management / project management practices? YES NO D4. Questions about Your Organization: D4.1 Please indicate the industry your organization belongs to: Please choose only one of the following: Rizwan Amin Sheikh

255 Information Technology Telecom Financial Services (Banking) Insurance Government Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Academics Food Processing Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) / Consumer Business Manufacturing Construction Engineering Healthcare Social Sector Energy Other (Please specify) Rizwan Amin Sheikh

256 D4.2 My Organization / Company has: number of employees D4.3 The approximate revenue / budget of my Organization/Company is: (please specify the approximate amount in USD) D5. Questions about your last project: D5.1 My last project had: number of team members D5.2 The cost of my last project was: (please specify the approximate cost in USD) This concludes the questionnaire. We truly appreciate your willingness to complete this questionnaire and to assist in this research project.

257 Appendix B: Inter-Item Correlation Matrix Rizwan Amin Sheikh,

258 Appendix C: Anti-Image Correlation Matrices of Original CLT Variables Rizwan Amin Sheikh,

259 Appendix D: Communalities for the original factor analysis Rizwan Amin Sheikh,

260 Appendix E: Multiple Comparisons of the Mean for CLT Factors by Project Type Rizwan Amin Sheikh,

261 Appendix F: Summary of Research Questions, Research Hypotheses, Key Findings, Theoretical Contributions, and Managerial Contributions Rizwan Amin Sheikh,