Lecture overview. Development: physical Development: intellectual (focus on preoperational stage) Developing socially and personally

Transcription

1 Lecture overview Development: physical Development: intellectual (focus on preoperational stage) Developing socially and personally

2 Physical development In the beginning you were an egg. Then, fertilization occurred, and you got your helping of chromosome soup 23 from Mom, 23 from Dad. Congratulations! You are a zygote! You progressed through three main stages: Germinal phase: two weeks, from conception to implantation (you freefloated for a bit) Embryonic phase: about 6 weeks, from implantation until about 8 weeks after fertilization Fetal period: everything after that, until you were ready to head out into the world. Why is this important to psychology? (for this course) Teratogens: environmental agents that can potentially damage a developing child.

3 Teratogens On the following figure, periods of highest susceptibility are shown by the lighter bar. Note how long the central nervous system is susceptible all the way through! Although most susceptible prior to 16 weeks Some psychological disorders may result from exposure to teratogens, including alcohol, heavy metals, and cigarette smoke

4 Figure 10.3

5 Physical development (cont.) Environment in infancy can have a big impact on eventual intellectual and physical outcomes As we discussed yesterday re: intelligence. The more enriched the environment, the better the odds of reaching full potential BUT As with intelligence, a good proportion of physical development rates is determined by genetics (ie., if your mom or dad hit puberty late (or early).. You probably did too).

6 Physical development (cont.) We will cover the three main stages of life as we progress through this lecture This is a course about the mind part of psychology, rather than the biological end of things.. So: we will talk about infancy & childhood, adolescence, and adulthood primarily from that point of view (although some of the physical stuff will be touched on, because it influences cognitive and social development)

7 Infancy Babies are tricky to study Preferences: Fantz (1961) tested babies to see what they preferred. (Moms win). Try different positions and combinations, still get the preference. Habituation: babies like to look at new things, and get bored easily. Changing the stimuli (ie, red card to green card) and gauging the reaction tells us what the baby can discriminate. Rewards: A form of conditioning. Can train the baby, then change the situation slightly (say, change the colour or shape of a mobile). If baby continues to perform the correct action for the reward, we can infer discrimination.

8 Infancy Visual cliff studies: Babies can perceive a three-dimensional world Even 2 month old babies react to being placed on the deep side of a visual cliff. Perceptual systems develop very quickly in infancy; a good thing infants become children who have some sense of how the world works. How accurate are kids at understanding their worlds let s see!

9 Cognitive development in childhood Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who published his first scientific paper at the age of 12. Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development: How children's thinking develops from age two to seven years He revolutionized our understanding of the way that children's thinking develops, by systematically observing children's answers to a variety of questions and problems, and paying particular attention to the children's wrong answers Piaget believed that children's thinking could be divided into four stages, each with a number of substages.

10 Cognitive development in childhood (See Similar table Text p. 399)

11 Preoperational stage Today, we are going to focus on only one stage in some detail: The preoperational period (from 2 to 6 or 7 years) This will provide you with some of the details of Piaget's observations, and demonstrate some of the ways we investigate how children think.

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13 Preoperational stage (cont.) Piaget's suggested two basic mechanisms of cognitive development: Assimilation: incorporating new information into existing mental structures Accommodation: changing existing mental structures as a result of experience

14 Assimilation and Accomodation in Cognitive Development

15 Preoperational stage (cont.) Because Piaget believed preschoolers did not have true mental operations, he called that stage preoperational (or prelogical ). By age 6, most children are able to use true mental operations. E.g., are able to combine, separate and transform information mentally in a logical manner

16 Preoperational stage (cont.) Key feature of preoperational thinking is that children are able to focus (or 'centre') on only one aspect of a task at a time. Only when they are able to overcome this limitation are they considered to be in the next stage of concrete operations.

17 Preoperational stage (cont.) Two examples: Classification Conservation of liquids Children between 2.5 years and 6 years mix primitive logic with illogic; abilities with lack of ability.

18 Preoperational stage (cont.) Example 2: Conservation of liquids

19 Preoperational Stage: Distinguishing appearance from reality Preschoolers focus on surface appearances. Makes it difficult to distinguish between the way things seem to be and the way they are. E.g. 'bent' appearance of stick in water; fright at Halloween masks

20 Preoperational Stage: Distinguishing appearance from reality (cont.) Devries (1969) study of cat with dog mask

21 Preoperational Stage: Distinguishing appearance from reality (cont.) Question: Is Maynard still a cat? 3 year olds believed cat turned into dog 4 & 5 year olds showed considerable confusion 6 year olds laughed at idea (Devries (1969)

22 Preoperational stage (cont.) Piaget's theories about the development of children's thinking have been widely criticized in recent years, but are still the most important place to start in understanding the development of thinking in preschoolers.

23 Attachment in Early Childhood (P. 405) Temperament affects quality of relationships Temperament: General level of emotional reactivity Babies vary: some are easier to comfort, adapt more easily to routines, accept change easily Different kinds of bonds may be formed between children, caregivers

24 Studying Attachment Types (P. 408) Main research technique: Strange situation test (Ainsworth) How does behaviour change in a stressful situation such as being left in a strange room? Used mainly with 10 to 24-month old children Research room has toys; child encouraged to play with them, then stress introduced by having caregiver step out, stranger come in

25 Attachment Types (Pp ) Secure (70%) : Explore new situation happily with parent present. Upset when caregiver leaves, happy when he or she returns. Resistant (10%): Wary of the situation with parent present. Upset when caregiver leaves, but may seem ambivalent when caregiver returns - temporarily resists affection. Avoidant (20%): Not upset when caregiver leaves, little reaction when he or she returns.

26 Long-term effects of attachment People who were avoidantly attached as infants often become untrusting of their spouses or lovers as adults. Resistant attachment as infants; often perceive their adult partners to be distant and unloving A person s original attachment pattern as an infant apparently often produces a "filter" through which people view subsequent attachments and other social events.

27 Adolescence Begins with puberty (from the Latin for to grow hairy ), ends with adulthood Period of adolescence is partly defined socially/culturally, rather than just biologically Biologically: this when there are increases in androgens (males) and estrogen (females) Has lengthened over the last hundred years. Can you think of four reasons why? earlier sexual maturation more extended education later marriage later entry into workforce

28 Physical Development during Adolescence What is menarche? The first occurrence of menstruation Occurs about what age? Average of about 12.5 years in North America Has it always occurred at about the age of 12.5? - No; used to average around 15.

29 Change in age of menarche and length of adolescence , Women 7.2 Year Interval , Women Age 11.8 Year Interval In the 1890 s the average interval between a woman s menarche and marriage was about 7 years; now it is nearly 12 years Age

30 Physical Development during Adolescence: Menarche Why the change in age of menarche? Not completely sure; Likely combination of nutrition, stress and exercise Another possible factor: father absence Some preliminary data indicate that girls without fathers in the home go through puberty about five months earlier than girls with fathers in the home. (We're not sure why).

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32 Stages of peer group development during adolescence Dunphy (1963) suggested five stages in peer group relations during adolescence: 1. Precrowd stage: isolated, unisexual groups

33 Stages of peer group development during adolescence 2. Beginning of the crowd: some interaction between unisexual groups

34 Stages of peer group development during adolescence 3. Crowd in transition: unisexual groups change into heterosexual groups (especially among upper status members)

35 Stages of peer group development during adolescence 4. Fully developed crowd: heterosexual groups are closely associated

36 Stages of peer group development during adolescence 5. Beginning of crowd disintegration: loosely associated groups of couples

37 Stages of peer group development during adolescence (Summary) Dunphy (1963) suggested five stages in peer group relations during adolescence: 1. Precrowd stage: isolated, unisexual groups 2. Beginning of the crowd: some interaction between unisexual groups 3. Crowd in transition: unisexual groups change into heterosexual groups (especially among upper status members) 4. Fully developed crowd: heterosexual groups are closely associated 5. Beginning of crowd disintegration: loosely associated groups of couples

38 Cognitive Development during Adolescence Formal operations begins to emerge at 11 or 12 years. The previous stage (concrete operations) involved a knowledge of organized systems (e.g., classification, serial ordering) which are considered independently. - each system (or operation) is not related to the whole During the formal operations stage, this changes combinations of variables can be considered holistically

39 Cognitive Development During Adolescence Formal Operations Task - Balance Beam

40 Cognitive Development During Adolescence (cont.) Formal Operations Task - Balance Beam Youngest children fail to understand it at all 8-year-olds concentrate on equality of weights but fail to consider distance Only 11-yearolds (and older) take into account both weight and distance

41 Cognitive Development During Adolescence (cont.) Formal Operations Task - Balance Beam Balance beam problem demonstrates a key aspect of formal operations: Requires that 2 variables (weight and distance) be systematically varied and combined mentally Solution requires development of logical and mathematical principles which can now be applied to other problems

42 Kohlberg's six stage theory Moral development

43 Moral development Kohlberg's theory:age and moral reasoning level.

44 Moral development Question 1. By reporting his employer s attempts to hide the true extent of the severity of side effects produced by one of the company s medications, Jason was fired. To him, the ethical value of protecting members of society from harm was more important than keeping his job. The reasoning behind Jason s behaviour is an example of: a) Moralistic thinking b) Abstract thought c) Postconventional thought d) Conventional thought

45 Moral development (cont.) Question 2 If an individual at the conventional level of moral reasoning had to choose between stealing and letting a loved one die, that person might: a) Refuse to steal because s/he might be caught and punished for stealing b) Steal because people might get mad if the loved one dies c) Refuse to steal because it is against the law d) Steal because human life is more important than societal law

46 Moral development (cont.) Question 3 Ross did not take a single cookie from the jar when his mother left the room because he knew that if he did, he would be disciplined. His reasoning is an example of thought. a) Preconventional b) Conventional c) Postconventional d) Contraventional

47 Moral development (cont.) Moral dilemma exercise Answers: 1. c. Commitment to personal ethics is characteristic of post-conventional reasoning. 2. c. Concern about the approval of others and societal norms is characteristic of conventional reasoning 3. a. Emphasis on positive or negative consequences is characteristic of preconventional reasoning.

48 Adolescence and Adulthood Percentage of teens What values are most important in your life Religion With ideas similar to parents How you spend your money What you should do in your leisure time With ideas different from parents High school seniors attitudes appear to be in much closer agreement with those of their parents than many might suppose (Bachman et al., 1987).

49 Personal Identity Development: Erikson s Stages (Pp ) Erikson s idea: Sense of self shaped by psychological crises at certain points in life Stages of childhood: Infancy: Trust versus mistrust Toddlerhood: Autonomy versus shame/doubt 3 to 6: Initiative versus guilt 6 to 12: Industry versus inferiority Adolescence: Identity versus role confusion the adolescent s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

50 Erikson s Stages in Adulthood (Pp ) Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation the ability to form close, loving relationships a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood Middle age: Generativity versus stagnation Old age: Identity versus despair

51 Was Erikson Right? (Pp ) Well-accepted contributions: Personal development is lifelong Social and cultural interactions are important shapers of identity Challenges: Sharp transitions between stages? Mechanisms that allow for resolution Difficult to test scientifically

52 Adulthood- Physical Changes Percentage of function remaining Heart capacity Maximum energy expenditure Resting energy expenditure The slow decline of the body s physical capacities during adulthood (adapted from Insel & Roth, 1976). 50 Lung volume Age in years

53 Adulthood- Cognitive Changes 100 Percent 90 of names recalled Older age groups have poorer performance After two introductions After one introductions Age group After three introductions Recalling new names introduced once, twice or three times is easier for younger adults than for older ones (Crook & West, 1990).

54 Adulthood- Cognitive Changes Number Of words remembered Number of words recalled declines with age Number of words recognized is stable with age In a study by Schonfield & Robertson (1966), the ability to recall new information declined during early and middle adulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not Age in years

55 Adulthood- Cognitive Changes Crystallized Intelligence one s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills tends to increase with age Fluid Intelligence ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly tends to decrease during late adulthood

56 Adulthood- Cognitive Changes Intelligence (IQ) score Verbal scores are stable with age Nonverbal scores decline with age Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline (adapted from Kaufman & others, 1989). Verbal scores Nonverbal scores Age group

57 Adulthood- Social Changes Percentage satisfied with life as a whole Multinational surveys show that age differences in life satisfaction are trivial (Inglehart, 1990) Age group