Chapter 11. Human Development across the Life Span (to adolescence)

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1 Chapter 11 Human Development across the Life Span (to adolescence)

2 Progress Before Birth: Prenatal Development Exposure to teratogens depends on which stage of development the fetus is in 3 phases germinal stage = first 2 weeks conception, implantation, formation of placenta embryonic stage = 2 weeks 2 months formation of vital organs and systems fetal stage = 2 months birth bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply age of viability

3 Teratogens Anything capable of causing birth defects (e.g., narcotics, radiation, cigarette smoke, lead, and cocaine) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Caused by repeated heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Infants: Have low birth weight, a small head, body defects, and facial malformations Lack Cupid s Bow, the bow-shaped portion of the upper lip (look in the mirror to see)

4 Environmental Factors and their Effect on Prenatal Development Maternal Nutrition Fetal development depends upon essential nutrients Maternal Drug Use Most drugs pass into the placenta Maternal Illness Diseases are transmitted to the fetus Prenatal Health Care Essential for healthy development of the fetus

5 Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development Figure 11.2, p. 443 periods of vulnerability in prenatal period Maternal nutrition Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology Maternal drug use Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs Fetal alcohol syndrome Maternal illness Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, severe influenza Prenatal health care Prevention through guidance Infant mortality by countries Slide 5 Preventive care for children

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7 Imprinting (Lorenz) Definition: Rapid, relatively permanent type of learning that occurs during a limited time period early in life Lorenz (an ethologist) studied natural behavior patterns of animals Hatched baby geese in an incubator; when geese were born, first moving object they saw was Lorenz They followed him around and acted as though he were their mother!

8 Newborns (Neonates) and Their Reflexes Grasping Reflex: If an object is placed in the infant s palm, she ll grasp it automatically (all reflexes are automatic responses; i.e., they come from nature, not nurture) Rooting Reflex: Lightly touch the infant s cheek and he ll turn toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find nipple or food Sucking Reflex: Touch an object or nipple to the infant s mouth and she ll make rhythmic sucking movements Moro Reflex: If a baby s position is abruptly changed or if he is startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging motion

9 Motor Development Cephalocaudal trend Develops from upper body to lower body (head to foot) Proximodistal trend develops from torso outward to extremities (center outward) Developmental Norms Figure 11.6 For example: walking at age months

10 Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development. Although the order in which children progress is similar, there are large individual differences in the ages at which each ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is not unusual for many of the skills to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than average or several months later (Frankenberg & Dodds, 1967; Harris & Liebert, 1991). Parents should not be alarmed if a child s behavior differs some from the average.

11 Temperament and Environment Temperament we develop at 3 months is relatively permanent at 10 years. Our temperament is the physical core of our personality: sensitivity, mood, irritability; distractability, etc. Temperament: The physical core of personality; includes sensitivity, irritability, distractibility, and typical mood. Temperament type is generally stable over time. Easy Children: 40 %; relaxed and agreeable Difficult Children: 10 %; moody, intense, easily angered Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15 %; restrained, unexpressive, shy Remaining Children: Do not fit into any specific category

12 Heredity Developmental Psychology: The study of progressive changes in behavior and abilities Heredity (Nature): Transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to their children through genes Some studies suggest that our level of attachment and temperament may be genetically influenced.

13 Mary Ainsworth and Attachment Separation from mother not as strong at 6-8 months Separation Anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a child is left alone or is with a stranger; generally appears around 8-14 months Quality of Attachment (Ainsworth) Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond Insecure-Avoidant: Anxious emotional bond; tendency to avoid reunion with parent or caregiver Insecure-Ambivalent: Anxious emotional bond; desire to be with parent or caregiver and some resistance to being reunited with Mom

14 Erik Erikson s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development (a neo-freudian Psychologist) Stage One: Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth-1): Children are completely dependent on others Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth, touching, love, and physical care Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents Stage Two: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (1-3) Autonomy: Doing things for themselves Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause children to doubt abilities and feel shameful about their actions

15 Erik Erikson s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont.) Stage Three: Initiative Versus Guilt (3-5) Initiative: Parents reinforce via giving children freedom to play, use imagination, and ask questions Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, or discourage a child s questions Stage Four: Industry Versus Inferiority (6-12) Industry: Occurs when child is praised for productive activities Inferiority: Occurs if child s efforts are regarded as messy or inadequate

16 Erik Erikson s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont.) Stage Five (Adolescence): Identity Versus Role Confusion Identity: For adolescents; problems answering, Who am I? Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are unsure of where they are going and who they are Stage Six (Young adulthood): Intimacy Versus Isolation Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share experiences with them Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life

17 Erik Erikson s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont.) Stage Seven (Middle adulthood): Generativity Versus Stagnation Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one s own needs and comforts Stage Eight (Late adulthood): Integrity Versus Despair Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have lived richly and responsibly Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed with regret; experiences heartache and remorse.

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19 Erikson s Theory Pros: Attempts to explain development through the life-span. Cons: Depended heavily on case studies which may be open to interpretation Did not explain exceptions to his norms

20 Stage Theories: Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1920s-1980s) Assimilation/ Accommodation 4 stages and major milestones Figure 11.9 Sensorimotor Object permanence Preoperational Centration, Egocentrism Concrete Operational Decentration, Reversibility, Conservation F 11.10, F Formal Operational Abstraction

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22 Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development Piaget believed that all children passed through a set series of stages during their cognitive development; like Freud, he was a Stage Theorist Transformations: Mentally changing the shape or form of a substance; children younger than 6 or 7 cannot do this Assimilation: Application of existing mental patterns to new situations Accommodation: Existing ideas are changed to accommodate new information or experiences

23 Jean Piaget and the First Stage of Cognitive Development Transitions in patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving. Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): All sensory input and motor responses are coordinated; most intellectual development here is nonverbal Object Permanence: Concept that objects still exist when they are out of sight. Children at 4 months do not have this concept.

24 Jean Piaget and the Second Stage of Cognitive Development Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years): Children begin to use language and think symbolically, BUT their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric Intuitive: Makes little use of reasoning and logic Egocentrism: Child is unable to accommodate viewpoints of others Conservation suggests that physical quantities remain constant. Animism is the belief that all things are living Centration is a tendency to focus on only one feature of a problem

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26 Conservation Question Suppose you have a 4 year old brother who ruins dinnertime by complaining about having to eat all that food and drink so much milk before he can have desert. Using Piaget s concept of conservation, how could you solve this problem? How could you get him to eat dinner and less desert?

27 Jean Piaget and the Third Stage of Cognitive Development Concrete Operational Stage (7-11Years): Children become able to use concepts of time, space, volume, and number BUT in ways that remain simplified and concrete, not abstract Gradual mastery of conservation Reversibility of Thought: Relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed Hierarchical classifications

28 Jean Piaget and the Last Stage of Cognitive Development Formal Operations Stage (11 Years and Up): Thinking now includes abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideas Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examples removed from specific examples and concrete situations Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions, guesses, or projections Become more systematic thinkers

29 Evaluating Piaget s Theory Theory does not account for variation of abilities Cross-cultural variation in how children develop Theory was developed based upon a small population

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31 Lawrence Kohlberg and Stages of Moral Development Moral Development: When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking abilities that guide responsible behavior Three Levels (6 stages) Preconventional Morality: Moral thinking guided by consequences of actions (punishment, reward, exchange of favors) Conventional Morality: Reasoning based on a desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and values Postconventional (or Principled) Morality: Follows selfaccepted moral principles Stage theorist, like Freud and Erikson Some critics have argued that these stages may vary by culture; and what is moral may vary by culture

32 Lev Vygotsky s Sociocultural Theory (not in Text) Children s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors Children s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people Zone of Proximal Development: Range of tasks a child cannot master alone even though they are close to having the necessary mental skills; they need guidance in order to complete the task Scaffolding: Framework or temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding, or supporting, their attempts to solve a problem or to discover principles Scaffolding must be responsive to a child s needs