THE RESURGENCE OF HERBAL CULTURE IN TURKISH SOCIETY: AN ANALYSIS ON THE SOCIAL PHENOMENON OF AKTARS

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1 THE RESURGENCE OF HERBAL CULTURE IN TURKISH SOCIETY: AN ANALYSIS ON THE SOCIAL PHENOMENON OF AKTARS Türk Toplumunda Bitki Kültürünün Yeniden Canlanması: Aktar Fenomeni Üzerine Bir İnceleme Yrd. Doç. Dr. Göknur BOSTANCI EGE* Pelin ÖNDER EROL** ABSTRACT The use of herbs has very long history in a variety of cultures, including Turkish culture, for various purposes such as the practices in herbal medicine, cosmetics, witchery or religious rituals. However the practices involving the use of herbs necessitate profound knowledge about herbs. This need has been traditionally fulfilled by the herbalists who are called as aktars in Turkish culture. It is recently observed that there is an increase in consultation to aktars and the use of herbs in Turkey. This can be considered as a reflection of current worldwide resurgence of herbal culture which is mostly related to use of herbs for health and cosmetics. Along with this worldwide trend, economic reasons, preference for the natural over the processed, seeking remedies for ailments give rise to an extensive growth in use of aktar products. In this paper Giddens Modernity Theory will form the theoretical framework so as to analyze the motives of popularization of aktars and herbal culture through a field research conducted in Izmir. This paper is an outcome of a motivation to develop an understanding the social and cultural reasons of resurgence of herbal culture in Turkish society through analyzing the information gathered from aktars and their potential customers. Key Words Aktar, Ethnobotany, Herbal Culture, Sociology of Health, Folk Medicine ÖZ Bitkilerin, Türk kültürünün de içerisinde yer aldığı çok çeşitli kültürlerde bitkisel tıp, kozmetik, büyücülük ya da dinsel ritüeller gibi çeşitli amaçlarla kullanılması uzun bir geçmişe sahiptir. Bununla birlikte bitkilerin kullanıldığı her türden uygulama, bitkilerle ilgili derin bir bilgi birikimi gerektirmektedir. Böylesi bir gereksinim geleneksel olarak Türk kültüründe aktar olarak adlandırılan bitki uzmanlarınca karşılanmaktadır. Son zamanlarda Türkiye de aktarlara başvuruda ve bitki kullanımında bir artış olduğu gözlenmektedir. Bu durum, özellikle bitkilerin sağlık ve kozmetik amaçlı kullanılmasıyla ilişkili olarak bitki kültürünün dünya çapındaki mevcut yeniden canlanmasının bir yansıması olarak değerlendirilebilir. Dünya çapındaki bu eğilimin yanı sıra, ekonomik nedenler, doğal olanın işlenmiş olana tercih edilmesi, rahatsızlıklara çare arama gibi nedenler aktar ürünlerinin yaygın kullanımını daha da arttırmaktadır. Bu makalede, aktarların ve bitki kültürünün popülerleşmesinin nedenleri İzmir de yürütülmüş olan bir alan araştırması üzerinden ele alınırken Giddens ın Modernlik Kuramı teorik çerçeveyi oluşturacaktır. Bu makale, aktarlar ve onların potansiyel müşterilerinden elde edilmiş olan bilgiler yoluyla Türk toplumunda bitki kültürünün yeniden canlanmasının sosyal ve kültürel nedenlerine ilişkin bir kavrayış geliştirme isteğinin bir sonucudur. Anahtar Kelimeler Aktar, Etnobotanik, Bitki Kültürü, Sağlık Sosyolojisi, Halk Tıbbı * Ege University, Department of Sociology. goknur.ege@ege.edu.tr (The author contributed whole process of writing the paper) ** Ege University, Department of Sociology. pelin.erol@ege.edu.tr (The author contributed whole process of writing the paper) 315

2 Introduction Plants have always held vital importance in human life. The roots, stems, leafs, fruits, seeds and oils of plants have been used for human nutrition and textile. The uses of herbs in herbal medicine, cosmetics, witchery and religious rituals have a very long history, culminating as herbal culture. Turkey has very rich plant diversity since it is situated in a geographical area which enjoys three different climates: Mediterranean, Continental and Oceanic (Başer, 2009: 443). In addition, various human communities have settled here and brought their unique cultures and customs. Therefore the diversity of culture and flora found in Turkey has lead to the vast richness of herbal culture in this region. The practices involving the uses of plants necessitate profound knowledge about herbs. The herbalists, who are called as aktars in Turkish culture, have traditionally fulfilled this need. Our motivation in this research on aktars is to make a contribution to such a field which is of great importance in terms of health, culture and society. Aktars In current use of the word, aktar is a person who sells various forms of natural products primarily obtained from herbs, and occasionally from other sources such as animals and minerals. In widely accepted etymology of the term, aktar originates from the word attar which is derived from the word ıtır referring redolence and aromatic plants. In Arabic, attar refers to a person who sells fragrant essential oils; however in Turkish, the word attar has turned into aktar as a result of the dissimilation in the language (Eren, 1999; Tietze, 2002). According to another etymological explanation which connects the term to the health care, aktar is originated from akkar meaning the source of remedies. Ünver (1966) claims that the term comes from the word akakir which means drog. Photograph by the authors with permission of the aktar Photograph by the authors with permission of the aktar Aktars have operated under the roof of a guild in the Ottoman period. As it is the case today, apprentices are recruited by their masters and only are allowed to open aktar shops at given locations (Ünver, 1966). During that period traditional health practitioners and aktars met the medicinal needs of the people. The existence of 492 aktars in comparison with 52 pharmacies in Istanbul in 1844 (Ünver, 1946 as cited in Baytop, 1984) is an evidence to how important aktars were in Turkish folk medicine. However, historically aktars have been subject to objection by medical practitioners. For example, in the late 19th cen

3 tury, Christian pharmacists demanded that the government prohibit aktar shops in Mısır Çarşısı, the main spice bazaar in Istanbul, accusing them for stagnation in their business. However, the undersecretary of the Ministry of Health obstructed attempts to ban aktar shops. During the same period a small number of aktars were prohibited entirely from conducting their business in Turkey on the grounds of misleading patients. (Ünver, 1966). Photograph by the authors with permission of the aktar More recently, in 1985 the Ministry of Health published a regulation requiring all aktars, spice-sellers and similar shopkeepers to register with the Ministry of Health and obtain special permission to open new shops. Moreover, the regulation included a list of materials banned from sale in these shops. Prior to this, there were no regulations on the sale of aktar products in Turkey. Currently a declaration from the Ministry of Health is spreading throughout the media, indicating that the existing regulation is being revised. Due to some possible harmful effects of certain products on human health, it has recently appeared in the news that the list of the banned aktar products will be extended. The objections against aktars past and present come from similar grounds. Nevertheless, Turkish people have continued to use herbal cures for complaints ranging from those regarding cosmetics to chronic and serious illnesses. Ethnobotany The relationship between nature and humanity is inherently cultural. In fact the definition of culture comes from cultivating the land. However, The very need for culture suggests that there is something lacking in nature (Eagleton, 2000:6). What lacks in the nature is it does not offer a guide for the uses of its resources. Ethnobotany is a study of how people of particular cultures and regions make use of the plants in their local environments. These uses can include as food, medicine, fuel, shelter, and in many cultures, in religious ceremonies. (Young, 2007: 4). The ethnobotanical knowledge of the land is gained through trial and error and bequeathed as a legacy to the younger generations. Therefore, investigations regarding the practices of both indigenous and modern societies are included in the field of ethnobotany. The history of widespread use of herbs and other materials for medicinal practices traces back to ancient times in Turkey. Anatolia is known as the region where the basis of pharmacology is established. The basis for the long history of herbal culture in Turkey comes from the Anatolians having benefited from plants for years (Baytop, 1984). Dioskurides, who is widely accepted as the founder of pharmacology and botany, was born in the 1st century A.C. in Anazarbus, a town within the boundaries of modern Turkey (Büyüknisan, 2011). He authored Peri Hyles İatrikes in five volumes, originally written in Greek and later translated into Latin and renamed De Materia Medica (Baytop, 1984). His employment in the Roman army allowed him to travel to many regions and learn 317

4 a wide variety of natural medicinal materials and practices (Borzelleca, 2001). His writings reached a large audience in a very early period as a result of De Materia Medica being translated into several different languages (Büyüknisan, 2011). Even today it is still a very well known European document on the use of herbs in medicine (Spainhour, 2005: 13). The plants he referred to in his book were mostly the ones grown in Anatolia (Faydaoğlu et al., 2011). Another important figure in the history of pharmacy is Galen (A.D ) of Pergamon. He is well known for his several formulations containing numerous ingredients (Spainhour, 2005: 13). Both historical figures of pharmacy have lived in Anatolia. Not surprisingly, a famous Turkish mythos of Lokman Hekim from Anatolia, plays an important role in Turkish folk medicine. According to the mythos, Lokman Hekim was able to understand the language of the plants, and learned recipes to cure all ailments by listening to the plants while they were speaking to each other. He even learned a formula for immortality, but the formula was thrown into a river by the wind and lost forever. Modernity Theory in Analyzing the Resurgence of Herbal Culture Today, modern societies are abandoning conventionality and traditional patterns of social organisations. However, since the modernity has some inherent quandaries, the traditional pursuits still remain important. Modernity is a post-traditional order, but not one in which the sureties of tradition and habit have been replaced by the certitude of rational knowledge (Giddens, 1991: 2-3). Actually, the traditional and the modern are interpenetrated in most Turkish social institutions. In these terms, a closer look at the institution of healthcare and health-seeking behaviours are vital to the scope of this study. In the 19 th century, positivism was presumed to be an essential problem solver and modernity regarded as the peak where humankind ever reach. However, in a short period of time the public realized that modernity was producing more problems than it claimed to solve. For instance, in developed countries life expectancy increased due to improvements in health care facilities. Paradoxically, this resulted in a higher prevalence of chronic illnesses such as cancer and heart diseases, which generally occur later in life. According to Giddens (1991: 19-20) although people living in modern times, especially in industrialized countries, become safe to the risks of the pre-modern era, modern people encounter new risks and dangers. Giddens states modernity is inherently prone to crises, on many levels (Giddens, 1991: 184). As a result of this crises-prone nature of modernity, individuals in modern society develop conventional solutions to modern problems. According to WHO (2008), in the underdeveloped and developing world 80% of people rely on traditional medicine, and in the developed world people who apply to the traditional medicine at least once in their lifetime constitute 70% to 80% of its total population. Traditional medicine plays an important role in Turkish culture which involves both conventional and modern elements. Traditional/herbal medicine, which is devalued in modernity, regained its reputation for set of reasons. First, the dynamics of modern life has brought stress to human lives that modern medicine is unable to remedy. According to Schwartz (2004:355), chronic conditions related to work, family and care giving responsibilities, living in a high-crime 318

5 neighbourhood and poverty are all associated with increased reports of stress; all of which can be traced to perils of modern life. Second, the side effects of modern synthetic drugs are increasingly raised in public debate through the media, which cause strong reverberations in the public eye. Because of the potentially harmful side effects, many Turkish people consult aktars to purchase products that they think are natural and potentially less destructive to their health. Third, distrust in the healthcare system can lead to an increase in the consultation of aktars. People are more likely to apply traditional medicine in societies where social security is not guaranteed, which is closely associated with economic side of health seeking behaviours. Last but not least, people s suspicions about the diagnosis and treatments of the modern practitioners lead them to partly accredit the non-medical knowledge gained by the hearsays. Giddens (1991: 121) argues that people who are vacillated between the orthodox and alternative medicine may withdraw trust from all medical practices. Thus, it is not surprising that they tend to consult traditional medicine only when there is no other way out. On a larger scale, all of these are related to some kind of insecurity in the healthcare system. In fact, the nature of modern institutions is deeply bound up with the mechanisms of trust in abstract systems, especially trust in expert systems (Giddens, 1990: 83). In societies where the modern healthcare system does not inspire trust to the public, the consultation of alternative providers of medicine such as aktars is more widespread. All of these factors have lead to a worldwide back to nature movement that can be explained through Giddensian theory of modernity. He defines security through the notion of risk which closely associated with the modern period. Therefore his theory puts a good deal of emphasis on risk and security in modernity which contributes to our analysis of the social phenomenon of aktars The correlation of rural and nature is attributed to the opposition between the natural world and the urban life. As a result of this opposition, urban life is generally associated with the unnatural. Moreover, rural life and traditionalistic practices are intertwined; people can easily acquire pure forms of plants, animal products and minerals required in traditional medicine. Alternatively, modern urban life has a structure that is not only isolated from nature, but also challenges tradition on a fundamental level. However, this disconnection limits access to natural materials and the wealth of knowledge about the benefits of those natural materials. So aktars fill the role of providing both the natural products and traditional knowledge, and thus aktars make traditional medicine readily available to urban areas. Although the materials being sold in the stores are commercialized, aktars are seen as the representatives of traditional healers of the past. Field Research This study is drawn upon field research in which the qualitative data was gathered through in-depth interviews with 7 experienced aktars who run aktar shops in Izmir, and the quantitative data was gathered through structured interviews conducted with a sample of 384 people living in Izmir who are potential consumers of herbal products. At first aktars were reluctant to speak about some topics, but as the interviews progressed, they became more open to sharing their opinions. All the interviewees affirmed to have learned 319

6 the job through apprenticeship and they have no formal education in the profession. However, when asked whether they would participate in training courses for aktars if they were available, all but one responded positively. All the aktars interviewed have started to work at very young ages and have long experience in the job. The profession is largely passed down from family members. One of the interviewees 1 stated that this has been his family profession for almost 150 years and this family tradition is maintained through three generations. This is my grandfather s job. It passed to me from my father and grandfather. I m 53 years old and have been working in this job since I was 12 years old. My son also worked with me for a while, but now he s working for a company. Later I m planning to pass the job to him, because I ve very special recipes that my family has developed. All the aktars interviewed observed that their customers not only come to purchase products, but also for consulting them about what materials to use and how to use them to remedy their ailments. Again, all the interviewees claimed that over the last 5 years there is a considerable increase in the number of people consulting them. They believe that this is largely the result of an increase in the prevalence of the benefits of herbal and natural materials in mass media. Although the resurgence of herbal culture is mostly related to cosmetics and healthcare, the interviews with aktars revealed that consulting an aktar for witchery is still prevalent. There are several examples of uses for witchery, but the most common uses are sorcery of separation and amulet of nazar. Lard and pork are considered as taboo foods in Islamic cultures such as Turkey. Nevertheless, some people resort to aktars in order to buy lard for the separation of a couple, or a husband and wife by bewitching one of them. Harmal seeds are used as an amulet for protection from nazar, or evil eye, as it is believed evil looks can harm someone vulnerable. On the other hand the quantitative part of the research is drawn upon structured interviews which provide generalized and representative data on the side of potential consumers of aktar products. The respondents were interviewed between 10/15/2011 and 12/18/2011. The sample size was calculated by using a small sampling technique. The sample was chosen by the method of quota sampling. The population is segmented into subsets based on demographic variables of age and sex. Demographics The youngest respondent was 18 and the oldest was 89 years old. Because the age was one of the variables the quota sampling stratification is based on, the distribution of each age group is reflected to the sample as it is. The age distribution is shown in Table 1; 23.7% of the population is aged 55 or older. The mean age of the sample is nearly 42. Table 1: Age Age Count % , , , , , ,9 TOTAL ,0 Minimum 18 Mean 42,23 Maximum 89 Std. Deviation 16,12 8 Because the research universe only covers the adults, interviews are conducted among a sample of people 18 and 320

7 older. Turkey has very young population compared to most of European countries. People aged less than 18 years old, which represent a large segment of the population, are not covered in the research universe or in the sample. Thus, the basic measures of the sample do not reflect exactly those of the population. Since the sex which is another variable the subsets of quota sampling are based on, that distributes between sexes half and half, reflected to the sample as it is. Education levels in Turkey were below EU standards but have changed over the last decades. As seen in the Table 2, 74.7% of the sample is at least graduated from high school. Educational attainment for all segments of population had been increasingly brought under control since the early periods of the Republic. Therefore, the incline of the distribution towards higher levels of education is a clear representation of this trend..table 2: Education Education level Count % None 5 1,3 Elemantary 56 14,6 Secondary 36 9,4 High School ,2 Undergraduate ,8 Graduate 18 4,7 TOTAL ,0 Minimum 1 Mean 5,0 Maximum 4 6 Std. Deviation 1,2 09 Consuming and Purchasing Behaviours It s possible to determine from the Figure 1 how Turkish people tend to consume aktar products and how important role aktars are playing for their lives. 88.4% of the respondents are consuming aktar products. Almost every Turkish person has had at least one traditional healing experience in his/her lifetime. Before consulting a doctor, traditional healing methods are still employed for minor health complaints such as cold, backaches, headaches, stomachaches etc. Figure 1: Consuming Aktar Products (%) 9,6% 25,8% 25,0% Never 39,6% Figure 2: Purchasing from Aktars (%) 79,2% 20,8% Rarely Sometimes Often Yes The potential consumers were asked if they purchased products from an aktar, the majority (79.2%) responded positively (see Figure 2). Turkish people still trust aktars in spite of all packaged, well controlled, herbal products with labels including expiration dates, and sold in supermarkets or pharmacies. We compared consuming and purchasing behaviours of respondents and discovered that 11.2% consume aktar products, but they do not purchase directly from aktars, but from markets or rely on a family member purchasing on their behalf. We compared the consuming and purchasing behaviours of males and females; found that women are more likely to consume and to purchase aktar products than men (see Figure 3-4). No 321

8 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Figure 3: Sex/ Consuming Aktar Products(%) Never Rar ely Sometimes Often Fem ale 6,2 23,4 40,6 29,7 Male 13,0 28,1 38,5 20,3 Figure 4: Sex/Purchasing from Aktars (%) 70,3 Male 88,0 Female The distribution of purchasing products from aktars is statistically different for different sexes. X 2 =18,253 (df=1, N=384), p< cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is Figure 5: Age/Purchasing from Aktars (%) 94,1 81,6 73,3 75,5 92,9 There are four possible reasons: First, women use herbs and oils for cosmetic purposes while men are less interested in cosmetics. Second, TV programs specifically targeted to women encourage the current resurgence of herb use. Third, in Turkish society women commonly fill the caregiver role, and responsible for looking after children, elderly and sick in the family. Fourth, generally women cook for the family and as would be expected, women generally decide about what to eat and drink, as well as where to buy the ingredients. Table 3: Age/Consuming Aktar Products Never Rarely Sometimes Often Total ,9 40,7 28,8 13, ,1 28,9 38,9 21, ,2 21,1 46,1 23, ,9 13,2 47,1 33, ,2 32,7 34,7 22, ,4 19,0 38,1 40,5 100 It would be expected that the elderly are more likely to consume aktar products than younger individuals. However, no significant differences in the consuming and purchasing behaviours of the various age groups were observed ,9 Figure 6: Education/Purchasing Aktar Products (%) 83,3 74,2 77,2 83, None Elementary Secondary High School Under- graduate Graduate None Elementary Secondary High School Undergraduate Graduate 322

9 Furthermore, all age groups were observed to have high consuming and purchasing rates, with the exception of the youngest age group, which have slightly lower rates of purchasing from aktars Table 4: Education/Consuming Aktar Products Never Rarely Sometimes Often Total None 0,0 20,0 20,0 60,0 100 Elementary 5,4 12,5 50,0 32,1 100 Secondary 8,3 27,8 38,9 25,0 100 High School 15,0 23,3 36,7 25,0 100 Undergraduate 8,1 32,2 37,6 22,1 100 Graduate 5,6 27,8 50,0 16,7 100 It is generally thought that well educated people are less likely to use traditional medicine because they are educated in scientific knowledge and modern medicine. And it is expected that as an individual s education level increases, the rate of consumption of aktar products decrease. Surprisingly, there was no correlation between education and consuming/purchasing behaviours related to the aktar products, which was an unexpected consequence. Consumption Patterns According to the data, the majority of the participants (89.9%) consume at least 3 and 2 out of 3 consume more than 9 separate aktar products (64.1%). These findings explain the recent increase in the demand for herbal materials. Table 5: Number of products Number Count % , , , , ,1 Total ,0 *Starting from here, for the variables given in following figures and tables,.respondents told to feel free to give multiple answers. Thus the total counts are not equal to n=384 Photograph by the authors with permission of the aktar There was a wide range of aktar products consumed by the interviewees. The variety of aktar products is reflected in the responses for which specific aktar products the participants use on a regular basis. There are approximately 500 different products sold in a typical aktar shop, and after grouping some products as one item (for instance, grouping vinegars together), the list of aktar products used by the participants totalled 167. and choices of 384 respondents totalled

10 Oils/Essential oils Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 38 Badem yağı Almond oil Amygdalus communis Amygdalae Oleum 17 Kayısı (çekirdeği)yağı Apricot (seed) oil Armeniaca vulgaris Armeniacae Oleum 13 Zeytinyağı Olive oil Olea europaea Olivarum Oleum 12 Susam yağı Sesame oil Sesamum indicum Sesami Indici Oleum 9 Elma yağı Apple seed oil Malus communis Malui Communi Oleum 8 Lavanta yağı Lavender oil Lavandula angustifolia Lavandulae Aetheroleum Kekikyağı Oregano oil Origanum onite, Origane Aetheroleum 7 Origanum vulgare, Origanum heracleoticum 7 Sarımsak yağı Garlic oil Allium sativum Allii Aetheroleum 6 Kantaron yağı St. Jon's worth oil Hypericum perforatum Hypericum Folium (Proccessed With Olive Oil) 6 Nane yağı Mint oil Mentha piperita Menthae Aetheroleum 5 Çörekotu yağı Nigella seed oil Nigella sativa Nigellae Sativae Oleum 4 Ayçiçeği yağı Sunflower oil Helianthus annuus Helianthi Annui Oleum 4 Biberiye yağı Rosemary oil Rosmarinus officinalis Rosmarini Aetheroleum 4 Fındık yağı Hazelnut oi Corylus avellana Corylli Avellani Oleum 4 Havuç yağı Carrot (seed) oil Daucus carota ssp. Sativus Dauci Caroti Aetheroleum 4 Karanfil yağı Clove oil Syzygium aromaticum Syzygii Aetheroleum 4 Portakal yağı Orange oil Citrus sinensis Citri Sinensisi Aetheroleum 3 Gül yağı Rose oil Rosa damascena Rose Aetheroleum 3 Yasemin yağı Jasmine oil Jasminum officinale Jasmini Aetheroleum 2 Ceviz yağı Walnut oil Juglans regia Juglandis Oregiae Nucus Oleum 2 Gliserin Glycerin Glycerine Obtained By Saponification Of Fats And Oils 2 Isırgan otu yağı Nettle oil Urtica pilulifera Urticae Oleum 2 Menekşe yağı Violet oil Viola odorata Violae Odoratae Aetheroleum 1 Adaçayı yağı Sage oil Salvia triloba, Salvia Salviae Aetheroleum officinalis 1 Ahududu yağı Raspberry (seed) oil Rubus idaeus Rubii Idaei Oleum Argan yağı Argan oil Argania spinosa Arganiae Oleum 1 (Argan tree is endemic to Morocco) 1 Avokado yağı Avocado oil Persea americana Perseae Americanae Oleum 1 Buğday yağı Wheat oil Triticum astivum Tritici Oleum 1 Çilek yağı Strawberry oil Fragaria vesca Fragariae Vescae Aetheroleum 1 Fesleğen yağı Basil oil Ocimum basilicum Acimi Basilici Aetheroleum 1 Funda yağı Heather essential oil Calluna vulgaris Callunae Aetheroleum 1 Greyfurt yağı Grapefruit oil Citrus paradisi Citri Paradisii Aetheroleum 1 Hintyağı Castor oil Ricinus communis Ricini Oleum 1 Jojoba yağı Jojoba oil Simmondsia chinensis Simmondsiae Oleum 1 Kakao yağı Cacao oil Theobroma cacao Cacao Oleum 1 Kanola yağı Canola oil/ Brassica napus ssp. Napi Oleum Oleifera 1 Melisa yağı Balm oil Melissa officinalis Meliisae Aetheroleum 1 Papatya yağı Chamomile oil Matricaria chamomilla Chamomille Aetheroleum 1 Soya yağı Soybean oil Glycine max Glycinii Oleum 1 Zencefil yağı Ginger oil Zingiber officinale Zingiberis Aetheroleum Many essential oils are main resources for obtaining fragrances, cosmetic preparations and for aromatherapy. However some of the essential oils sold in aktars are not derived from herbs. Those contain synthetically produced aromas. For example essential oils such as strawberry oil, apple oil (Apple oil is actually not 324

11 obtained from apple; Salviae trilobae oleum is an essential oil which is obtained from Salvia triloba L. through water vapor distillation method. The reason why it is called as apple oil is that there are apple-like galls on the branches of some species of Salvia triloba), orange oil or violet oil are the aktar products that could also be viewed with suspicion regarding their naturalness. Because those particular natural resources contain little to none of the essential oils (Baytop1984), it is difficult and expensive to produce essential oils from them, even in small amounts. Herbal Waters Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 33 Kekik suyu Oregano water Origanum onites, Origani Aqua Origanum vulgare, Origanum heracleoticum 9 Gülsuyu Rose water Rosa damascena Rose Aqua 3 Ceviz suyu Walnut water Juglans regia Juglandis Oregiae Nucus Aqua 2 Papatya suyu Chamomile water Matricaria chamomilla Chaomillae Aqua 1 Bodur Mahmut suyu Wall germander Teucrium Chamaedrys Teucrii Chamaedrysii Aqua 1 Kapari suyu Caper water Capparis spinosa Capparii Aqua 1 Kuşdili suyu(biberiye Rosemary water Rosmarinus officinalis Rosmarini Aqua suyu) 1 Maydanoz suyu Parsley water Petroselinum crispum Petrocelini Aqua 1 Nane suyu Mint water Metha piperita Menthae Piperitae Aqua 1 Zencefil suyu Ginger water Zingiber officinale Zingiberis Aqua 1 Karabaş suyu (Karabaş otu endemic to Turkey) Karabaş otu water Lavandula stoechas ssp Lavadulae Stoechas Aqua stoechas, lavandula stoechas ssp cariensis Along with the various oils/essential oils, different kinds of herbal waters are used in aromatherapy. Those waters sold in bottles for oral or topical uses. Although it has long been used traditionally for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases, recently oregano water became vastly popular herb water in order to relieve diabetes, obtain antioxidant effects and strengthen the immune system. Rose and chamomile waters are also considered as antioxidant and consumed by the people who are anxious about the effects of several chemicals used in food and medicines and believe antioxidants would cleanse their bodies from all harmful substances. Herb seeds Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 49 Keten tohumu Linseed Linum usitatissimum Lini Semen 30 Çörekotu Nigella seeds Nigella sativa Nigellae Semen 14 Susam Sesame Sesamum indicum Sesami Semen 3 Mahlep Mahalep Prunus mahaleb Pruni Mahalep Semen 3 Muskat Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Myristicae Semen 2 Çam fıstığı Pine nut Pinus pinea Pinearum Semen 2 Haşhaş Poppy seeds Papaver somniferum Papaveris Semen 2 Kahve Coffee Coffea arabica Coffeae Semen 2 Kantaron tohumu St. Jon's worth seeds Hypericum perforatum Hyperici Perforati Semen 2 Üzerlik tohumu Harmal seeds Peganum harmala Pagani Harmalae Semen 1 Hardal tohumu Mustard seeds Sinapis alba Sinapis Albae Semen 1 Lavanta tohumu Lavender seeds Lavandula angustifolia Lavandulae Semen 1 Üzüm çekirdeği Grape seeds Vitis vinifera Vitis Minuta Semen 325

12 Photograph by the authors with permission of the aktar There are plenty of herb seeds that have long been used by people for medical or cosmetic purposes or flavouring foods. Sesame, nigella seeds, poppy seeds, mahalep are important ingredients in traditional Turkish pastry. The wide use of linseeds for weight losing remedies can be assessed as a new trend fostered by the mass media. Aktars we interviewed remarked that the expanding use of grape seeds as antioxidant and for prevention from cancer is another popular trend, though it did not get high rating from participants. Leafs/herbs Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 184 Ihlamur Linden Tilia cordata, Tillia Flos Cum Folium Tilia argentea, Tilia platyphllos, Tilia rubra 140 Adaçayı Sage Salvia triloba, Salvia Folium Salvia officinalis 97 Nane Mint Mentha piperita Menthae Folium 88 Kekik Oregano Origanum onites, Origani Folium Origanum vulgare, Origanum heracleoticum 24 Yeşil çay Green tea Camellia sinensis Camelliae Folium 15 Melisa Balm Melissa officinalis Meliisae Folium 15 Sinameki Senna Cassia angustifolia, Sennae Folium Cassia acutifolia 12 Kantaron St. Jon's worth Hypericum perforatum Hyperici Herba 12 Mercanköşk Marjoram Origanum majorana Ariganum Majorana Folium 11 Fesleğen Basil Ocimum basilicum Ocimi Folium 9 Defneyaprağı Laurel leaf Laurus nobilis Lauri Folium 8 Biberiye Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis Rosmarini Folium 7 Ekinezya Purple Coneflower Echinacea purpurea Echinaceae Purpureae Herba 7 Karabaş otu Karabaş otu Lavandula stoechas ssp Lavadulae Stoechas Herba (Endemic to Turkey) stoechas, lavandula stoechas ssp cariensis 6 Kına Henna Lawsonia inermis Lawsoniae Folium 4 Isırgan otu Nettle Urtica dioica, urtica urens Urticae Folium 4 Mate Yerba mate leaf Ilex paraguariensis Ilex Paraguariensis Folium 3 Civanperçemi Yarrow Achillea millefolium Millefolii Herba 2 Avokado yaprağı Avocado leafs Persea americana Perseiae Americanae Folium 2 Okaliptüs yaprağı Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus Eucalipti Folium 1 Altın otu Miltwaste Ceterach officirum Ceterachi Herba 1 At kuyruğu Horsetail Equisetum arvense Equiseti Herba 1 Deve dikeni Milk thistle Slybum marianum Cardui Mariae Herba 1 Ebegümeci Mallow Malva silvestris Malvae Folium 1 Funda Heather Calluna vulgaris Callunae Folium 1 Itır otu Itır (Known as in Turkish) Pelargonium odoratisimum Pelargonii Odoratisimi Folium 326

13 The use of dried plant leafs and herbs as herbal teas can be traced back very early periods in human history. Herbal teas brewed from linden and sage leafs are most popular traditional Turkish health drinks. Many cures involve dried herbs are prepared in the same way as herbal teas. Some of herbal leafs, such as mint and oregano, are fragmented into little pieces and used as spices. Various herbs and leafs are harvested, dried and then stored for several uses and to be sold in aktar shops. Inflorescence Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 43 Papatya Chamomile Matricaria chamomilla Chamomille Flos 32 Karanfil Clove Syzygium aromaticum Syzygii Flos 8 Lavanta Lavender Lavandula angustifolia Lavandule Flos 6 Hatmi Marshmallow Althaea officinalis Altheae Flos 4 Safran Saffron Crocus sativus Croci Stigmata 3 Hibiskus Roselle Hibiscus subdarifa Hibisci Flos 2 Narçiçeği Pomegranate flower Punica granatum Granati Flores 1 Aynısefa otu Calendula Calendula officinalis Calendulae Flos Fruits Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 108 Karabiber Black pepper Piper nigrum Piperis Nigri Fructus 100 Kimyon Cumin Cuminum cyminum, Carrum carvi Cumini Fructus, Carvi Fructus 72 Kırmızıbiber Red pepper Capsicum annuum Capsici Annii Fructus 29 Kuşburnu Rosehip Rosa canina Cynosbati Fructus 20 Rezene Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Foeniculi Fructus 17 Sumak Sumach Rhus coriaria Rhois Coriariae Fructus 9 Yenibahar Allspice Pimenta officinalis Pimentae Fructus 7 Mısır püskülü Corn tassel Zea mays Maydis Stilus 6 Keçiboynuzu Carob Ceratonia siliqua Ceratoniae Fructus 5 Hindistan cevizi Coconut Cocos nucifera Cocos Niciferae Fructus 4 Anason Anise Pimpinella anisum Anisi Fructus 4 Isırgan otu tohumu Nettle Urtica pilulifera Urticae Piluliferae Fructus 4 Kişniş Coriander Coriandrum sativum Coriadri Fructus 4 Kudret narı Bitter melon Momordica charantia Mamordice Charantiae Fructus 2 Altın çilek Inca berry Physalis Peruviana Physalis Peruviani Fructus 2 Hünnap Jujube Ziziphus jujuba Jujubae Fructus 2 Kakule Cardamom Eletteria cardamomum Cardamomi Fructus 2 Karahalile Myrabolon Terminalia chebula Terminaliae Chebulae Fructus 2 Yaban mersini Blueberry Vaccinium myrtillus Vaccinii Myrtilli Fructus 1 Ahududu Raspberry Rubus idaeus Rubii Idaei Fructus 1 Beyaz biber White pepper Piper album Piperis Albi Fructus 1 Gilâburu Water elder fruit Viburnum opulus Viburni Opuli Fructus 1 Hayıt meyvesi Chaste Tree fruit Vitex agnus castus Agni Casti Fructus 327

14 Roots Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 82 Zencefil Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberis Rizona 20 Zerdeçal Turmeric Curcuma longa Curcumae Longae Rizoma 5 Meyankökü Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Liquiritiae Radix 4 Havlıcan Galangal Alpinia officinarum Galange Rizoma 3 Salep Salep root Orchis anatolica, orchis Tuber Salep italica, orchis mascula, orchis purpurea 2 Karahindiba Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Taraxaci Radix 1 Karacaotu Christmas rose-root Helleborus orientalis Hellebori Arientalis Radix Several parts of herbs including inflorescence, fruits and roots have had numerous uses in traditional medicine as well. For example, chamomile flowers are used as an herbal tea and to lighten hair, and clove flowers are widely used for removing halitosis. Although it did not get high rating from respondents, it is worth mentioning that according to the aktars we interviewed, bitter melon, which is considered as a miraculous fruit, has recently become vastly popular for curing ulcer. Additionally, the roots of ginger and turmeric have become increasingly prevalent among people who want to avoid cancer. Other herbal materials Latin Count Turkish English Herb Drog 71 Tarçın Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum Cinnamomi Cortex 10 Çam terebentin Pine turpentine Pinus brutcea, Pinus nigra Terebenthina Communis 6 Kiraz sapı Cherry stem Cerasus avium Cerasorum Stipites 5 Nar ekşisi Pomegranate juice Punica granatum Granati Succus 3 Damlasakızı Mastic gum Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia Pistaciae Gummi 3 Günlük ağacı balsamı Styrax oleo resin Liquindanbar orientalis Liquidus Styrax (Günlük tree is endemic to Turkey)) 2 Enginar suyu (özüt) Artichoke extract Cynara scolymus Cynarae Succus Animal Products Other product groups/processed products Count Turkish English Count Turkish English 23 Bal Honey 43 Çeşitli bitki çayı Various herbal teas 13 Polen Pollen 28 Çeşitli baharat Various spice 9 Yılan yağı Snake oil 17 Köri Curry (spice mix) Quack medicine(!)! 4 Karınca yumurtası Ant egg oil 13 Bitkisel hap/ilaç/toz/krem Various herbal tablet/drug/powder/cream yağı 3 Balık yağı Cod liver oil 8 Çeşitli bitkisel macun Various herbal pastes 2 Arısütü Gelee royale 8 Çeşitli bitkisel Various herbal shampoo/soap sabun/şampuan 2 Domuz yağı Lard 6 Karışık bitki yağı Herbal oil mix 2 Propolis Propolis 5 İsot Isot (darkened red pepper)) 1 Süt tozu Milk powder 3 Çeşitli esans Various essences Minerals 3 Çeşitli pekmez Various molasses Count Turkish English 2 Çeşitli meyve sirkesi Various vinegar 4 Limon tuzu Citric acid 1 Kırmızı biber yağı Red pepper oil (red pepper processed with olive oil 3 Kil Clay 1 Pestil Dried fruit pulp 2 Tuz Salt 1 Zencefilli kırmızı şeker Ginger red candy 1 Karbonat Carbonate 1 Rastık Smut 328

15 As can be seen from the data obtained, not only crude forms of herbal products but processed herbal products such as various herbal shampoos, soaps, pastes, tablets, drugs, creams, vinegars and molasses are also sold in aktar shops. Furthermore beside the herbal products, some animal products and minerals are also available in aktar shops. Intended Uses of Aktar Products People prefer health related products, the aim of which can range from preventative medicine to curing chronic illnesses. In addition, a great many aktar products, primarily herb oils and waters, are seen as solutions to skin and hair related problems. When asked what their intended uses of aktar products were, participants responded with wide variety of answers. The majority of the participants are using aktar products for cold treatment and nourishment. Conventional motives account for the largest uses in these two categories. Traditional use of linden and sage teas for cold treatment is very common in almost every Turkish family. It is customary to make linden or sage tea for a family member in order to reduce the effects of coughs and colds. Hence the dried linden and sage leafs and flowers are consumed much, most specially during the winter in Turkey. Table 6: Intended Uses of Aktar Products Count % Table 2: Number of consumed Count products % Cold treatment 15 40,4 Urinary system diseases treatments 23 6,0 5 Nourishment 14 38,8 Cardiovascular diseases treatments 20 5,2 9 Psychological wellbeing 82 21,4 Pain treatment 20 5,2 Seeking preventive healthcare 73 19,0 Various types of cancer treatments 18 4,7 Respiratory diseases treatments 65 16,9 Seeking weight gain remedies 15 3,9 Gastro intestinal diseases treatments 57 14,8 Diabetes treatment 15 3,9 Cosmetics 52 13,5 Rheumatism treatment 9 2,3 Other* 48 12,5 Sexual Disorders treatments 6 1,6 Seeking weight lose remedies 43 11,2 Witchery 5 1,3 Dermatological diseases treatments 25 6,5 * The intended uses which have frequency less than 5 are included in the category of other. Hence, this category involves attempts to treat diseases such as hemorrhoid, infertility, menopause-osteoporosis, hernia, calcification, prostate, anemia, callosity and the uses for removing of halitosis, quitting smoking, enhancing immune system and increasing breast milk. They are also used as expectorant and anti-oxidant Furthermore, although Turkish cuisine is not excessively spicy, it still highly depends on the use of various spices and herbs. Black pepper, mint, oregano, cumin and red pepper are essential ingredients you can find in almost every Turkish kitchen. Third largest use is obtaining psychological wellbeing which includes the uses for relaxation, seduction, supporting easy sleeping etc. Modern individ

16 ual have to cope with work related stresses, traffic jam, economic pressures, and many other emerging risks and problems of modern life. Factors of Preference for Aktar Products When participants are asked why they prefer aktar products, the most common reason came out as the belief that aktar products are more natural (see Figure 7). Secondly aktar products are believed to be healthier. And the third row is occupied by reaction/suspicion/mistrust against synthetic drugs. Although only 9 respondents mention directly about media effects, the top three factors cannot be considered independent from influences of media. Not only health programs but cooking programs, women s programs, even the primetime news also involve broadcasts about the benefits of various herbs by urging the superiority of the natural over the processed. All those boost the use of herbs and aktar products. Figure 7: Factors for Preference of Aktar Products (Counts) Belief that Aktar products are more natural 178 Belief that Aktar products are healthier 96 Reaction/ suspicion/ mistrust against synthetic drugs 57 Economic reasons 45 Convenience 36 Acquaintance advice The last remedy Conventionality Media effect Doctor advice Economic reasons, such as the high cost of medical services, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, contribute to an increase in the use of aktars products because aktars provide affordable alternatives. In addition, by contrast with regulated pharmaceuticals, medical examinations or written prescriptions are not required to obtain natural remedies available through aktars. Bypassing medical examinations significantly reduces household healthcare costs. Conclusion: In general, the findings indicated that aktars are increasingly regaining their importance in Turkish society. There is a little room for doubt that this trend will continue in near future. As herbal use increases, as some herbal goods are only available in aktars and as aktar products stay low on the prices, resorting aktars will continue to increase. Pertaining to the risk and feeling of insecurity, a large 330

17 number of respondents prefer aktar products since they view those products as natural and healthier. Moreover a considerable number of interviewees declared that they purchase aktar products just because they are more affordable than their counterparts that are sold in pharmacies and cosmetic shops. In addition, despite of all favourable possibilities of modern life and developments in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries which offer great opportunities for the satisfaction of the needs regarding the beauty and healthcare, people still feel insecure related to many aspects of modernity. In terms of consumption and purchasing of aktar products the difference between males and females can be explained by the higher interest of women in cosmetics and also by the effects of women s programs on TV. Without any correlation to their education level and age, respondents displayed high consumption rates of aktar products. In opposition to the general acceptance that people who are older and less educated are more likely to accredit aktar products it was found that those products are broadly used by people at almost every age and education level. As we have already hypothesized Aktars we interviewed agreed that over the last five years there is an increase in the number of people who consult them. Whilst Aktars sell various natural products, they also serve people by relying on the traditional knowledge which includes information about how to harvest, dry, store and use herbs and also which herbs are used for which ailments. Certainly just because an aktar product is natural does not necessarily mean it is harmless. Undesired consequences may occur due to the lack of a proper labelling with expiration dates and instructions for use and also the hygienic conditions of preparation and storage of the products. Modernity s notion of standardization required these kinds of measures. In parallel with this requirement of standardization, some of the shop owners choose to decorate their work places in a quite modern outlook. For instance an aktar shop with lab coated employees, marble benches and modernized shelves representing a modern outlook akin to a pharmacy can be considered as an attempt to adapt the conditions of modernity. Besides, aktars stated that they would be willing to partake in scientific training to enhance their profession. This eagerness can be seen as an effort to meet requirements of modern society. However despite of the conditions imposed by modernity; aktars still mostly preserve their traditional structure. The accumulation of knowledge related to the profession is still conveyed from generation to generation through apprenticeship which helps to maintain its former guild based structure. In their traditional forms dried herbs in baskets or earthenware pots and dried fruits on strings hanging from the ceiling are complementary elements of the image of an aktar shop. With this overall outlook coupled with the scents of various spices and herbs, an aktar shop charms those who step in. The major finding of the investigation was that it is quite fair to associate the resurgence of herbal culture to the sociological conditions in modern society 331

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