THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO IN PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY MASTER THESIS

Transcription

1 THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO IN PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY MASTER THESIS In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master Study Program: Cultural Studies Major: Art Studies Written By: Nebojsa Djordjevic S POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA 2014 i

2 THESIS THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO IN PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY Written By Nebojsa Djordjevic S Committee Name Signature Date Supervisor I Supervisor II Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum, Ph.D. NIP Dr. Hartini, M. Hum. NIP Certified the requirements on Date: Head of Cultural Studies Study Programme Postgraduate Programme UNS Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M. Hum NIP ii

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4 THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO IN PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY THESIS By Nebojsa Djordjevic S Defended his thesis in front of examiners Acknowledge that he complies with requirements On (date) Examination Committee: Position Name Signature Chairman Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M. Hum NIP Examiners 1. Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum, Ph.D. NIP Dr. Hartini, M. Hum. NIP Acknowledge by: Director Postgraduate Program Prof. Dr. Ir. Ahmad Yunus, M. S. NIP Head of Study Programme Cultural Studies Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M. Hum NIP iv

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6 STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY AND CONDITIONS OF PUBLICATION I truthfully declare that: 1. Thesis entitled THE DEPICTION OF A (NATIONAL) HERO: PANGERAN DIPONEGORO IN PAINTINGS FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY UNTIL TODAY is my own research work and there are no scientific papers that have been asked by others to obtain academic degrees and there is no this work or opinion was never written or published by another person, except those written with reference to the referent sources mentioned in text and/or bibliography. If it proves that text of this have elements of plagiarism, then I am willing to accept the sanctions required, both to my master 's degree thesis along with cancelation of my title and procession according with the legislation in force. 2. Publication of part or all of the contents of this thesis in scientific journals or other forums must include the name of author, together with his advisor/mentorship team as well as naming UNS as the institution where this writing was published. If there is a violation of these provisions concerning publication, then I am willing to receive academic sanctions that apply. Surakarta,... Student Nebojsa Djordjevic, S vi

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8 Nebojsa Djordjevic.NIM:S The depiction of a (national) hero: Pangeran Diponegoro in paintings from the nineteenth century until today. THESIS. Supervisor I: Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum, Ph D, II: Dr. Hartini, M. Hum. Postgraduate Program Cultural Studies, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta. ABSTRACT The objective of this research is to examine the idea of heroism in Indonesia and how it was shown in painting as a relatively new art form in this country. Pangeran Diponegoro ( ) was rebellious prince in Java who fought against the Dutch. He entered paintings in Indonesia as soon as his rebellion ended. His appearance is one of the constant motifs in Indonesian paintings. The idea for this research was to show how Diponegoro was painted within different concepts. This research is a qualitative study which primarily used Pierce semiotics (which includes sign in three aspects icon sign, index signs, and symbol signs) to examine artworks and their meaning. Theoretical triangulation is achieved by using Postcolonial theory and its writing in analyses of these artworks. Cultural hybridity, identity, nationalism, nationbuilding, and other ideas are present in artwork and its signs. With the end of the Java War, Javanese society experienced major changes in economical as well as in cultural aspects. Painting is an art form that was introduced to Javanese in this period. One of the first motifs in Indonesian painting was Pangeran Diponegoro. Briefly after Java War Dutch painter Nicolaas Pieneman painted a scene of submission of Diponegoro. The Javanese reply came few years after in painting of Raden Saleh, the first local artist who was trained in Europe. S. Sudjojono was one of the most prominent Indonesian painters and he painted Pangeran Diponegoro as national hero in In 1994 an emerging Indonesian artist paid homage to Diponegoro in his artwork and in 2007 Heri Dono painted his caricature painting of wrongful arrest of Diponegoro in twisted Indonesia. The idea of heroism changed over time and it has also looked different in different historical periods. Dutch painting of Pangeran Diponegoro had sense of pride and dignity in it. Yet it is an expression of Dutch ignorance, arrogance, and dominance over the Javanese. Javanese response is also controversial some see it as proto-nationalistic painting, others dismiss it as servile. Indonesian paintings are full of nationalism and pride, but also with strong artistic messages of warning and critique toward society. While some signs have clear meanings which are shown in this research, the majority of them are fluid and open for discussion about ideas of nationalism, heroism, and identity in Indonesia. Key words: national heroes, culture, Indonesia, Pangeran Diponegoro v

9 Nebojsa Djordjevic.NIM:S The depiction of a (national) hero: Pangeran Diponegoro in paintings from the nineteenth century until today. THESIS. Supervisor I: Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum, Ph D, II: Dr. Hartini, M. Hum. Postgraduate Program Cultural Studies, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta. ABSTRAK Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menguji ide kepahlawanan di Indonesia dan bagaimana itu ditampilkan dalam lukisan sebagai bentuk karya seni yang relatif baru di negeri ini. Pangeran Diponegoro ( ) adalah pangeran yang memberontak dan berperang melawan Belanda di Jawa. Sosoknya menjadi terkenal dalam lukisan di Indonesia sesaat setelah pemberontakannya berakhir. Penampilannya adalah salah satu motif konstan dalam lukisan Indonesia. Ide untuk penelitian ini adalah untuk menunjukkan bagaimana sosok Diponegoro dalam konsep yang berbeda. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif yang terutama digunakan dalam semiotika Pierce (tanda yang termasuk dalam tiga aspek - tanda icon, tanda-tanda indeks, dan tandatanda simbol) untuk memeriksa karya seni dan makna triangulasi teoretis mereka dicapai dengan menggunakan teori pascakolonial dan menulis dalam analisis karya seni ini. Hibriditas budaya, identitas, nasionalisme, pembangunan bangsa, dan ide-ide lain yang hadir dalam karya seni beserta tanda-tandanya. Dengan berakhirnya Perang Jawa, masyarakat Jawa mengalami perubahan besar dalam ekonomi serta aspek budaya. Lukisan merupakan sebuah bentuk seni yang diperkenalkan ke Jawa pada periode ini. Salah satu motif pertama dalam seni lukis Indonesia adalah Pangeran Diponegoro. Sesaat setelah pelukis Java War Belanda Nicolaas Pieneman melukis adegan pengajuan Diponegoro. Balasan Jawa datang beberapa tahun setelah dalam lukisan Raden Saleh, seniman lokal pertama yang dilatih di Eropa. S. Sudjojono adalah salah satu pelukis paling menonjol Indonesia dan ia melukis Pangeran Diponegoro sebagai pahlawan nasional pada tahun Pada tahun 1994 muncul artis Indonesia memberi penghormatan kepada Diponegoro dalam karya seninya dan pada tahun 2007 Heri Dono melukis lukisan karikatur tentang penangkapan salah Diponegoro di dipelintir Indonesia. Ide kepahlawanan berubah dalam waktu ke waktu dan itu juga tampak berbeda dari periode sejarah yang berbeda. Lukisan Belanda Pangeran Diponegoro memiliki rasa kebanggaan dan martabat di dalamnya. Namun itu tampak sebagai ekspresi ketidaktahuan Belanda, arogansi, dan dominasi atas Jawa. Respon Jawa juga kontroversial - yang melihatnya sebagai proto-nasionalis lukisan, sementara yang lainnya menolak itu sebagai sepotong budak seni. Lukisan Indonesia penuh dengan nasionalisme dan kebanggaan, tetapi juga dengan pesan peringatan artistik yang kuat dan kritik terhadap masyarakat. Sementara beberapa tanda-tanda memiliki makna yang jelas yang ditunjukkan dalam penelitian ini, mayoritas dari mereka adalah ibarat cairan yang terbuka untuk diskusi tentang ide-ide nasionalisme, heroisme, dan identitas di Indonesia. Kata Kunci: pahlawan nasional, budaya, Indonesia, Pangeran Diponegoro vi

10 MOTTO ~ There is no need to carry me to another prison. My life is already ebbing away. I suggest that you nail me to a cross and burn me alive. My flaming body will be a torch to light my people on their path to freedom. Gavrilo Princip ( ) ~ Diponegoro is a combination of words Which, when literally translated from Javanese to English, means: The Light of the Country vii

11 To My Heroes: My Family and My Friends viii

12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. The First Western Look at Pangeran Diponegoro A. J. Bick, charcoal sketch, A. C. Anthony, lithography, Note of 100 Indonesian rupiah from Nicolaas Pieneman: Submission of Diponegoro ( ) Javanese Look at Pangeran Diponegoro Batik Perang Diponegoro Pangeran Diponegoro from Buku Kedung Kebo Portrait of young Pangeran Diponegoro (and 3.5.)Wayang Diponegoro Raden Saleh: The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857) Diponegoro as National Symbol in years after Independence Equestrian Statue of Diponegoro in Monas Monumen Nasional 5.2. National Monument, Jakarta. Work of Italian sculptor Cobertaldo Basuki Abdulah Diponegoro Memimpin Pertempuran ( ) Pangeran Diponegoro in New Order Era ( ) Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in main square in Magelang Sasana Wiratama in Jogjakarta Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in Semarang S. Sudjojono: Diponegoro (1979) S. Sudjojono Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponegoro 80 (Our Soldiers Led Under Prince Diponegoro). 9. Djajeng Asmoro Pangeran Diponegoro Agung Kurniawan: Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994) 87 ix

13 10.1. Pangeran Diponegoro (detail) Kesatria Baja Hitam (Kamen Rider Black) Japanese superhero Heri Dono: Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro (2007) Heri Dono Raden Saleh Jadi Londo Heri Dono The Error of Pieneman s Perspective Contemporary Look at Pangeran Diponegoro Opera Diponegoro Dramatic reading about Pangeran Diponegoro Indieguerillas This Hegemony Life (and 14.5.) Manga-like Diponegoro 99 x

14 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASRI Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia Indonesian Fine Art Academy HIK Hollandsche Indische Kweekschool Dutch East Indian School for Teachers IKJ Institut Kesenian Jakarta Institute for Art Jakarta ISI Institut Seni Indonesia Indonesian Institute for Art ITB Institut Teknik Bandung Techincal Institute in Bandung IVAA Indonesian Visual Art Archive KBBI Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Great Dictionary of Indonesian LEKRA Lembaga Kebudayaan Rakyat Institute for People s Culture PERSAGI Persatoean Asal Gambar Indonesia Association of Indonesian Drawing Specialists PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia Communist Party of Indonesia POETRA Poesat Tenaga Rakjat Centre for the People s Power S. Sindudarsono First name of Sudjojono SIM Seniman Indonesia Moeda Young Indonesian Artists UGM Universitas Gadjah Mada Gadjah Mada University, Jogjakarta UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNS Universitas Negeri Sebelas Maret Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta VOC Vereeningde Oost-Indishe Compagnie United East India Company xi

15 EXTRAS LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Framework of the research (Chapter 2, Subchapter D) 31 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Primary Data (Chapter 3, Subchapter C) 36 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1 List of National Heroes in Indonesia (Table 1) 110 Appendix 2 Statistics from List of National Heroes 117 Appendix 3 Poster of National Heroes in Indonesia 124 Appendix 4 Web visibility of key terms from research (Table 2) 125 Appendix 5 Analyses of Table xii

16 1 CONTENT FRONT PAGE i. APPROVAL PAGE ii. STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY iv. ABSTRACT v. APSTRAK vi. MOTTO vii. DEDICATION viii. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi. EXTRAS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES xii. LIST OF APPENDICES CONTENT 1 CHAPTER I 3 A. Background 3 B. Problem Formulation 5 C. Objectives of the Research 6 D. Significance of the Research 6 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 7 A. Main Concepts 7 1. Heroism Word for Hero Heroes and National Heroes in Indonesia Pangeran Diponegoro The National Symbol Indonesian Painting 15 B. Theoretical Basis Postcolonial Theory Visual Semiotics 20 C. Relevant Researches Researches about Heroism Researches about Pangeran Diponegoro Researches about Indonesian painting 29 D. Framework of Research 31 E. Hypothesis 33 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH 34 A. Location and Time of Research 34 B. Locus of Research 35 C. Data and Source of Data 36 D. Technique of Collecting Data 37 E. Technique of Analyzing Data 38 F. Approach to Analyzing Data 38 G. Validation of Data 39

17 2 CHAPTER IV ANALYSES 40 A. The 19th century - Pangeran Diponegoro: Villain and Hero The 19th century in Indonesia Art history of the 19th century Western Eyes: Nicolaas Pieneman s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro Biography of Nicolaas Pieneman Submission of Diponegoro (1830-5) History and Signs Javanese Eyes: Raden Saleh s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro Biography of Raden Saleh Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857) History and Signs Pangeran Diponegoro: Villain, Rebellion, or Hero 61 B. Indonesian art ( ): Depicting a National Hero The 20th century in Indonesia: History of Nation and Art Pangeran Diponegoro: National Hero in Art Indonesian Eyes: S. Sudjojono s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro Biography of S. Sudjojono Diponegoro (1979) History and Signs Pangeran Diponegoro: One Brick in Wall of Nation 81 C. Indonesian art (1990-today): Nation in need of (Super) Hero Art and Life of Indonesia Today Contemporary Indonesian Eyes Look Toward Pangeran Diponegoro Biography of Agung Kurniawan Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994): History and Signs Biography of Heri Dono Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro (2007): History and Signs Who Are the Heroes Now and Do We Need Them? 97 D. Depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th until today 100 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 103 A. Conclusion 103 B. Recommendations 105 SUMMARY 106 RINGKASAN 108 APPENDICES 110 BIBLIOGRAPHY 129 SOURCE OF ILLUSTRATIONS 137

18 CHAPTER I A. Background The concepts of hero and heroism are hard to grasp. Definitions of these terms go from early heroes in literature whose adventures were written thousands of years ago until movie about superheroes today. The concept of heroism has been confused with related, possibly contributing factors such as altruism, compassion, and empathy, and identified with popular celebrities, role models, and media-created fantastic-heroes. The term hero in literature studies means main character of a story. The same term is used in different art forms that involve action and movement. There is always a hero within a narrative, including in a dynamic painting, theater play, or movie. First narratives in the world included stories about divine creatures, common people, and connectors between these two worlds, and were often told through a hero and his actions. Historian Hughes-Hallett writes: There are men, wrote Aristotle, so godlike, so exceptional, that they naturally, by right of their extraordinary gifts, transcend all moral judgment or constitutional control: There is no law which embraces men of that caliber: they are themselves law (in Zimbardo, 2011). Among the earliest surviving literature works is Epic of Gilgamesh which centers on heroic figure Gilgamesh. Today we also live in a world full of heroes. Newspapers always include articles about heroic acts. Superhero movies are an extremely popular genre. Spiderman is a superhero character who first appears in comics around the 1960 s in U.S. It is one of the most famous examples of the Marvel school of comics and production of superheroes. Eventually, due to his popularity, this character left comic books and entered the worlds of animation, T.V. series, and eventually film. There was even a trilogy about Spiderman spanning 2002 to In the second decade of the 21st century, a new Amazing Spiderman movie franchise began. The first movie was released in 2012 and the second part will arrive in cinemas around the globe in April/May Superheroes movies usually come from American tradition of (super) heroism. Over there it is long tradition of production of superheroes first in comic books, then TV formats, finally film, and these days films in its new formats three (or even five) 3

19 4 dimensional cinema experience. It is also followed by video games, applications for smartphones, the Internet prequels, sequels, parodies etc. Television shows are more glocal (global and local). Idol, a show created in the UK in 2001 and has inspired spin-off almost in every part of the world. In Indonesia in particular these singing competitions are really popular. With global franchises such are Voice, I have talent, and the aforementioned Idol Indonesia has its own versions where people compete to be dangdut stars for example. State wanted to reconcile two worlds one of Idols and popular culture made heroes and one with men and women who were fighting for country and the national ideology made heroes. Every 10 th of November is Indonesian day of Heroes. In 2013 the slogan for this day was Pahlawanku Idolaku (My hero my idol). National heroes play an important role in history and culture in many parts of world. Maria Todorova is a Bulgarian born American historian and philosopher. She used in her book Imagining Balkans (2009) Seid s concept of Others and Orientalisation and place it in South-East European region of Balkans. In her other book Bones of Contention - The living archive of Vasil Levski and the making of Bulgaria s national hero (2009) she discussed more about one national hero. Vasil Levski is a fighter for Bulgarian independence in the 19th century when this country was still under Ottoman Empire rule. Nowadays he is the national hero per excellence and Todorova is trying to answer why and how (Todorova, 2009). Linas Eriksonas is a historian and philosopher interested in state identity and nationalism. In his book (derived from his PhD thesis) National Heroes and National Identities (2004) he is examining the heroism and connection with state and national identity and ideology in three different European states: Scotland, Norway, and his native Lithuania. While these researchers were made by historians and it is questionable how and who decides that one is a national hero and other is not, in Indonesia that is a task of state. Indonesian state apparatus every year since 1959 declares new national heroes. There are sets of standards and criteria that one needs to fulfill to enter the list. In 2013 three more persons were made into this honorable list and until now almost 160 (159 to be exact) persons from various backgrounds are called national heroes of Indonesia. Indonesia is a relatively new country, during previous centuries different part of Archipelago were

20 5 ruled with different dynasties, powers, etc. List of national heroes starts from the 17th century. Sultan Agung ( ) is first proto-indonesian, his fight and resistance toward up-coming Dutch and their colonization is now looked as fight of Indonesian glory historical character against powerful, foreign invader. Foreign invader brought a lot of changes into the lives of people in Archipelago and one of the imported products is painting. History of art and representative art in Indonesia can not be traced in same way like in the West. Father of Indonesian paintings is Raden Mas Saleh. His most popular painting is depicting Javanese rebellion Pangeran Diponegoro and his capturing (1857). Before him, one Dutch artist painted this scene and he called it Submission of Diponegoro (1835). From that moment until today Pangeran Diponegoro - remarkable historical figure and national hero per excellence frequently enter Indonesian paintings. Indonesian art is really vivid and recognized in global arena. Indonesian artist dare to say also something about the national ideology which surrounds them, and that includes questions about national heroes. State driven production of national heroes and artist reply to this movement will be main topic of this research. The research will focus on depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th century painting until today. B. Problem Formulation 1. What is the meaning behind the depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th century paintings until present day artworks? 2. How were the concepts of national heroism and national ideology reflected in the depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro? 3. What are the trends in the depiction of national heroes in the present day Indonesian art and where Pangeran Diponegoro is in the Indonesian art today?

21 6 C. Objectives of the research According to research questions, the objectives of this research will be: 1. Understanding the development of the concept of nationalism in Indonesian art through painting of Raden Mas Saleh in the mid-19th century until today. 2. Assessing the value of national hero in art, as well as understanding the evolution of the concepts of national ideology, heroes, and heroism, and how they overlaps with art. 3. Re-affirming the importance of the national hero for the future art, as well as the development of national identity. D. Significance of the Research 1. Theoretical Significance a. This research will help in understanding the concept of national heroism and its relationship with art. b. The results of this research will enrich research in cultural studies 2. Practical Benefit a. Hopefully this research will show that national heroes are integral part of Indonesian contemporary culture and with that it opens possibilities for studies of national heroism and its connect to other fields literature, popular culture, anthropology, feminism, and others. b. Pangeran Diponegoro is a perfect symbol of national hero through works of art. This is rather new look on his place in history and nationalism of Indonesia. Research will therefore also open possibilities to study Pangeran Diponegoro (as well as other historical figures) in different point of view. c. Finally this research will aim to show that painting is not alienated art form from other art forms that have longer tradition in Indonesia. It is vivid and integral part of Indonesian art, and like that it deserves better and greater research and preservation.

22 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Main Concepts 1. Heroism 1.1. The word for Hero To understand the concept of heroism in Indonesia one first needs to understand the meaning of the word itself. This section begins with an explanation of words for heroes in English, Indonesian, and the Javanese language, as the concept of hero can be difficult to understand, and the usage of heroes varies greatly. This will be shown in the next chapters, as a steady foundation for understanding the concepts of hero and heroism requires an understanding of similarities between the terms for hero in languages that are used for this research. There are different sources, with more or less the same meaning of the word hero in the English language. From one source etymology of the word is from the late 14th century. The word is coined in the English language in The definition of the word is man of superhuman strength or physical courage. Origin of the word is from ancient Greek: heros (ἥρως), demi-god (a variant singular of which was heroe), but the word comes in English from Latin heros, hero. Originally defender, protector, from Proto Indo- European root word ser- which has a meaning to watch over, protect (can be compared to Latin word servare - to save, deliver, preserve, protect). Second meaning man who exhibits great bravery in any course of action is from 1660s. In the other sense as of chief male character in a play, story, etc it was first recorded in the 1690s. (Skeat, 2005) Oxford Dictionary of English (2010) defines the word in two aspects. Second one is definition of hero sandwich (alternative American name for submarine sandwich). So, here there will be mentioned only the meaning of the first entry: 1) hero, noun (Plural heroes): a person, typically a man, who is admired for their courage, outstanding achievements, or noble qualities, example is: a war hero. 2) chief male character in a book, play, or film, who is typically identified with good qualities, and with whom the reader is expected to 7

23 8 sympathize, example: the hero of Kipling s story. 3) Hero in mythology and folklore is a person of superhuman qualities and often semi-divine origin, in particular one whose exploits were the subject of ancient Greek myths. Words derived from hero are: heroism, the drug heroin (because of its euphoric feeling that the drug provides, but link between hero and heroine is blurry), anti-hero, and here we will examine a more female version and hero-worshiping. Female version of hero is heroine. This form started to be used in the 1650s. It comes from Latin heroine, heroina (plural heroinae) - a female hero, a demigoddess for example Medea. It is originally from Ancient Greek heroine, female version of heros. In context as principal female character in drama or poem the word exist from Lately, because of frequent missspelling and confusion with the word heroin, in usage is female hero or interesting blend form from she and hero shero which is used more in urban dictionary (vernacular). Hero worshiping is first recorded around the year of 1774 and it is defined as: excessive admiration for someone. In ancient Greece there was a practise of the worshiping of superhuman heroes. (Oxford Dictionary of English, 2010) Indonesian word Pahlawan also has interesting connotations. The most important Indonesian dictionary Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Great Indonesian Dictionary) defines the word in its 2005 edition: Pahlawan (Sanskerta: phala-wan yang berarti orang yang dari dirinya menghasilkan buah (phala) yang berkualitas bagi bangsa, negara, dan agama) adalah orang yang menonjol karena keberaniannya dan pengorbanannya dalam membela kebenaran, atau pejuang yang gagah beran. [Which can be translated into English: Pahlawan (Indonesian word for hero comes from Sanskrit phala-wan which means person who produces fruit (phala) which has quality for his nation, country, and religion) is person who stands out because of his bravery and sacrifice for the right cause or who achieved glorious victory.] (KBBI, ) For the main character in artwork in Indonesian language tokoh utama is used. Female version of pahlawan is pahlawan wanita and hero-worshiping would be pahlawan terpuji. Kepahlawanan is word for heroism and patriotism. Other words used for hero in 1 KBBI stands for Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa, Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language of the Language Center, 4 th edition with 90,000 entries was accessed online from retrieved in December 2013

24 9 Indonesian language are: wira, wirawan, (from Javanese mentioned below), tokoh utama yang berani dan hormat (for character in art work who has attributes of bravery and respect mentioned above) also pelaku utama, pemeran utama, bahadur (knight) and hero itself. Words unrelated to heroism, derived from pahlawan are pahlawan bakiak a term for a husband who is very afraid of his wife and pahlawan kesiangan people who want to work hard after the hard times are over and often want credits for their work. 2 In Javanese language there are several words for expressing the concept of hero. Wira, wirawan (and its slightly nobler form wirya) is more an alus (refined) word for manly, brave, and courageous. It is frequently used as an element in compound names: there are Javanese (Indonesian) male names such are Wira or Wirapandya. The word sura has a similar meaning and is likewise more commonly found in the five-syllable names of males, not just in literature, but in general name giving as well. Example of given male names with this root are Sura and Surapati. Satria does not mean hero exactly, but more a warrior or a member of the refined, aristocratic classes. These words derive mostly from Sanskrit which has greatly enriched the Javanese lexicon for well over a thousand years. Pahlawan of Persian origins is the most common word for hero in Indonesian and is also used in Javanese (Mangusuwito, 2002) Heroes and National Heroes in Indonesia Indonesian language does not use the same expression for the main character in artwork (thus in culture) and to address great men in history and national heroes, thus researches of heroism within this common point are scarce in Indonesia. Nevertheless, Lombard, D. and Pelras, C. (1993) in Asian Mythologies defines cultural heroes in Insular South-East Asia (which corresponds to Indonesia and The Philippines) in four distinctive categories: 1) Heroes of Oral Myth, 2) Heroes of Written Accounts, 3) Heroes Linked to Successive Acculturation (India, China, Islam) and 4) Modern Heroes 3 Cultural heroes represent ideal figures that humans follow and respect. Examples given to in encyclopaedia are legends of creation of world in oral traditions. How the world 2 Ibid 3 Lombard, D. and Pelras C Cultural Heroes of Insular Southeast Asia, Page in Yves Bonnefoy (edt.) Asian Mythologies, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago

25 10 was created in different cultures around Archipelago. Legendary prince Panji and his adventures is an example of a hero of the written legends. Cultural heroes can be re-born and re-shaped with acculturation, adapt to new circumstances. There are numerous examples; one is a traditional Javanese story of Wali Sanggo - they were nine saint men who brought Islam to Java. 4 The last type of a cultural hero, which is mentioned in this book, is perhaps not as far removed from the preceding heroes as one may think: these are national heroes that the independent states of insular Southeast Asia have chosen to symbolize the birth of the new society Rizal and Aguinaldo for the Philippines, and Hasanuddin, Kartini, and Imam Bonjol for Indonesia. Although they are historical, each of these figures has mythsimplified official biographies, widely disseminated, particularly through schools his commemorative ritual, his stereotyped iconography, etc. The frequency with which they are mentioned shows how much modern societies, from that point of view, have trails in common with so-called primitive societies. 5 The cult of national heroes in Indonesia was introduced by its first president Sukarno. Principal initiative was to remake Indonesian memory around a revolutionary theme. In a set of decrees between 1957 and 1963 he laid down the procedure for declaring as national heroes people who had resisted colonialism or served the cause of the independence. Remuneration was arranged for the descendents of those, so the names (creating a small industry of lobbyists) and the manner of commemorating them through monuments, anniversaries, school texts and street names was prescribed (Reid, 2005). The second Indonesian president, Suharto, was not all that interested in celebrating revolution, but he did take the theme of anti-dutch struggle. The fact that many of those already declared heroes had died fighting the Dutch made it a small step to portray armed struggle as the leitmotif of national history, and the national army as its natural contemporary upholder. By 1992, twenty-three military officers had been added to the pantheon of national heroes, more than a third of the total declared under Suharto. (Reid, 2005) 4 Ibid 5 Ibid

26 11 The National Hero of Indonesia (Indonesian: Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia) is the highest-level title awarded in Indonesia. It is posthumously given by the Government of Indonesia for actions which are deemed to be heroic defined as actual deeds which can be remembered and exemplified for all time by other citizens or extraordinary service furthering the interests of the state and people. as follows: The Ministry of Social Affairs 6 gives seven criteria which an individual must fulfil, 1. An Indonesian citizen who is deceased and, during his or her lifetime, led an armed struggle or produced a concept or product useful to the state; 2. Have continued the struggle throughout his or her life and performed above and beyond the call of duty; 3. Have had a wide-reaching impact through his or her actions; 4. Have shown a high degree of nationalism; 5. Have been of good moral standing and respectable character; 6. Never surrendered to his or her enemies; and 7. Never made an act which taints his or her legacy. Nominations undergo a four-step process and must be approved at each level. A proposal is made by the general populace in a city or regency to the mayor or regent, who must then make a request to the province's governor. The governor then makes a recommendation to the Ministry of Social Affairs, which forwards it to the President, represented by the Board of Titles (Dewan Gelar); this board consists of two academics, two persons of a military background, and three persons who have previously received the award or title. Those selected by the President, as represented by the Board, are awarded the title at a ceremony in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta. Since 2000, the ceremony has been occurring in early November coinciding with Indonesia's Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan) 7. The legal framework for the title, initially styled National Independence Hero (Pahlawan Kemerdekaan Nasional), was established with the release of Presidential Decree 6 Data for this section were retrieved from official page of The Ministry of Social Affairs in December Ibid

27 12 No. 241 of The title was first awarded on August 30 th, 1959 to the politician turned writer Abdul Muis, who had died the previous month. This title was used for the rest of Sukarno s rule. When Suharto rose to power in the mid-1960s, the title was given its current name. Special titles at the level of National Hero have also been awarded. Hero of the Revolution (Pahlawan Revolusi) was given in 1965 to ten victims of the failed 30 September Movement coup, while Sukarno and former vice-president Mohammad Hatta were given the title Proclamation Heroes (Pahlawan Proklamasi) in 1988 for their role in reading the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence and in 2012 they also became National Heroes. 8 A total of 147 men and 12 women have been deemed national heroes, most recently Rajiman Wediodiningrat, Lambertus Nicodemus Palar and Tahi Bonar Simatupang in Indonesia is perhaps the only country with ever-increasing number of national heroes officially recognized by the state (Abdullah, 2009). These heroes have come from all parts of the Indonesian archipelago, from Aceh in the west to Papua in the east. They represent numerous ethnicities, including native Indonesians, ethnic Chinese, and Eurasians. They include prime ministers, guerrillas, government ministers, soldiers, royalty, journalists, and a bishop. The procedure may have started from Sukarno, but only with the New Order has it got its relatively well-established procedure. Abdullah (2009) uses picturesque comparison to explain this procedure: Since then [New Order] it becomes obvious that state recognition of national heroes practically a way for state to compose national family album. The inclusion in the portraits into the national album is official national recognition of struggles and sacrifices they have made to the nation and tanah air, the homeland. It is understandable that every province would look deep into its respective history to see whether there was someone in the past who had sacrificed and given his or her life to the glory of the nation and tanah air. (Abdullah, 2009:442) 8 Ibid

28 Pangeran Diponegoro 9 - The National Symbol Diponegoro has the same symbolic value as Vasil Levski 10 for Bulgarian nationhood and the idea of a national hero. He is Javanese. He was born in heartland of Javanese high culture Yogyakarta. He was a son of a newly established Javanese royalty (after tearing Surakarta keraton in two branches one in Yogyakarta and one in Surakarta who somehow continued the line of previous rulers). He did not become the heir of throne, rather he was devoted to his piece of land and peasants who were living and working for him. He saw injustices and intrigues of the Dutch. He stood against it. He led a five years exhausting war/revolution. Java was changing dramatically in his time, becoming closer to the West. He saw himself also as a religious leader. He was tricked, captured and he died in exile in South Celebes far from his native land. His presence is still notable in Indonesia. UNESCO list of World Memory bear two documents from Indonesia and one is Babad Diponegoro first autobiography in Javanese literature. He was an inspiration for controversial Indonesian Communist Party, but also to army after whom Central-Javanese Region was named. The same goes for some big ships that Indonesian Military Navy possesses. Central-Javanese capital Semarang is the home to the biggest University in the city which was named after him. Main streets in almost every big city in Indonesia (or at least in Java) are named after him. Diponegoro is a sign of Indonesia. He is one of the few figures that are so closely connected with the idea of Indonesia. Sometimes they can look like opposites (Communist Party vs. Army, secular ideas of higher education vs. Diponegoro s strong religious feelings, Java vs. Sulawesi) but these opposites make Indonesia. Diponegoro was born on 11 November 1785 in Yogyakarta, and was the eldest son of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III of Yogyakarta. When the sultan died in 1814, Diponegoro renounced the succession to the throne in favor of his younger half 9 Peter Carey is British historian who wrote extensively about Pangeran Diponegoro, and he is using English- Javanese coin for him - Prince Dipanegara. In this study Indonesian version of his name Pangeran Diponegoro will be used, and together will all given names it would not be put in Italic font style, unlike other Indonesian words. 10 Vasil Levski is national hero of Bulgaria and topic of research of Maria Todorova (2009) which is mentioned in introduction and later on in literature review

29 14 brother, Hamengkubuwono IV who was supported by the Dutch. Being a devout Muslim, Diponegoro was alarmed by the loosening of religious observance at his half brother's court, as well as by the court's pro-dutch policy (Carey, 2007). In 1821, famine and plague spread around Java. His half brother Hamengkubuwono IV (r ) who had succeeded to the throne after their father had died. He left only an infant son as heir, Hamengkubuwono V. When the young ruler was appointed as a new sultan, there was a dispute over his guardianship. Diponegoro was again renounced, though he believed he had been promised the right to succeed his half brother. This series of natural disasters and political upheaval finally erupted into a full scale rebellion (Carey, 2007). Dutch colonial rule was becoming unpopular by the local farmers because of tax rises, crop failures and by Javanese nobles because the Dutch colonial authorities deprived them of their right to lease land. Because the local farmers and many nobles were ready to support Diponegoro and because he believed that he had been chosen by divine powers to lead a rebellion against the Christian colonials, he started a holy war against the Dutch. Dipenogoro was widely believed to be the Ratu Adil, the Just Ruler predicted in the Pralembang Joyoboyo (Carey, 2007). The beginning of the war saw large losses on the side of the Dutch, due to their lack of coherent strategy and commitment in fighting Diponegoro's guerrilla warfare. Ambushes were set up, and food supplies were denied to the Dutch troops. The Dutch finally committed themselves to controlling the spreading rebellion by increasing the number of troops and sending General De Kock to stop the insurgencies. De Kock developed a strategy of fortified camps (benteng) and mobile forces. Heavily-fortified and welldefended soldiers occupied key landmarks to limit the movement of Diponegoro's troops while mobile forces tried to find and fight the rebels. From 1829, Diponegoro definitely lost the initiative and he was put in a defensive position. Many troops and leaders were defeated or deserted (Carey, 2007). In 1830 Diponegoro's military seemed near defeat and negotiations were started. Diponegoro demanded to have a free state under a sultan and he wanted to become the Muslim leader (caliph) for the whole of Java. In March 1830 he was invited to negotiate

30 15 under a flag of truce. He accepted but was taken prisoner on 28 March despite the flag of truce. De Kock claims that he had warned several Javanese nobles to tell Diponegoro he had to lessen his previous demands or that he would be forced to take other measures. The Dutch exiled him to Makassar (Carey, 2007). 2. Indonesian Painting Representational art in Indonesia has a long tradition. There are numerous sites all over the archipelago that indicate the presence of visual arts from early ages there are caves that are painted as well as ceramics, jewellery, and other decorative objects that date back to pre-history. Classical Indonesian art is one that is addressed to flourishing Javanese and Balinese kingdoms and art that was made under important rulers to show their power. Beautiful temples are scattered all over Java and Bali. When Islam was introduced to the archipelago, it brought classical elements of Islamic art, including architecture in first place one concerning building and decorating mosques. In the 19th century, with emerging colonialism, painting as a new form of art emerges in the island of Java and Bali especially. Balinese art had different periods and schools and hereby we will focus more on the development of painting in Java because it influenced development of art in the whole nation, but also due to the fact that it follows main ideological and national ideas that will shape Indonesia. Mooi Indie or Hindia Jelita (Beautiful Indies) was a period of Indonesian painting at the beginning of the 20th century. It shows ideological Indonesia with hard-working people working in beautiful rice fields, scenes of every day easy and nice lives, landscapes with lavish mountains, beautiful, modest, but yet seductive Indonesian girls. Painters were both Indonesians and Westerners who were living in Indonesia at that time. In 1938 Persagi (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia) was created as a response to the previous movement, where artists considered that their role was more engaging and they needed to show more real life of people, with their struggles and sufferings. (Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990) With the World War II and the Japanese occupation paintings served as propaganda for achieving the national goal a united and free Indonesia. There were numerous art groups created between 1942 until In 1950 Indonesia was de facto independent from

31 B. Theoretical Basis 1. Postcolonial Theory There is a theoretical field in cultural studies that can be named the difference theory Milner and Browitt (2002) said it has been characterised by an attempt to theorise the nexus between the operations of difference in language and culture and those of socio- perpustakaan.uns.ac.id 16 the Netherlands and those first years of Independence were marked by major turbulences. That dynamic was illustrated in groups of artists that were created, all with different political or religious agendas. More important for Indonesian art was the creation and establishment of art academies in Java and artist organizations connected with these centres. From their inception, three schools have dominated the Indonesian art scene: IKJ (Insitut Kesenian Jakarta) Art Institute in Jakarta, ITB (Institut Teknologi Bandung) Technology Institute in Bandung, and ISI (Institut Seni Indonesia, created as ASRI Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia Fine Art Academy of Indonesia back in days, now Insitute of Indonesian Art) Yogyakarta. In 1970s Indonesian art started also to have strong Post-Modernistic discourse following world trends. Not long after Indonesian art entered in the world art arena and after 1990s Indonesian art has had its ups and downs but until today continues to surprise and intrigue art lovers from all over globe. (Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990) With this short review of art we can see that Indonesian art is connected with its modern history. In classical times artists were merely craftsmen and somehow moderators between divine forces, rulers and the common people. Beginning in the 19th century painters and Indonesian intellectuals start to shape the future of the Indonesian nation. Once, Indonesia was independent they continue to work together with politicians in shaping the national ideology. For thirty years, Indonesia was under one regime that did not allow free artistic thinking, so the influence of art quitted down out at first, but then together with the people s resistance, artists started to become braver and to question authorities. Since 1999, Indonesia has again been questioning its position in the wider world, and in this process of re-positioning and re-shaping the identity artists do play an active role.

32 17 historical difference, especially in respect of gender and sexuality, nationality, race and ethnicity. While this concept appears vague and diverse it centres on questions of the identity. As Hall (1993) adds there are also critical points of deep and significant difference which constitute what we really are ; or rather since history has intervened what we have become. In this research, questions concerning the national identity will be examined, primarily those concerning creating and sustaining ideas of nationalism and theories that are put together under one term post-colonial theory. One of the greatest resources for studying nationalism in South-East Asia is Benedict Anderson s Imagined Community (1996). He argues how culture, in the first place language primarily printed one (via books, press) helped to shape the national identity which he equals with imagined communities. He gives explanation for nation building processes in all parts of the world and he gives tools to demonstrate how diverse this process is. For this research the most important findings are the ones from South-East Asia. Anderson conducted his most important research in South-East Asia. Indonesia, as it is understood today, never actually existed. It is a product of the Dutch colonization; the settlers referred to their territory as the East India. As its hybrid-pseudo-hellenic name suggests, its stretch does not even remotely correspond to any pre-colonial domain; on the contrary... its boundaries have been left behind by the last Dutch conquests. (Anderson, 1996) Nevertheless, that was enough for the newly formed Indonesian intelligentsia to imagine this community as one entity. He argues that people from north and northwestern Sumatra had more connections with the people on the Malay peninsula than those in Ambon. Yet one of the biggest reasons the Indonesia project succeed where others failed (i.e. United Indochina) was the fact that the Dutch tolerated the Indonesian language as lingua franca of the Archipelago. Around the turn of the century, Indonesia's lingua franca will become a powerful tool in the nation-building process. A national culture is not folklore, nor an abstract populism that believes it can discover the people's true nature. A national culture is the whole body of efforts made by a people in the sphere of thought to describe, justify and praise the action through which that people has created itself and keeps itself in existence. A national culture in underdeveloped countries should therefore take its place

33 18 at the very heart of the struggle for freedom which these countries are carrying on (Fanon, 1963). When we talk about national identities (and cultures) we must mention that: more than three-quarters of the people living today have had their lives shaped by the experience of colonialism (Barker, 2005). In those countries (with colonial experience) after getting rid of colonial powers writers and theoreticians start to write and discuss about postcolonialism. Postcolonial theory explores postcolonial discourses and their subject positions in relation to the themes of race, nation, subjectivity, power, subalterns, hybridity and creolization (Barker, 2005). There are numerous approaches and definitions of Postcolonial theory, for this research one useful is mentioned under. [Postcolonial theory] Seeks to speak to the vast and horrific social and psychological suffering, exploitation, violence and enslavement done to the powerless victims of colonization around the world. It challenges the superiority of the dominant Western perspective and seeks to re-position and empower the marginalized and subordinated Other. It pushes back to resist paternalistic and patriarchal foreign practices that dismiss local thought, culture and practice as uniformed, barbarian and irrational. It identifies the complicated process of establishing an identity that is both different from, yet influenced by, the colonist who has left. (Parsons and Harding, 2011) It is still questionable where domains of postcolonial theory are. Some argue that even the American culture can be put into post-colonial frame. Here we would address to the findings and ideas of those theoreticians whose work is relevant to this research. Edward Said in his book Orientalism argues how French and British colonist who in the Middle East started to construct Orient or East as a contrast to West which authors will later call this Occident and Occidentalism. He argued that this construction was built a binary opposition model in which Western values can be described as: progressive, liberal, secular, educated, democratic, open, and so on. Eastern ideals would conversely be described as: conservative, closed, religious - primarily Islamic, limited minded, etc. The major component in European culture is precisely... the idea of European identity as a superior one in comparison with all the non-european peoples and cultures (Said, 2003) Orientalism is also possible inside the West. Maria Todorova is a Bulgarian born historian and philosopher who lives and works in the US. Todorova incoprorated Said s

34 19 concept of Orientalism in European region of Balkan in her book Imagining Balkans (2009). She analysed what the term Balkans meant within a cultural frame. She explained the origin of the name, and how from the 19th century and with the falling of the Ottoman Empire and rise of national states in it, Europe (West) started to become interested in this region. It shows further how Europe was always between accepting it in its own cultural (and with that economical, political and every other way) circle and rejecting it with great passion and discussion over its monstrosity, brutality, and primitivism. Postcolonial theory grows from literature theory and its first authors were ones of Indian origins, Homi Bhabha is one of the most famous critical theorist and Postcolonial theory contributor. One of his central ideas is that of hybridization, which, taking up from Edward Said's work, describes the emergence of new cultural forms from multiculturalism. Instead of seeing colonialism as something locked in the past, Bhabha shows how its histories and cultures constantly intrude on the present, demanding that we transform our understanding of cross-cultural relations. His work transformed the study of colonialism by applying post-structuralist methodologies to colonial texts. Feminism is cultural theory where Postcolonial theory can also be implemented. Chandra Talpade Mohanty is an Indian postcolonial and transnational feminist theorist. In her essay Under the Western Eyes - Feminist Scholarship and Feminist Discourse (1998) she argued that there is still colonisation when Western authors write about East. They do write about women in East to a sizeable extent and always using same or similar prejudices that they exploit and with that process they are reproducing these stereotypes. Colonization almost invariably implies a relation of structural domination, and suppression often violent of the heterogeneity of the subjects in question. (Mohanty, 1998) She called this contemporary imperialism and she saw explanatory potential and political effects of this. That is also how ethnocentric universalism is produced. When we (scholars) write and say women of Africa, Mohanty (1998) argued we say too little and we say too much. Perhaps this quote can be used when we talk about Postcolonial theory we say too much and we say too little. Milica Bakic Hayden developed her idea of nesting East and Balkan in Europe (1995) where eastern and south-eastern European countries did not have

35 20 historical experience of being colonies, but experience of being occupied or being part of greater, more powerful Empires gave people from this regions similar historical experience and search for justice and identity in similar way how ex-colonial nations did. The ideas of Postcolonial theory are very diverse, in this paper we will be researching the one dealing with identity. Primary with theories concerned with creating Other, with notions such are West and Rest, Orientalism, Nesting Orientalism and others. Secondly, the theories of cultural hybridity will be used. Indonesian painting is imported from the West, but it grew to be an integral and dynamic part of Indonesian art. Nevertheless, from the 19th century until today Indonesian artists are trying to prove that they can be the East and the West at the same time. It may look that in globalized world these notions are outdated; actually they are still present, just in different shapes and forms. 2. Visual Semiotics All art is signs and symbols. Representational art is symbol for objects, places, or people being represented. Abstract art can be symbol of an idea or feeling in the artist viewer. Sign is everything that can be taken as significantly substituting for something else. All painters work with(in) a pictorial language, i.e. an inherited set of conventions, elements and rules of picture making. (Quigley, 2009) Semiotics is relatively new academic field in observing and interpreting meaning convey in art. Generally speaking it is new academic field; it was first developed and interpreted in studies of languages. Notes from lectures of the Swiss author Ferdinand de Saussure are foundations of modern semiotics. Saussure divides a sign into two components the signifier (the sound, image, or word) and the signified, which is the concept the signifier represent, or meaning. If we look at his ideas from art point of view we can say that everything that we identify in work of art is signifier. In first place in painting those signs are present in colours and lines. Shortest definition of semiotics is that is the study of signs. Signs themselves cannot be understood alone, so we need to interpret them within a sign system. It is a combination of sign relationship relationship with one sign to another (in paintings this is sometimes called concept) and context. As Eco explains what is commonly called message is in fact a text whose content is a multileveled discourse.

36 21 The history provides you with a visual vocabulary that both enables and constrains what you can and will say with your painting (Quigley, 2009). It is important here to mention post-modernistic approach to paintings (art and culture in general) that the meaning is also conveyed in relationship where painting is uttered, in whose company, by whom and for what purpose, etc. Charles S. Pierce was an American philosopher who developed similar ideas to those of Saussure. In art studies it is important to mention his three kinds of signs; we would call them in art studies representational signs: Index where signifier is not arbitrary, rather it has direct connection to signified. In paintings examples of this is smoke which represents fire, dark clouds storm and bad weather, or sometimes there are even figure pointing (indexing) at something which have obvious indexical value. Icon where signifier resembles signified. In paintings those are self-portraits, portraits, cartoons, and caricatures. Symbol signifier does not look at all as signified. Its value is arbitrary and it is pure matter of conventions. It needs to be learnt, otherwise it does not have any value. Examples of these in paintings are: national flags, sculls in still-life paintings, animals like symbols of some human characteristics etc. They can also be verbal as writings in painting, books, quotes, etc. (Hirsh, 2011) Today there is significant growth of visual communication and explosion of images on the Internet, so big that theoretician argue are we living in verbal or visual society. Dillon (1999) asks three questions: How language-like are images? How do images and words work when they are both present? How do scenes of people gazing and posing convey visual meaning? These questions can be placed as central questions of visual communication and visual semiotics. Language is a system of signs that express ideas, for Saussure there are two components that make language langue the system of language that is internalized by given speech community; and parole individual act of speech. Art is understood as primitive language that combined visual signs and linguistic principles. Structural approach to art is that art is like a sentence, whose meaning is conveyed by its compositional

37 22 elements and conventions of art, rather than form and subject matter. In visual art, semiotics interprets messages based on their signs and symbolism. So we can argue that art is language. There are also some who will argue that images are mute. Natural meaning of represented objects does not exist, before we provide them meaning. There is no syntax that articulates their part and binds them together. One of the critics of language-painting homology is Dufrenne (1966) 11 he gives two objections to this: the first one is a structural one (Painting is not system with two articulations art does not write its own grammar. It invents it and betrays it in its invention ) and the second one is an aesthetical one painting does not have strength to signify, but to show. Zems (1967) 12 agrees that painting is not language, but he says that there are many pictorial languages, represented in every painting style. Marin (1971) 13 describes three phases in reading painting the primary level is where we identify the signs, the second level is when we put them in a relationship with other (visible and invisible (absent) signs), and then we enter the third phase where we open a dimension of pictorial codes which is its cultural space. Messaris (1994) argues: As soon as we go beyond spatiotemporal interpretations, the meaning of visual syntax becomes fluid, indeterminate, and more subject to the viewer s interpretational predispositions than is the case with a communicational mode such as verbal language Images are often followed by the words. One proverb can say A picture is worth thousands words, but as it is shown above if we look at one picture and we do not understand the complex sign relationship that picture will be mute for us. Therefore most of the times, images are followed by words expressed in titles, labels, placards, guides, the artist s words and so on. Barthes (1961) The text constitutes a parasitic message designed to connote the image. In modern art artists were playing with this as well. Perfect examples for this are the words of Rene Magritte: My painting is visible images which conceal nothing: they evoke mystery and, indeed, when one sees one of my pictures, one asks oneself this simple question What does that mean? It does not mean anything, because mystery means nothing either, it is unknowable. (Rene Magritte in O Toole, 2008) 11 From Nöth, W Handbook of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid.

38 23 Relationships between text and images are delivered by explication (where text is explaining the image) and illustration (where image summarizes words). This relationship is exploited by advertising industries and famous interpretation of this is given by French semiotician Roland Barthes in his The Rhetoric of Image from He analyses advertisement for Panzani pasta. There are three classes of messages within the image: 1) The linguistic message text, 2) The symbolic (coded iconic) message connoted image and 3) The literal (noncoded iconic) message denoted image. Text connected with image has two functions to be anchorage to enrich meaning of words with meaning of image; and to be relay like in comic strips to convey meaning. Denoted image is hard to grasp, Barthes is saying about photographic naturalness, but he rejects this idea since he denies the possibility of the purely denoted image. It is an absence of meaning full of all the meaning. Connoted image is one with rhetoric. In this example it says about product: freshness, Italianicity, idea of total culinary service, still life-like-advertisement and so on. A meaning is derived from a lexicon (idiolect) which is body of knowledge within the viewer. The third question in visual semiotics sign producing and conveying meaning is a relationship between the one who is looking and the one who is being looked at. Theory of gaze was developed by French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Jacques Lacan. This complex theory can be implemented to how we understand art and visual semiotic. Example for this is analyses of female gazes in Renaissance painting in Europe (around the XV century) male were always depicted as dominant with sharp and controlling gaze toward the women and/or viewer, on the other hand females were depicted as subordinate, shy, turning their heads, looking themselves in mirrors, etc. In art theory we recognize four gazes: 1) Gaze of artist: how the artist look at the subject 2) Gaze of viewer: point of view, predetermined by the artist, or self-determined by the viewer 3) Gaze of the figure depicted in the art out to the viewer 4) Gaze of one depicted figure to another or to an object or area within or outside of the work (Hirsh, 2011)

39 24 In painting there is also imperial gaze and we can interpret it also in postcolonial discourse where mighty (European, Western) ruler is looking dominantly to his subordinate one. Theory of gaze is present topic in film studies, or in interpreting the advertisements (both still photographed one and action video one) but as one form of visual communication it was important to be mentioned here as well. Plato said Painting is far from truth, and therefore, apparently, painting has the effect of reaching only little of everything, and that only in a shadow image. We can understand this statement in the shadow of semiotics as muteness of image that we mentioned above. Plato s student, Aristotle said There can be no words without images. Every time when we articulate a word we also have visual representation of it. Connection between verbal and visual language is undeniable. Therefore, in this study, visual semiotics approach, together with postcolonial theory will be implemented in understanding and interpreting Indonesian paintings where Pangeran Diponegoro is the main motif. C. Relevant Researches 1. Researches about Heroism Most recent study about heroism is one made by Scot T. Allison and George R. Goethals. This study is published in three books. The first one (2010) is Heroes What They Do and Why We Need Them. This study offers a combination of psychological research with examples from real life, various kinds of fiction, and of many different kinds of heroes. This is the first from three volumes about the heroism. The second one (2013) is entitled Heroic leadership an Influence Taxonomy of 100 Exceptional Individuals 14 - review of the relationship between leadership and heroism, showing how most cherished heroes are also most transforming leaders. There is also a description of taxonomy, or conceptual framework, for differentiating among the many varieties of heroism (Trending Heroes, Transitory Heroes, Transparent Heroes, Transitional Heroes, Tragic Heroes, Transposed Heroes, Traditional Heroes, Transforming Heroes, and Transcendent Heroes). 14 From authors Blog page about newer edition retrieved from

40 25 The third book Reel Heroes, Volume 1: Two Hero Experts Critique the Movies (2014) 15 explores heroes in the movies and offers a categorization scheme for understanding different types of heroes. These books give good answers to questions why do we need heroes, what is consider a heroic act, how do we look at heroic acts and heroes, but overall a concept of heroism is not clear and firmly defined. (Allison and Goethals, 2014) The same problem arose several times while consulting primarily American authors and their writing about heroes. Sidney Hook (1955) in his The Hero in History A Study in Limitation and Possibility also gives taxonomy of heroes. One is The Heroes of Thought where heroes are divided in following categories in: 1) Literature, Music, and Painting; 2) Philosophy and Science; 3) Religion; and 4) The Historical Hero. In every chapter after some theoretical explanation, a list of great names in each category is given. Nevertheless, this book gives explanation of circumstances around heroism and influences around them social determinism, influences of monarchies, heroes in Soviet Union, heroes in democracy, etc. (Hook, 1955). One of the oldest studies entitled On Heroes, Hero Worshiping and The Heroic in History written by Thomas Carlyle (1840) puts together Odin, Scandinavian Pagan god, Muhammad, prophet in Islam, and Napoleon together. In one of his lectures he said The History of the world, I already said, was the Biography of Great Man (Carlyle, 1840) 16 These studies gave a good general knowledge of how heroes are preserved and maintained in West, through history, literature, other forms of art, and most recently popular culture. Yet, they are too broad and in small scale related for this research. Connections with national ideology, heroism and art are found in these three researches: National heroes are political symbols for US-Bulgarian native historian Maria Todorova. In her book Bones of contention - The living archive of Vasil Levski and the making of Bulgaria s national hero (2009) she discusses more about this topic. In this book she is talking about, contradictions in making a national hero by co-operation of the Communist party of Bulgaria and Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Vasil Levski was a nationalistic leader of Bulgaria who established revolutionary organizations to fight for 15 Ibid. 16 Retrieved from

41 26 freedom of Bulgaria, which was in his time autonomous under Ottoman rule. That was mid 19th century and Levski was hanged for his idea and he did not live to see independent Bulgaria. In his early ages he was an Orthodox priest, later he became prominent patriotic figure, and in the end he died a glorious death. He is remembered today as Apostle of Freedom. All these aforementioned facts make him a national hero par excellence (Todorova, 2009) State identity and nationalism are main topics of Linas Eriksonas, Lithuanian historian and philosopher. In his book (derived from his PhD thesis) National Heroes and National Identities (2004) he is examining the heroism and connection with state and national identity and ideology in three different European states: Scotland, Norway, and Lithuania. While he is giving historical perspectives on the national heroes in these countries he is also putting them in modern framework and is arguing how important presence of national heroes is in lives of people. He illustrates this by giving examples of fests that are commemorating lives and glorious past of heroes, how they are used in daily politics, erection of new monuments, etc. He does not define national heroes, but from his writing and examples, those are great people from history of these nations (Eriksonas, 2004) The Politics of Symbol in Serbia is a collection of essays in political anthropology written by Ivan Čolović (2002 English edition, 1997 Serbian edition). The background of Serbian nationalism and role of political and national symbols in breaking up of Yugoslavia are main topics in this book. War crimes committed in Yugoslavian war were the most brutal after the World War II in Europe. Many of these war crimes were committed by Serbian chauvinistic war criminals. Serbian nationalism is shaped by political and ethnocentric symbols. These symbols were important for Serbian narrative and they also include stories about national heroes (Colovic, 2002) Researches about nationalism in Indonesia do exist. Tony Day (2002) in his Fluid Iron: State Formation in Southeast Asia continues somehow Anderson s tradition of Imagined Communities in South-East Asia, but gives more references and examples of practice of nation-building in this region. He quotes Thomas L. Friedman who called Indonesia prime example of new kind of state: messy state. While Anderson s point is

42 27 mainly driven by nation and human culture (published books, newspapers, language) Day is more concerned with the state and its apparatus how kinship shapes society and the state, what was role of gender in this process, how Southeast Asian states are constructed as cosmologies like a respond to the Western teleology, etc. He also uses broad range of works of literature and art as respond to Williams call for the study of work of art in the cultural analyses of the active and formative ways in which hegemonic powers is exercised (Williams in Day, 2002) Idea of Javanisation of Indonesia and how Javanese elites continue colonial practice of Dutch to rest of Indonesia are two ideas of Michael Wood s Official History in Modern Indonesia: New Order Perspectives and Counterviews (2005). This was significant in New Order era which is timeframe from his book. He argues that Indonesians explain to themselves (and world beyond) that they did not just inherit the Dutch East India, how ideas of Indonesia are older. To illustrate this point re-interpretation of glory past is used. Ancient empires of Sriwijaya and Majapahit were the Golden Age of (proto) Indonesia. Unrests, rebellions of people all around the Archipelago are seen as fights to liberate Indonesia. That is why they are national heroes now. (Wood, 2005) 1.1. Researches about Pangeran Diponegoro Peter Carey (born 1948) is a British historian and author whose focuses of studies include East Timor, Java and Burma. He was the Laithwaite fellow of Modern History at Trinity College, Oxford. His major early work has concentrated on the history of Diponegoro, the British in Java and the Java War. He is currently completing an Oral History of the Indonesian Occupation of East Timor, In Trinity College he had taught courses Taught: Europe and the wider world, (in the Modern History Faculty) and Imperialism and nationalism, Southeast Asia This research consulted two researches of Carey. The first one is the book entitled The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanegara and the end of an old order in Java, It is one 17 From Oxford University Web page - accessed This book is published by KITL Press Leiden in 2007 (2008, second edition). Indonesian version is translated by Hashim Djojohadikusmo and Yayasan Arsari Djojohadikusumo and it is published by

43 28 of the most complete chronicles about life of Diponegoro and British interregnum in Java. It is a history book, but with interesting points about personal histories, also it is richly illustrated. With numerous illustrations from Javanese chronicles from that time, the first portraits of Diponegoro, and also famous Pienemaan - Mas Saleh painting discussions it was crucial for understanding evolution of visual representation of Pangeran Diponegoro. The second one is an omnibus-book entitled Asal-usul perang Jawa - Pemberontakan Sepoy dan Lukisan Raden Saleh 19 where historical perspectives about Raden Saleh s artwork are given. Narratives in Indonesian about Pangeran Diponegoro in form of national hero are used in school textbooks and popular books that were available in biggest bookstore in Indonesia Gramedia. Sagimun, M. D. (1960) Pahlawan Dipanegara berdjuang Bara api kemerdekaan nan tak kundjung padam due to its old Indonesian spelling it was hard to understand and read this book, but overall impression was that book is full of hot nationalism. It was published a year after first national heroes were proclaimed and in era of intensive nation-building and with that it was interesting input for understanding and witnessing one time in modern Indonesian history. 2. Researches about Indonesian Painting Indonesian painting is researched more by Westerners than Indonesians. Indonesian art is often understood and read from art catalogues, curatorial notes, art critic writings rather than scientific and academic approach to topic. Caroline Turner (2005) in Indonesia: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia (KPG) in 2012 as three parts book under the name Kuasa Ramalan: Pangeran Diponegoro dan Akhir Tatanan Lama di Jawa, Actually, this book is three papers written by Peter Carey that Indonesian publisher (Pustaka Azet, Jakarta ) merged in one book. For this research first and third paper were used: The origins of the Java War ( ) (originally published in English Historical review, 1976) and Raden Saleh, Dipanegara and the painting of the capture of Dipanegara at Magelang (Published in Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal latic Society, 1982).

44 29 Art, Freedom, Human Rights and Engagement with West is one of the recent researches of Indonesian art. First, she gives a short history of Indonesian art. On the basis of Indonesian art she quotes artist and critic Jim Supangkat that Indonesian art grew out of Western art adapted, sometimes over a very long period of time in the colonial period. Nevertheless it grows with blend of European modernity and Asian influences. She continues her discussion with illustrations of how in the past 20 years Indonesian artist were engaged in commenting political issues and human right issues. The formula for expression in Indonesian art is again similar to one from the 19th century It has been suggested that Indonesian art adopted ideas such as installation and protest from Western art, merely Indonesianising the content (Turner, 2005) Later, she examined work of three Indonesian artists to illustrate her point. Armhaniani is the first artist she is mentioning and explaining her artwork. In 1996 she produced an installation and performance called Nation for Sale where she addressed issues of nationalism, globalisation, and position of common people in this (dis)order. In 1999 her work Burning Body-Burning Country was addressed to un-rests in Indonesia in that year, and violence towards women. Moelyono is the second artist that she comments. His work deals with controversies in Indonesian society such as Communist party and lives of Chinese people in Java. The last one is Dadang Christanto and he deals with problems of a small man in Indonesia suicide of becak driver when this sort of transportation was forbidden in Bandung; land inquisition from farmers for building golf courses. He himself suggested that his work is there for commemorating suffering in every time and place. These three artists and their works serves to illustrate that Indonesian artist of the past 20 years have created extraordinary body of work in its impact on the region and beyond (Turner, 2005) Mary-Jo DelVecchio Good and Byron J. Good (2008) in Indonesia Sakit Indonesian Disorders and the Subjective Experience and Interpretive Politics of Contemporary Indonesian Artists (which is part of a reader called Postcolonial Disorders edited by Mary-Jo DelVecchio Good, Sandra Teresa Hyde, Sarah Pinto, Byron J. Good). Previous research ends with questions and doubts where Indonesian art will go in new,

45 30 reformation era. It quotes Dr Dwi Marianto (1999) who said The New Order has given way to New Disorder. This New Disorder in contemporary Indonesian art is a topic of research of Good and Good (2008). They also interpret works of three contemporary Indonesian artists. Alex Luthfi is the first author interviewed and his painting Kado Reformasi (Gift of Reformation) was interpreted. In this painting - national emblem of Garuda was painted in black, with pig head, and a tie. It is a criticism of new era with old habits corruption, nepotism, and big social differences are problems that the author points out here. Agus Yuliantara painted Indonesia Sakit (Indonesian disorders, sick Indonesia, Indonesia in pain) which served as title of whole research. He points out the same problems as Pak Luthi, but with different style. Painting is a surrealistic mosaic where a tiger looks like he is eating the Indonesian archipelago, there are also two naked figures and a shadow-like figure from which a pigeon is emerging. This complex painting is full of the symbols, present time is not safe and nice, but overall artist has optimistic point of view towards future. The third artist is Entang Wiharso who painted nation Run Amok where he is aware of responsibility that state has toward its citizens, but he is dare to address problems within the people. His main issue is surprising violent behaviour of Indonesians. (Good and Good, 2008) We can conclude that violence is still one of the present topics of contemporary Indonesian art. The one who answers to violence and who fights disorders and sicknesses of one nation is a hero. Therefore it is interesting to see how a (national) hero is fighting his battles in the world of Indonesian paintings from the 19th century until today. These two recent researches helped by building methodology. For this research five paintings with Pangeran Diponegoro were chosen and analyzed thoroughly, while other paintings, sketches, illustrations were there just to maintain ideas mentioned.

46 31 D. Framework of the research Concept of Heroism National Heroes in Indonesia Postcolonial Theory Pangeran Diponegoro The 19th century Dutch Painting Javanese Painting As A Main Motif In Paintings The 20th century The 20th/21st century Indonesian Painting Indonesia Sakit Painting 1 Painting 2 Interpretation of Artwork Visual Semiotics Figure 1 Framework of the research

47 32 Main idea of this research is to analyze presence of Pangeran Diponegoro in paintings from different time period. Five paintings have been chosen from three different time period: 19th century and period after the Java War ( ) whose leader was Pangeran Diponegoro. First painting (from 1830) is by a Dutch author Nicolaas Pieneman and second one (from 1857) by Javanese Raden Saleh. Their meanings are different, while style and genre in which they are painted look almost same. Second half of the 20th century is time when Indonesia got its independence from the Dutch. This period was a time of turbulent history and intensive process of nation-building which can be seen in painting of Diponegoro by S. Sudjojono from End of the 20th century was a time when Indonesia stepped toward democracy after 30 years of dictatorship. Questions about national identity were again actual, and some reflections of these are present in a painting of Agung Kurniawan (painted in dusk of New Order regime 1994). It did not address any specific ideology nor any special territorial unit (Indonesian country, or Javanese land) it is somehow a global critique. On the other side, the painting of Heri Dono is an obvious caricature of Indonesian politics. That is why these artworks are under Indonesia Sakit category. Pangeran Diponegoro was mentioned in this research as a (national) hero. In Indonesia this term is strict and it is defined by state. In some other cultures this term is subject of perception of historians, anthropologists, sociologists, and others. In the 19th century when the first two painting were painted, Indonesia was not a nation. Nevertheless, these paintings (as well as the life story) of Diponegoro symbolize protonationalism in Indonesia. Title National Hero itself was introduced in 1959 and Pangeran Diponegoro entered the list in Today this list is enormous (159 people) and is evergrowing. Therefore in this research there will be a word about this title as well as process of declaring one national hero. Questions about national building, ideology, and identity (which are symbolized in this title) are looked through Postcolonial Theory.

48 33 Paintings on the other hand are looked with author s available tools in understanding and appreciating one piece of art observing composition, perspective, usage of colours, lines, other figures, and so on. Visual semiotics is used to de-code symbols in it. In the first place the task is to find and interpret symbols of (national) hero Pangeran Diponegoro as main object of research, but with him also others. One sign is rarely understood alone, sign enters into a relationship with other signs to build net or systems of signs. Together they make meaning. Meaning and value of these paintings are main objectives of this research E. Hypothesis Pangeran Diponegoro is a powerful motif in Indonesian paintings and culture in general. His representation is following social and historical changes that occured around his native Java. Nevertheless, narrative around him is ever-actual and it will be re-shaped and re-told for years to come.

49 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH A. Location and Time of Research Main place for this research is South-Central Java within two cities: the first one is Surakarta, where studies were conducted and the second one is Yogyakarta where the main research was done. The city of Yogyakarta is the main research place for the listed reasons: Yogyakarta is the birth place of Pangeran Diponegoro and he is listed as the national hero from this city-province. Yogyakarta has unique place in Indonesian history. It was the centre of nationalistic ideas and even for the short time the capital of Indonesia. There is still an active sultan court which also had political power as sultan is a governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta. Pangeran Diponegoro also fought against increasing influence of the Dutch and the Western culture. Still today Yogyakarta is a symbol of a symbiosis with Western (and other) influences and local character. Painting as an art form in Java developed itself fully in Yogyakarta. While Bandung in West Java was also considered an important place for developing art, it always had the Western glasses while Yogyakarta was more national oriented. This mixture of long history, the ideas of nationalism, yet with strong local identity, together with the development of painting makes Yogyakarta the perfect place for this research. Neighbouring cities and sights were also important for this research. Magelang is a city where Pangeran Diponegoro was captured. The court of Dutch residence is setting for the main paintings that are going to be analyzed in this research. It was also used as the setting for the theatrical reading in November 2013 about the arrest/submission Pangeran Diponegoro directed by Landung Simatupang ( Sang Pangeran di Keresidenan Pentas Pembacaan Dramatik) that author witnessed. Magelang is also one of the most important centres for understanding Indonesian art as it is a place where the biggest art collections of Indonesian art are. Last, but not least, the city of Surakarta and its surrounding also provide amount of inspiration and motivation for conducting this research. It is the place where 34

50 35 research was written, guided by mentors and other professors who shaped author s knowledge about cultural studies and this topic in general. Idea for this research came from paper in Art Studies subject in February The main point of that paper was conflict of two paintings in the 19th century which depicts Pangeran Diponegoro. It grows to the idea of how Pangeran Diponegoro is depicted within Indonesian framework fifty years ago and the question- is he still an actual motif? The timeframe for this research is set from September 2013 until May B. Locus of Research There is no pure looking with a naked, innocent eye - Pearce (1971) this statement explains main points why qualitative descriptive analyses (descriptive content analyses) is chosen to conduct this research. Research using qualitative data analysis is defined as research that produces descriptive data in the form of words and / or phrases, including actions that can be observed by emphasizing concept development and understanding of existing patterns in the data; notice settings and people holistically not as variables separately; tends to be humanistic; understanding of the meaning which the actions of participants and understand the circumstances of limited scope (Sandelowski, 2001). To know any phenomenon (or event or experience) requires, at the very least, knowing the facts about that phenomenon. Yet there are no facts outside the particular context that gives those facts meaning. The descriptions always depend on the perceptions, inclinations, sensitivities, and sensibilities of the one who describes. Descriptive content analysis examines the qualitative (as well as quantitative) data collected through various methods, in this research those will be analyses of the painting and the documents about them. An aim of this analysis is to summarizing the informational contents of these data with respect to the research question in this research that one is how (national) hero Pangeran Diponegoro is depicted in the paintings from the 19th century until today.

51 36 The procedure steps in descriptive content analyses are: - Define the research question(s) depiction of (national) hero - Review the collected data with respect to the research questions literary and theory review about the concepts of heroism in Indonesia, visual semiotics and Postcolonial theory. - Identify the informational content with respect to the research question this part will be discussed in the next, main chapter of this research, together with last step - Prepare a concise descriptive summary of the key informational contents. 20 C. Data and Source of Data Table 1: Primary Data Paintings from the 19th century: Nicolaas Pieneman ( ): The Submission of Diponegoro (c ), oil on canvas, 77 x 100 cm, Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Raden Saleh (1811? 1880): The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857), oil on canvas, 111 x 180 cm, Presidential Palace Collection in Jakarta Painting from mid the 20th century: S. Sudjojono (1913? 1986): Diponegoro (1979), oil on canvas, 136 x 200 cm, Centre and Museum S. Sudjojono in Jakarta End of the 20th century, beginning of 21st century: Agung Kurniawan (born 1968): Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994), mix media: pastel, paper, conte, collage, 90 x 100 cm, from IVAA slide collection Heri Dono (born 1960): Wrong Arrest of Prince Diponegoro (2007), oil on canvas, 150 x 200 cm, Gallery Nedi Jakarta Archives used to access these painting are through Indonesian Visual Contemporary Art Archive (IVAA) which is based in Yogyakarta. This place was also valuable for the 20 Retrieved from Web presentation of FenRIAM (Foresight enriched Research Infrastructure Impact Assessment Methodology) and their subpage about FenRIAM methods January 2014

52 37 secondary data which includes the books about Indonesian painting, painters, and articles from news-papers about art exhibitions, the catalogues from art exhibitions with curatorial writings, discussions toward contemporary Indonesian art, and others. Two living artists and very active ones on this list are Agung Kurniawan and Heri Dono. The first one is founder of Kedai Kebun Forum which is active and attractive place in Yogyakarta for dialogue concerning place of art in contemporary Indonesia. Interview with people engaged in this art centre also enriched this research. The second one works between Jogjakarta and Jakarta, where his retrospective exhibition was on in July D. Technique of Collecting Data Qualitative research involves several phases. One of the first in this process is collecting and sampling data. After the first impression toward art war in the 19th century where painting of Dutch and Javanese artist were extract from book and art catalogue about nationalism in art from 2007, and the Internet resources were used. To understand better these ideas access and collecting of data was done in IVAA centre mentioned above. Five paintings were chosen according to their relevance and importance to research question. Nicolaas Pieneman opens discussion; his oil on canvas is first depiction of Diponegoro in paintings. Raden Saleh responded to Pieneman s vision. Raden Saleh is considered as a father of Indonesian art. Same title is given to S. Sudjojono. While Raden Saleh opens the door for Javanese (and other Indonesians) to be brave and to engage themselves in this art form, S. Sudjojono was challenging them to think what and how they paint. He gave Indonesian prefix in art history of Indonesia. His art opponent is Basuki Abdulah who created art as propaganda. Contemporary artist Agung Kurniawan and Heri Dono gave a new, fresh, and brave look toward Pangeran Diponegoro as heroic figure. They question issues such as: heroism, national ideology, mythology, they are brave enough to use caricature, satire and irony in their work. To look at one painting one needs to know main tools for reading it. The elements of painting that are crucial for understanding and appreciate one piece of art are: usage of colours, lines, perspective, composition, and with that how did artist make illusion of time, motion and space (usage of lights, shadows, representation of texture, facial expressions...)

53 38 After this observation, comes the analyses of available texts around artwork, understanding historical context, seeking for author s words: labels, text next to artwork, notes from sketches, comments of art critics, curators and others. Data were then analysed according to the theory presented in this research (Postcolonial theory) and tools of semiotics. In this research icon-index-symbol triptych was used, together with the Barthesian denotation and connotation form from his Rhetoric of Image. E. Technique of Analyzing Data In qualitative descriptive research the researcher is an instrument. The research does not aim to get ultimate truth, but to look one problem from different perspectives. Qualitative approach can reveal different perspectives in different: situations, settings, process, relations, and people. Qualitative research is generally characterized by the simultaneous collection and analysis of data whereby both mutually shape each other. One of the types of techniques used to analyze data in descriptive way is through using a case study. In case study we need record data about context surrounding proposed problem, to understand its social and cultural framework and other things. Data Analysis in case studies includes: 1. Organization of details about the case, 2. Categorization of data, 3. Interpretation of single instances, 4. Identification of patterns, and 5. Synthesis and generalizations (Leedy and Ormrod, 2013) F. Approach to Analyses of Data For this research data will be collected and analyzed through tools of visual semiotics. Data will be organized as marked signs used in paintings. Signs will be divided in three categories indexes, icons, and symbols. Also theory of gaze and gaze will be looked as a sign. These will be interpreted one by one, and then through analysis of all five painting those who emerge as same, can be named patterns. They will be synthesized and generalized in one message. This message can be connotative meaning of painting. Semiotics signs will correspond to Postcolonial theory which is ground theory of this research.

54 39 Process is the following reading painting, reduce it to systems of signs, analyze signs, use Postcolonial theory, unite them all together and answer the question of main hypothesis. Signs that will be produced come from understanding of concept such are heroism, nationalism, identity, and others. These concepts are analyzed under Postcolonial theory and finding and ideas of main thinkers from this theory. G. Validation of Data Triangulation is the combination of at least two or more theoretical perspectives, methodological approaches, data sources, investigators, or data analysis methods. The intent of using triangulation is to decrease, negate, or counterbalance the deficiency of a single strategy, thereby increasing the ability to interpret the findings. Denzin, 1978 (from Hussein, 2009) identified four basic types of triangulation: Data triangulation: involves time, space, and persons Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an investigation Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical scheme in the interpretation of the phenomenon Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one method to gather data, such as interviews, observations, questionnaires, and documents. In this research data triangulation involves depicting Pangeran Diponegoro as main motif in paintings of various authors from different backgrounds and different historical perspectives. Theory that was used to illustrate this research was Postcolonial theory, but it is also cross checked with findings from tools used by Visual Semiotics.

55 CHAPTER IV ANALYSES A. The 19th century Pangeran Diponegoro Villain and Hero 1. The 19th century in Indonesia The powerful Dutch East India Company (Dutch - Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie - VOC, meaning United East India Company ) appeared in what is now Indonesian land from beginning of 17th century. For two centuries these mighty, the first multinational company controlled and used different parts of Indonesian Archipelago and seized power of local rulers. Due to corruption and debt, the company declared bankruptcy and it was nationalised by Dutch republic as the Dutch East Indies. The exact date of nationalisation of this company was January 1 st 1800, so Indonesia entered into the 19th century with an old new ruler. (Brown, 2003) Between 1811 and 1816 some parts of the Dutch East Indies came under a short period of British control due to some insurgencies in Europe. After that the Dutch fought several wars to establish their full control over Archipelago. In West Sumatra between 1803 and 1827 there was the first civil war between two Muslim groups, and with the intervention of the Dutch this war was over. Now it is called the Minangkabau (ethnics of west Sumatra) or Padri War (that was the name of the faction that won). Between 1859 and 1863 there was also war in southeast Kalimantan. The result was the defeat of the Banjarmasin sultan. Areas of Bali and Aceh were also rebellious and conflict there started at the end of the 19th century and finished at the beginning of the 20th century with the Dutch state becoming absolute ruler of all present areas of Indonesia. (Brown, 2003) For this research one conflict is crucial. It is the Java War or Diponegoro War and it was fought for five years between 1825 and This rebellious, guerrilla war took as many as Javanese lives and around soldiers on the Dutch side both Europeans and Belanda Hitam black warriors from the Dutch Gold Coast (today Ghana). The war ended with the capture of the Javanese leader of war and his companions during negotiations where the Dutch guaranteed him freedom and some rights, but instead they tricked him, ending the war. Java was devastated, but soon with a new cultivation system 40

56 41 the Javanese and Dutch elites were pleased. Java and Indonesia, with the end of this war, entered a high point of colonization which brought wealth to the Dutch Kingdom (from 1815 until today the Netherlands has been a kingdom ruled by the Oranje family), but devastation, poverty, and death to many in the archipelago. But it also brought better infrastructure and access to education, which later led to nationalistic movements and finally the liberation of Indonesia. (Carey, 2008) 2. Art History of the 19th century The 19th century was quite a dynamic period in Indonesian history; it brought a lot of misery to the Archipelago, but also some innovations that soon helped facilitate deliberation and the emancipation of the country. In the history of Europe and art history of the West it was also a dynamic period which led to art as we know it today. With revolutionary movements and the establishment of nations as we know them today, art followed with the first movements in the 19th century being Neoclassicism and Romanticism. (Hirsh, 2011) The first one, Neoclassicism, derived influence from classics in European art antique and renaissance. The second, Romanticism, was also called Neo-Baroque and it was more dynamic and vivid than Neoclassicism. The key word with Romanticism was escape: escape in nature, in glory past, in exotic places (Hirsh, 2011). The art of these artists influenced the first Javanese who learned about painting. During the second half and towards the end of the century, Realism, with its strong social critique, was born along with Impressionism, which brought new challenges to art. These two movements did not have any direct influence on Javanese (and Indonesian) art. Indirect influence was present with questions about the meaning and position of art, but with some time delay. 3. Western Eyes: Nicolaas Pieneman s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro 3.1. Biography of Nicolaas Pienemaan One of the artists from the Dutch Neoclassicism period is the Dutch painter and lithographer Nicolaas Pieneman. He was born on 1st January His birth place is the

57 42 city of Amersfoort in central Netherlands. He was the son of the famous Dutch artist Jan Willem Pieneman. Jan Willem Pieneman was the director of the Koninklijke Académie voor Schone Kunsten in Amsterdam since 1820 and finally was appointed director of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam in (Marius, 1909) Taught by his father, he later studied at Amsterdam s Academy of Fine Arts. He specialised in painting recent historical events. He was a friend of the Dutch king Willem II and painted numerous portraits of members of the royal family. He was also member of Natura Artis Magistra in Amsterdam from 1852 until his death on 30th December His opus consists of mainly historical painting, followed by portraits and cityscapes. Besides the Netherlands, he was also active in the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium. In addition to his painting and lithography skills he entered the art history of Netherlands as an art collector and teacher of many future painters, such as Johaness Arnoldus Boland, Hendrick Hollander, Jan Frederick Tuck, and others. (Marius, 1909) 3.2. Submission of Diponegoro (1830-5): History and Signs Diponegoro entered Javanese traditional art as a leader of the Javanese during the Java War. His fights were subject of batik paintings as well as wayang kulit stories. In early chronicles about his fight written in Javanese court houses, there were also depictions of Diponegoro. These artworks will be mentioned more in Section 4, about Javanese paintings of Diponegoro. The first Westerner that made a depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro was Adrianus Johaness Bick ( ). He was baljuw (magistrate) of Batavia (today Jakarta) and guardian of Diponegoro during his stay in the Stadhuis (Batavia s City Hall today Jakarta History Museum). Diponegoro was there between April 8 and May 3, Based on a charcoal sketch of A. J. Bick, Carel Christiaan Anthony created a lithography. This portrait was used to make the banknotes of 100 Indonesian rupiah from (Carey, 2008) In these representations Pangeran Diponegoro was dressed in the garments which he wore during the Java war, namely a turban, an open-necked kabaya (cotton shirt) and a jubah (loose outer robe). A sash hangs over his right shoulder, and his pusaka kris

58 43 (heirloom dagger), Kangjeng Kyai Bandayuda, is stuck in his flowered silk waist band. The slightly sunken cheeks, which accentuate the prince s high cheek bones, were the result of successive bouts of malaria from which he had been suffering since his wandering in the jungles of Bagelen at the end of the war (Carey, 2008). These representations are rarely seen, because they represent Pangeran Diponegoro as a sick prisoner. It is far away from Pangeran Diponegoro - the warrior, just king, leader, hero... Nevertheless, these pictures can also have nationalistic connotations; they show a warrior in the robe that he wore during battles. His face is pale and expresses sickness, but his eyes are proud and bright. His posture is one of the royals, full of dignity and calmness. This is the light that will shine on the nation several years after his exile and death A. J. Bick, charcoal sketch, 1830 (Source: Carey, 2008) 1.1. A. C. Anthony, lithography, 1830 (Source: Carey, 2008) 1. The First Western Look at Pangeran Diponegoro 1.2. Note of 100 Indonesian rupiah from 1952 (Source: the Internet 21 ) The first one to put Pangeran Diponegoro on the big screen was Nicolaas Pieneman. His painting was done in the same period as the sketch and lithography around 1830 and General Hendrik Merkus de Kock, who arranged the arrest of Diponegoro, returned to Holland in late 1830 and was received as a national hero. In order to celebrate himself de Kock commissioned the best known (and economically most successful) portrait painter, Cornelis Kruseman (the teacher of Raden Saleh) - to do his portrait. De Kock did 21 All sources of illustrations (specially one retrieved from the Internet) are listed in the end of this research under section Source of Illustration (page 137)

59 44 not only commission his own portrait, but also a historical tableau of the Submission of Diponegoro - the highlight of his military career - by Nicolaas Pieneman. (Kraus, 2005) This oil on canvas was originally in the de Kock family collection until 1907 when it was handed over to Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam where it was listed in 1920 under collection number The original (and full) title of the painting is The submission of Diepo Negoro to Lieutenant-General Hendrick Merkus Baron de Kock, 28 March 1830, which ended the Java War ( ). The title itself is already full of the meaning. The author omits the title Pangeran (or Prince) in front of Diponegoro (this only appears in Indonesian translations of the artwork where Diepo Negoro is Pangeran Diponegoro), while de Kock is presented under his full name and title. There is also the ending, which is rarely seen, which ended the Java war. Usually the painting is named with a shorter version like that in the title of this paragraph (and generally used during the whole of this research) or with an extended name which includes the two main characters. This ending is characteristic because it does not mention the treachery of Dutch, or how the war and this meeting ended. It says that war ended with the simple submission of Diponegoro, which is far from truth. It is obvious already that the painting represents the Dutch as a supreme power with dominance over the Javanese. If we examine the painting as system of signs we can see how specific elements support this view. Icon signs are signs where the signifier resembles the signified. In Nicolaas Pieneman we can observe the depiction of many historical characters who were involved in this historical drama. The Dutch are positioned in the upper level of the composition, they are active and energetic. One is shown ordering something, another is ready to obey these orders, their posture is vertical everyone is either standing or riding a horse and therefore dominates the picture. Their uniforms are neat and dominated by the colour black (shirts, boots, and hats) which also gives a strong sense of power. Black is the colour that usually symbolises death, but it also represents dominance and full control. Black itself is all colours in one, but also the absence of light. On the other hand, the followers of Diponegoro are somehow subordinate; they are sitting, kneeling, or standing. But the

60 45 standing figures also lack energy and everyone is somehow surprised and hurt by the news that their leader is telling them. 2. Nicolaas Pieneman Submission of Diponegoro ( ) Icon signs Portraits of some of the historical figures involved in this scene: 1. Pangeran Diponego 2. Hendrick Merkus de Kock 3. Du Perron 4. Michiels 5. Tololiu HW Dotulong 6. Benjamin Th. Sigar 7. Hendrik Werias Supit 8. Pasukan Tulungan 9. Johanis Inkiriwarig 2.2. Pangeran Diponegoro 2.3. General De Kock Pieneman made Diponegoro look submissive (he is put one step below De Kock), his retainers and followers as well. Everyone pictured seems to understand that de Kock's stern action is for the best of the Javanese, and that poor General de Kock had no choice but to send Pangeran Diponegoro away, just like a loving father has to send a misguided son away in order to teach him a valuable lesson. After all de Kock was not a monstrous colonizer, but an educated and civilized gentleman, respected leader of the freemasons in the Indies (Kraus, 2005). 22 Pieneman painting was easy to access in every format from Web page of Rijksmuseum ( - Retrieved in 5. May 2013.) All details, cropped version of painting are from that source

61 46 Index signs are those where signifier is not arbitrary, rather it has a direct connection to signified. Classic Index signs in paintings (and other visual media) are for example smoke that indicates fire, writings on painting, that point to what is written, traces of movements (footprints, traces of car). But in general art history has developed an extensive lexicon of indexical signs in paintings: there are repoussoir figures, figures in pictures who point to the action, lookers in paintings, painter beholders in pictures who mime some functions of the external beholder, mirrors and surrogates and objects of reciprocal gazes (in Elkins, 2013). Repoussoir figures are those who make the border of the picture, they introduce us to the space. They were introduced by Dutch landscape painters in the 17th century. A memento of this in this composition is the depiction of a tree that leads our view toward the mountains. Also in this painting there is one figure on the right on the horse, in a red suit; it closes composition on that side with the banner of the flag of the Netherlands which will soon be analyzed. The pointing figure in this composition is De Kock who probably points and indicates that soon a carriage will come and take prisoner to his future destination. De Kock s gaze is also the most striking one and symbolizes determination and action. Gazes of the other Dutch are toward De Kock and support him in his action. Other Dutch figures look on the scene with Diponegoro but with calm and indifference. Diponegoro does not look in any general direction, but toward his followers, and his body language somehow suggests that he realizes that he is guilty, and the only thing that he can do is to surrender. His followers look at him with surprise and shock, but the scene is not too dramatic, facial expressions are mild, so like they also realize necessity of this action. All participants seem relaxed (even the crying ones), there is no resistance. (Kraus, 2005)

62 47 Symbol signs A painting is usually full of symbols. Symbols are signs where the signifier does not look like the signified. It is fully arbitrary, needs to be learned, and it is a matter of convention. Symbols can include objects, but also they are in gestures, body language, animals and plants that have strong symbolic potential, and so on. 2.4 Marks of Nation: Central Dutch flag, flag on the right side, and coat of arm By looking at the painting we can say that the figure of Diponegoro and two crying and kneeling figures are the central ones. They are in a central position, but, above them, on the roof of the Residence, is the Dutch flag. It is the dominant figure in this painting. It is a strong symbol of who is above everything the rebellious prince, the loyal general, armies from both sides servitude to Kingdom of the Netherlands is their summit. The flag on the roof is the highest peak of the painting; even the tree and mountain are below its level. The flag also appears on the right side and the figure in red almost closes that side of the composition. Among the masses of Dutch soldiers there is also a small trace of the orange flag the banner of royal family from Kingdom of the Netherlands established from The coat of arms is not so visible, but it is the dominant relief over the entrance to the Residence which clearly indicates that the resident is there to obey European center of power symbolized by its heraldic. Spears - There are two groups of spears, those on the back are up, and in front panel are the ones which are laid down. Those that are up belong to the Pasungan Tulungan (mentioned above in icon signs under number 8). The Pasungan Tulungan were brought from Fort Amsterdam in Manado and they consisted of 1500 Minahasa people. They were

63 48 one of the key elements of Dutch victory. In contrast to them are the spears of the defeated Javanese People: More Middle Eastern than Javanese Nicolaas Pieneman had never been to Java and the Javanese in his painting look more like people from the Middle East. (Kraus, 2005) It is a perfect illustration of Said s concept of Orientalisation. The West won a war, the rebellious were Muslims, and the nearest concept to the Western closed mind are Muslims from Middle East who were for ages enemies of the Christian rulers who wanted to liberate the Holy Land. All followers of Diponegoro wear turban-like cloths on their head, and their robes are like those of Turks, or Lebanese, rather than Javanese with their batik clothes. Even their faces, moustaches, and expressions also reveal this Middle-Easterncity rather than Javanicity or Indonesiacity. (New words coined from Barthesian concept of Italianicity from his Rethoric of Image ) 2.6. Geography: Landscape - Magelang is surrounded by five volcano mountains: Merapi, Merbabu, Sindoro, Sumbing, and Slamet. Background Mountain in Pineneman s vision is more likely European mountain, rather than some of the Volcano Mountain in Java with its conical shape. Also the Dutchman Pieneman introduced a rather sharp wind from the west (common in Holland) that gives the Dutch flag a very dynamic appearance (Kraus, 2005).

64 49 The painting of Nicolaas Pieneman is not there to be realistic and accurate, it is there to serve its purpose which is the demonstration of Dutch supremacy and great victory. It may be followed by the usage of a great amount of prejudice and ignorance, but is not that how the West produces the East in the first place? This artwork was one of the paintings that helped Dutch people to construct an image and the idea of the Netherland East Indies. It is an idea of the Other, rebellion, one that needs to be controlled and subordinate, the one who needs European gentlemen, who will bring dynamic changes in this part of world, many good ones, but also many followed by death and despair (Un-existing) Symbol of Death - In writings about Pieneman s painting there is no word about the strange figure of carriage driver. His representation whispers a story of death and destruction of one colonial rule. The majority of faces that we saw in direct gaze in this painting have the features of one face nose, eyes, or mouth, in some we can see it more clearly, like De Kock or Diponegoro and in some just in traces, but the driver of the carriage has a strangely dark and morbid appearance. In Western painting there is a frequent motif in paintings called memento mori - usually depicted by skulls which serve to remind a viewer of transience of life. In this picture the driver s role is somehow reversed it can mean that the painter wanted to say death is coming for Pangeran Diponegoro. It would be a big mistake Pangeran Diponegoro lived 30 more years. But it can be death is coming for all of you, because Javanese resistance was silenced with the end of this war only briefly, and it took the Javanese more than one hundred years to resist and to set free and to create a new homeland Indonesia. 4. Javanese Eyes: Raden Saleh s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro

65 Biography of Raden Saleh The first Javanese who gained formal education in painting in west was Raden Saleh. His full name is Raden Saleh Sjarief Boestaman. He was born in a wealthy Javanese family in Tebaya (Semarang, Central Java) in 1807 or 1814., His family had ties with Suro Adimenggolo, the regent of Semarang and Pekalongan. He had lived at the home of Baron van der Capellen in Buitenzorg (present day Bogor, West Java), where he had an opportunity to study painting from Caspar Reinward ( ) and Belgian artist A. A. J. Payen ( ). It was him who found Raden s talent. With the support of Prof. Reinward, a painter and botanical blue-print maker of Kebun Raya Bogor (the Botanical Garden of Bogor) and the Dutch governor General van der Capellen, A. A. Payen sends him to the Netherlands to study painting in The willingness of Dutch colonial government to send and educate Raden Saleh abroad had at its core political design, namely so that the young man would be prevented from being influenced by his uncle, who was leaning toward aristocrat independence leader Pangeran Diponegoro prior to the outbreak of the struggle for freedom in the Java War ( ) (Kraus and Vogelsang, 2012) He studied landscape painting from Andreas Schelfhout and portrait painting from Cornelius Kruseman. From 1839 the artist lived in Dresden and he became a celebrity in several courts there. In 1844 Raden Saleh visited France, and later journeyed to Italy and Austria. Upon his return to Holland, he was given the title of Royal Painter by King Willem II. He also visited Algiers during this time. His work is strongly influenced by work of Romanticism masters, in the first place Théodore Géricault ( ) and Eugène Delacroix ( ) Raden Saleh was after all the Javanese of his time most exposed to western thought and reality. European painters are not especially good in creating animal hunts and battle scenes. They miss the inner experience. Here I'm happy to be an Asian (Kraus, 2005) After more than 20 years living abroad he returned to Java in For a short while he became a painter in the courts of Yogyakarta and Mangkunegara (Solo). Finally he settled in Batavia (Jakarta), only to move to Bogor in 1879, a year before his death. The artist passed away on 23 April 1880 in Bogor. In 1969 he was awarded Amugerah Seni art

66 51 award from Indonesian government. The artistic and existential struggle of Raden Saleh could be a turning point for mapping and discussing how Indonesian fine art grew, developed, and then came into contact with modernity. His art work representing the East Image through Romanticism made him made him charismatic figure among the artists and European noblemen. This achievement made him professional laureate painter, and get the various honours. He had the capacity to absorb West culture, yet, he had strong ties to his native socio-cultural context. He became an inspiration for Indonesian painters and nationalists during the growth of national movement in the first half of 20th century. (Kraus and Vogelsang, 2012) 4.2. Arrest of Diponegoro (1857): History and Signs Raden Saleh was not the first Javanese to paint Pangeran Diponegoro. Charcoal sketch of Diponegoro as a young man was probably made by a Yogyakarta kraton artist. It was the time of Diponegoro s marriage to his first official wife in March It is the only known sketch of the Pangeran which shows him dressed in Javanese kraton style in a surjan and blangkon (Carey, 2008). He also entered the babad traditional Javanese chronicles. He is a subject in four babad: one written by himself with the assistance of his family, one written by the order of his opponent Bupati Purwarejo, and those written in courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Diponegoro also had remarkable knowledge about wayang and gamelan. (Sumarsam, 2013) He will also enter these stories. Wayang Diponegoro was created in the 20th century to spread a story about famous Pameran and his glory resistance. Besides depicting Pangeran Diponegoro in imported way which painting in Indonesia is, there is also a long tradition of depicting stories about him in traditional genres illustrations in babad chronicles, as motif in batik painting, and telling the stories and carving his leather puppet for wayang kulit performance. One of the main goals of this research is also to demonstrate how local wisdom and specific Indonesian socio-cultural environment can blend and enrich painting in Indonesia and general.

67 Batik Perang Diponegoro (Author s photo collection) 3.2. Pangeran Diponegoro giving instructions to his two followers, Kyai Jayamustapa and Kyai Mopid, before they set out on their pilgrimage (ziarah) to Nusakambangan. Diponegoro is sitting under kemuning tree (wit kemuning) on his meditation stone (séla gilang) at his retreat of Sélareja, north-east of Tegalreja. From Buku Kedung Kebo. (Source of illustration and text: Carrey, 2007) 3.3. One of the first Diponegoro s portrait made by 3.4. & 3.5. Wayang Diponegoro unknown local keraton artist (Source: Carrey, 2007) (Source of photos the Internet 23 ) 3. Javanese Look at Pangeran Diponegoro It is interesting to notice that almost all traditional Javanese art forms that was depicted in illustration box above appear later. Initially Pangeran Diponegoro was not hero, he brought chaos and destruction to a lot of parts of Java. His battle was forceful and brutal. Only later, his rebellious act was recognized as proto-nationalistic one. Wayang Diponegoro appeared after Indonesian Independence. Batik Diponegoro was actual batik, but it was done with design of Dutch ladies who were worried about this conflict. It is presented in batik belanda section of Danar Hadi Batik Museum in Surakarta. This is an interesting influence of Javanese art form to creations of Westerners. 23 For more details about source, look at Source of Illustrations on page 137.

68 53 One of the best examples of blending of Western and Indonesian art and hybridization is Raden Saleh s masterpiece The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro illustrates his status as a migrant between two worlds rather brilliantly (Kraus, 2005). In Europe he did not feel comfortable to paint historical scenes. Those scenes in Western art included representations of contemporary historical events and glorification of rulers in the first place, but also knowledge and usage of historical scenes and battles from European history. Also, in this group big scenes from the Bible as well as narratives from Ancient mythology were included. Not just Ancient Roman and Greece, but also stories from German, Anglo- Saxon, and other mythologies. Historical painting, which carried strong nationalistic undertones, developed into a major instrument for glorification of the state and/or nation building. (Kraus, 2005) All these concepts were unfamiliar to Saleh, so he did not paint in this genre. The only historical painting that he did is Arrest of Diponegoro. The visual hegemony was already established. (Kraus, 2005) Pieneman already finished his version, that Saleh must have seen in the Netherlands and he probably made first sketches based on this painting. From later in 1857 Raden Saleh mentioned that he produced one painting which includes Diponegoro and he painted it for his majesty the King of Holland. The Raden Saleh family, because of connections with Diponegoro lost privileges and some of his family members were also exiled. Raden Saleh never met Diponegoro, but he met Kyai Naga Siloeman, the kris of Pangeran Diponegoro - Kyai Naga Siloeman had been taken from Diponegoro by the Dutch when they arrested him in Magelang. It was also interesting to mention that in a short note in the Kunstkronijk ( ) Raden Saleh was called neefvan Diepo Negoro, nephew of Diponegoro. Regardless of these obvious and strong connections with Raden Saleh and Diponegoro professor Harsja Bachtiar, an American trained Indonesian historian, who belonged to the first generation of intellectuals in independent Indonesia, disqualified the painting as 'un-nationalistic'. He wrote: Diponegoro's death inspired Saleh, who had seen many paintings of historical scenes when he was in Europe, to paint what he called a historisches Tableau, die Gefangennahmen des Javanischen Hauptling Diepo Negoro, painted, characteristically, for the King of the Netherlands, a very un-nationalistic gesture, but very much in accord with the relationship of a grateful artist and his aristocratic patron, the relationship of a courtier and his King. (Bachtiar, 1976in Kraus, 2005)

69 54 In the first sketch for painting, we see a lot of similarities with Pieneman s vision, but there are already some signs that are different. Also the figures are all proportional which is also important to mention for analyses of actual painting The first sketch for Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro, 1856 In the final painting Raden Saleh used Western Renaissance linear perspective. After all linear perspective creates a highly artificial representation of space and belongs more to visual symbolism than to the structure of vision (Swiderski, 1990). That vision of Saleh is vision of trap, of treachery, and betrayal. Among the earliest expressions of this is Raden Saleh's 1850s depiction of The Capture of Prince Diponegoro by General de Kock after the Java War of , a painting that declares, I think, you did this to us, but we are still us (Clark in Anderson, 1998). Reformulation was the task of Raden Saleh which means the opposition of Pieneman s vision, his own answer, and visual battle so to speak.

70 55 Raden Saleh The Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro (1857) Icon signs Portraits of some of historical figures involved in this scene: 1 Pangeran Diponegoro 2 - Hendrik Merkus de Kock 3 Louis de Perron 4 W. A. Roest 5 Francois Victor Henri Antoine Ridder de Stuers 6 9 Diponegoro s followers, among them either 6 or/and 7 is Raden Saleh cameo appearance 10 Raden Ayu Retnaningsih, one of the wives 11 Jayasurata (Rata), one of the abdi dalam (servant) 12 Pangeran Diponegoro Muda, the second son, born ca Franciscus Gerardus Valck 14 Johan Jacob Parié 15 Johan Jacob Roeps Figures that are sitting or kneeling are representations of Diponegoro s closest collaborators: military commanders (Ali Basah, AB), male children (Raden Mas, RM) and religious clerics. Here there is depiction of AB Ngabdulkamil Mértanégara, AB Ngadulmahmud Gandakusuma, AB Suryawinata, AB Imam Musbah, RM Joned (born ca. 1815), RM Raib (born ca. 1816), Kyai Ngisa and Haji Badarudin. There are also students from Islamic school Barjumungah and carrier of Diponegoro s payung (9) (Source for naming characters Carrey, 1986) 24 The Arrest of Diponegoro does not have available reproduction in high resolution, so for this analyses reproduction were accessed from several sources, for details look at Source of Illustration page 137

71 56 Icon signs This was the first time for Raden Saleh to paint more than 40 figures in one composition. Carey (1986) identifies more than historical figures in this painting. A major difference between Pieneman s and Saleh s vision is depiction of two main characters of this historical drama Pangeran Diponegoro and General de Kock Pangeran Diponegoro Muda, Pangeran Diponegoro and General de The arrest of Diponegoro shows a different Kock composition and emotional quality altogether. An angry Diponegoro is the acting figure in the center of the painting. He struggles to keep his feelings - in true Javanese fashion - under control. His look is provocative and challenging, while the Dutch officers are frozen in static gazes that do not meet anybody's eyes. Saleh brings the Javanese onto the same level. In relationship to de Kock, Diponegoro stands on the right side, the Dutch Commander-in-Chief on the left, which, within the Javanese system of spatial order is understood as the female side. That again relegates the Dutch officer to the second in importance. Index signs In Raden Saleh s painting there are not too many indexical signs. In Raden Saleh s version Diponegoro is not pointed out of his country, but is invited by a somewhat helpless de Kock to enter a waiting coach. Gazes of people are calm, Dutch people look confused and lost, and among followers of Diponegoro only two figures look more up to the scene, while others look down and overall spread atmosphere of sadness and despair. The only figure who has more vivid facial expression is Pangeran Diponegoro who looks angry; his posture shows that he is ready for some action.

72 57 Symbol signs 4.3. Geography - Mountains in Saleh s vision look more like volcanic mountains that can be seen from Magelang. The Dutchman Pieneman introduced a rather sharp wind from the west (common in Holland) that gives the Dutch flag a very dynamic appearance. In Raden Saleh's work the atmosphere is absolutely quiet. The universe holds its breath, no leaf and certainly no flag is moving. (Kraus, 2005) In Salèh s painting it is morning, the dawn of a new day: not only the dawn of a new colonial era, but also one which would herald the collapse of that order. (Carrey, 2007) (Non-existent) Marks of Nation - Raden Saleh has 'forgotten' the Dutch tricolor altogether. Also there is no coat of arms engraved in the wall of the building. While this painting can be addressed to the king (who was not really art lover) it is cleared message from absence of signs: you do not belong here. After this war Java entered the period of high colonialism and land was dived to various local rulers. Divide et impera was Dutch as well for short time British motto in Java. That is why there are no alternate signs, the ideas of nationhood will be developed later, at the beginning of the 20th century, and this painting will be one of the symbols for artists who wished to say something about national issue People in Raden Saleh are rich in clothes, gestures, emotions

73 58 The most interesting fact about depiction of people in Raden Saleh s vision is that the heads of the major Dutch officers are slightly out of proportion, a little bit too big. This 'error' is not found in the earlier drawing, nor are the heads of the Javanese on the painting out of proportion. This is because the 'error' is not an error but a message: the heads of the Dutch officers are the heads of raksasas, of monsters. Dutch audience could not recognize this message, even Dutch historian H. J. de Graf wrote: I cannot say that I find it very beautiful. The heads are a little too big and the arrest of the prince did not happen on the gallery as shown on the painting but in the interior of the house (Moesson, 1978in Kraus, 2005) In Raden Saleh vision Javanese people look more realistic than one in Pieneman s vision. He uses for them not only turbans, which here are symbol signs for supporters of Diponegoro. From the earliest depiction Diponegoro is with turban, and those who follow him, wear the same. But in this depiction Javanese do wear batik and its parang decoration. Raden Saleh s painting is attempting to restore Javanese dignity. Tasbih - One of the symbol signs that are present in both versions of painting is tasbih on Diponegoro s wrest. Tasbih (in Arabic س ب يح (ت is a form of dhikr that involves the repetitive utterances of short sentences glorifying God, in Islam. To keep track of counting either the phalanges of the right hand or a misbaha is used. (Glassé, 2002) In Pieneman s vision also there is one of the main figures; just next to stairs that is using it to pray. Batik - Parang design is a motif of slanted lines. The term Parang derives from sharp thing or knife. According to J. E. Jesper, Parang is a lotus leaf and according to J. A. Loeber, this design comes from bird of Irian called Alberartas. In the Javanese history, it is said that king Sultan Agung Hanyokurokusumo III created Parang from the form of the wave of the southern coast. He considered that even large rocks can be destroyed by strong waves and therefore, he prohibited this design to the masses and only permitted to be worn by someone with a quick mind who is active and is able to solve political problems. However inside a family, Parang can be destructive (meaning war) and is considered negatively. Therefore, this design is prohibited to be worn in weddings and is worn in royal

74 59 ceremonial occasions such as traditional ceremonies, royal meetings, and receptions of guests. When wearing Parang, there is a regulation that the size of Parang patterns differs depending on the wearer s social class. In short, people of lower class cannot wear large Parang patterns (Sentalu in Tozu, 2007) The Parang motif in batik clothes of Diponegoro s followers that researchers about Raden Saleh painting did not notice and it is remarkable how symbolic this batik is and how its story goes well with the story about capturing of Pangeran Diponegoro. Yet, some notice red and white colour on the top of Diponegoro s turban. It may be interpreted as a proto-nationalist sign, but it can be just coincidence. But it is not coincidence that Diponegoro was painted without his keris. In the moment of his capturing it was Idul Fitri a great Islamic day, and we cannot tell what Diponegoro was expecting from this meeting, but it is clear that he did not expect that he will be tricked and captured. The absence of the keris symbolizes that. According to Bruijn and Pattopang (2008), this painting could be a symbol of national identity. The reason is, first, the paintings were made by painter s Indonesian maestro, namely Raden Saleh. Second, the subject of the painting is a hero of the nation, namely Prince Diponegoro. Third, this painting has a highly aesthetic value. More than that, this painting depicts a historic event that is very important for Indonesia. To end discussion one can start from the beginning the name of the painting. Raden Saleh did not choose to follow Pieneman and to name the painting Submission. He believed that Pangeran Diponegoro was tricked and he expressed that it in a title. He did not omit Diponegoro s title he was his Pangeran as well as he was to thousands of Javanese who follow him in his resistance. That is why he also depicts himself among the group of Diponeogoro s followers. Did Raden Saleh really want to send message that Dutch who colonized his land our raksasa or monsters or was it just a mistake? Not all figures of Dutch people in his painting are out of proportion, only those in charge. They even have a bigger amount of light on their faces (logically because heads are bigger), so it is arguable that Saleh wanted to send message of disapproval to those. One can say that the Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro is a caricature, a bitter comment on Dutch colonial rule. Others can say that it is the piece of a

75 60 loyal servant. A third view, as Alwi Shahab added in a long newspaper essay about Saleh's Arrest of Diponegoro: It is a revolutionary and anti-colonial painting. Is Raden Saleh a londo (Javanese term for white people (and/or foreigners) that comes from name for Dutch people) or hybrid (Javanese educated and grow in West) or Javanese/Indonesian proto-nationalist? The answer is all and none of the above. The answer can be summarized by pointing main ideas from analyzes of this painting: - Evolution of an idea from initial sketch that follows Pieneman s vision to a final vision with different emotion. The more closed composition with many figures looks intense and treating. - The position of Dutch and Javanese figures notable main characters Diponegoro and de Kock who are on the same level and Diponegoro looks angry and de Kock confused Relationship that Raden Saleh had with Diponegoro s family and local rulers. His family was pro-diponegoro, he could not go to see and to make scene from battle, but he did visit Magelang where one of his family members was in charge. - The destiny of the painting itself it was it in his palace in The Hague. Later it was sent to The trofeengalerij van het Koninklijk Koloniaal Militair Invalidenhuis Bronbeek (gallery of trophies of the Royal Colonial Military Veterans Home Bronbeek). In 1978 the Oranje Nassau Foundation returned the painting, as a present to the Indonesian people, to Jakarta. It was kept in Presidental Palace Museum and until recently it was in bad shape. It was restored in To conclude Raden Saleh is one complete master piece of his time, it shows how he blends and uses knowledge that he gets from West to send a message of disappointment and protest to ones who were ruling his country. It was not nationalistic scream (the idea of Javanese/Indonesian nation did not exist) it was powerful expression that when we decode it tells us a lot about life on an artist, life of Pangeran Diponegoro and injustice of colonial rule. That is what makes this painting remarkable it was for the first time local artist left anonymity to proclaim that it is his job to comment the world (Kraus, 2005).

76 61 5. Pangeran Diponegoro: Villain, Rebellion, or Hero? The Dutch flag waving dominantly above all characters in the painting, the determined face of General De Kock, the obedient face of Pangeran Diponegoro, the Dutch officials and their supporters are surrounding supporters of arrested (or in this case submitted) Javanese leader, these elements illustrate perfectly Said s notion on Orientalism. The Oriental is irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, different; thus the European is rational, virtuos, mature, normal (Said, 1979) Nicolaas Pieneman painted all these on his canvas Pangeran Diponegoro is fallen figure, like a lost child, irrational, and with his exotic costume different. General De Kock on the other hand is father-like figure, rational, virtuos, and in his elegant European military custom normal. Western societies developed preconceived notion on East despite never been there. Nicolaas Pieneman never visited Java, and he painted its people in Middle Eastern manner, and its nature like European landscape. These errors were used to nestle West as arrogant, ignorant, and limited-minded on other hand. Pieneman s vision might be perfect illustration for Orientalism, it is still well made histrocial scene. It is preserved in Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam and it is easy accessible on the Internet. Dutch colonial era in Indonesia has finished more than sixty years ago, but Dutch (and within Western) point of view toward the Java War and Pangeran Diponegoro are still dominant one. Suwardi Surjaningrat (Ki Hadjar Diwantoro) wrote a newspaper article about him being Dutch for one day and that day was Day of the Netherlands Independence. Here is what is he asking himself in that article: Or do we perhaps feel that because of our soul-destroying policy we regard all human souls as dead? If that s so, then we are deluding ourselves, because no matter how primitive community is, it is against any type of oppression. If I were Dutchman, I would not organize an independence celebration in a country where the independence of the people has been stolen (from Anderson, 1996). By putting himself in place of Dutch he managed to put Dutch readers (article was written in Dutch) into place of Javanese and to explain them Javanese (and all other Indonesians) point toward colonization. It is sad that the Internet viewers cannot do that with looking at different view toward Pangeran Diponegoro and the Java War. (Small

77 62 research about the Internet visibility of these two paintings is attached as appendix at the end of this research). Language allowed intellectuals to say to their fellow speakers [of the indegious vernaculars] that we can be like them (Anthony Barnett from Anderson, 1996). In this research it is showed that not just language in its printed and spoken form has power to do that, but it is also visual language in form of painting can do that as well. Bilingualism meant access, and, in particular, to the models of nationalism, nationness, and nation-state produced elsewhere in the course of the nineteenth century. (Anderson, 1996). Raden Saleh was one of the first Indonesian men who had access to Western education, space, people, and ideas. He could speak several European languages, but for this research his bilingualism is performed in his painting reply to Pieneman painting. Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro is the first historical painting in this part of world (South-East Asia) and it is also the first one done completely by local artist. Role models for this painting were European historical paintings (which were popular genre while Raden Saleh was in Europe) and paintings from high renaissance which are regard as classical. Kraus, 2005 said for Raden Saleh s art [it is] the perfect synthesis between the rational West and the sensual East. Raden Saleh himself embraced idea of his Asianicity and he was really proud that with that he can compete with European artists in that time. He painted lions, buffalos, Arab men, horses, and place them in settings and situations not known to Europeans. He did not also come from a place on Earth where these scenes are inserts from everyday life, but he used his knowledge and experience from Java to make these beautiful worlds. He explained that he see himself superior in this accept, because of his experience as a man who comes from Asia. Even today these scenes are considered as his best artworks. After spending almost twenty years in Europe (West) he went back to Java (East). In one of his letters he wrote: Between these two worlds my heart is split. And I feel urged to offer both sides my loving thanks (Kraus, 2005) Locked between two words are hybrids of cultures like Homi Bhabha described it in his concept of hybridization. Hybridity is a metonymy of presence. Hybridity opens up a space, figuratively speaking, where the construction of a political object that is new, neither the colonizer nor the Other, properly defies political expectations. Hybridity is a doubling,

78 63 dissembling image of being in at least two places at once. This turn in the effect of hybridity makes the presence of colonist authority no longer immediately visible. Hybridity can unsettle the narcissist demands of colonial power, but reforms its identifications in strategies of subversion that turn the gaze of the discriminated back upon the colonist. (Bhabha, 1994) Raden Saleh in one letter explains his hybrid identity:... Even though I'm aware that I have to be thankful to the Dutch government for my education, especially the King, and I never will forget this, you still have to excuse me that I thoroughly deplore the low level of culture my people have to live on and I very much deplore their subjugation.(raden Saleh inkraus, 2005) In Raden Saleh s vision: big heads of main Dutch officers, angry face of Pangeran Diponegoro, sad and invisible faces of his closest ones, absence of national features; we do not see heroism both in Pangeran Diponegoro or artist himself. We see protest and raised voices. Pangeran Diponegoro was also not acknowledged as a hero soon after the Java War was over, he left Java in a horrible condition, with thousands dead by military actions, others dead because of hunger, and ultimately he lost his fight he was arrested and exiled. Nevertheless his bravery to fight against all chances is a heroic act, and a heroic act is to paint his arrest as a caricature, a bitter comment on Dutch colonial rule (Kraus, 2005). Raden Saleh was the first educated painter in Java (and in Indonesia). He brought Western knowledge and influences about painting to Javanese cultural land, which was already in that time flourished with traditional (and court sponsored) art, such are dances, wayang performances, production of batik clothes, etc. This was a small hybrid revolution in Javanese (and Indonesian) art. Soon, Javanese (followed by Balinese) artist will master this art and show to their fellow countrymen that they can compete in this field with dominant Western powers. Yet, until today, Indonesian artist are still trapped and looked upon like hybrids and present day art discussions are full of artist trying to show their loyalty and belonging to East, but in the same time attacking these notions about Orientalisation and hybridization.

79 64 B. Indonesian paintings ( ): Depicting a National Hero The art is not made to be a bouquet of la fine fleur e la nation (flower of the nation) nor are they made for those with sensitivities, but for furthering the improvement of the people S. Sudjojono (1913?-1985) 1. The 20th century in Indonesia: History of Nation and Art After Raden Saleh, for a long time Indonesia did not have a remarkable artist. Reasons for this break are disputable. Raden Saleh was a member of Javanese aristocracy so his social interaction and influence among native population was limited. The author s idea is that Dutch administration learned from Raden Saleh s experience that Javanese can be equally good as European masters in producing and shaping reality, so they did not show any interest in making a new artist and educate him (or her) in the West where the ideas of realism and impressionism were questioning social orders and place of painting in society. These ideas will echo in Java, but with fifty years delay. New Cultivation system which was introduced after the Java War soon brought to Dutch and Indonesian allies wealth. In 1870 it was abolished with more liberal system and in 1901 Ethical Policy was on power. It included investments in the natives education and modest political reforms (Brown, 2003). In 1902 Bataviasche Kunstkring (Batavia s Art Circle) was formed and it will soon become place where European masters show their work and local artists emerged. Abdullah Soerjo Sobroto, Mas Pirngadie, Wakidi and Lee Man- Fong were one of those indigenous painters who marked Indonesian art in this period (Kusuma-Atmadja, 1990). S. Sudjojono marked these paintings as Mooi-Indië where painters promoted beautiful landscapes and people around Archipelago without showing and addressing social issues that are behind these beautiful sceneries. He opened discussion of painting as a tool for nationalism. S. Sudjojono probably met numerous members of nationalistic organizations who were created in that time and they influenced his ideas. During the Japanese occupation (and slightly before that period) numerous art organizations were created. Japanese wanted to cut all relationships that Indonesians had

80 that there was no interest in Pangeran Diponego and his fight. With rise of national, pro- perpustakaan.uns.ac.id 65 with Dutch, so they encouraged local art organizations and usage of Indonesian language. The Japanese occupation is also marked with torturing and brutality toward local people, forced labour and numerous sex crimes conducted by the Japanese military. After Japan was defeated in the war, Indonesia declared independence on August 17 th, 1945, but needed to fight for it for the next five years against the Dutch. In the 1940s and 1950s even more Indonesian art organizations emerged. It was followed by establishing higher schools in art education in Bandung, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, and Jakarta. The leader of independent Indonesia for the first few years was Sukarno, first with liberal democracy period ( ) and later with Guided democracy where he gained more power ( ). This is a period of intensive and frequently disoriented nation building. In 1960 s Indonesia witnessed political unrests which also influenced the nation s fine art. Manifes Kebudajaan (Cultural Manifesto) group was in conflict with Lembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat (LEKRA, Institute for People s Culture) organization affiliated with the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). Manifes group focussed more on individuality and personal expression, while LEKRA emphasized that works of art should be subservient to political importance. With the establishment of the New Order regime ( ) leftist ideas were under attack, and LEKRA was, together with PKI, sent to history. Artists avoided commenting reality around them, tended not to criticize social, political and cultural circumstances. Nevertheless, many of them did that by choosing smart symbols and metaphors in their masterpieces. Artist preferred surrealistic representations from their dreams and fantasies, and decorative style. In the 1980s Indonesian artist started to show more bravery and irony. That was the first Indonesian art boom in the international art market. Indonesian art set itself free and soon Indonesian nation was also free from dictatorship. (Siregar, 2013). The Reformasi era followed the fall of the New Order, and today the Indonesian market is having its second boom. 2. Pangeran Diponegoro: National Hero in Art After the Java War and its artistic counterpart (Pieneman/Saleh dispute) it looked

81 66 Indonesian ideas two historical figures from Java were lifted as lights of nation : Gadjah Mada and Pangeran Diponegoro. Gadjah Mada was a prominent politician from the mighty Javanese Majapahit kingdom and under his rule the majority of the archipelago was under control of this Empire. This entity, not the Dutch colony of the East Indies, was seen as proto-indonesia. Pangeran Diponegoro was also not interpreted as a Javanese leader, rather as a forceful, charismatic leader for freedom and liberation of Java and all Indonesia (Wood, 2005) Equestrian Statue of Diponegoro in Monas 5.2. Basuki Abdulah (Monumen Nasional National Monument), Jakarta. Diponegoro Memimpin Work of Italian sculptor Cobertaldo (Source: the Internet 25 ) Pertempuran ( ) (Source: IVAA 26 ) 6. Diponegoro as National Symbol in years after Independence Periods of Liberal Democracy ( ) and Guided Democracy ( ) led by President Sukarno The political intent of Sukarno s constructions has often been noted by journalists and scholars, but analyses have rarely gone further than formulations of the type X was a prestige project, designed to impress Indonesians and foreigners with Sukarno s domestic and international political successes, or Y was essentially a monument symbolizing Indonesia s new-found self-confidence [or lack of confidence]. In effect, the monuments were treated as manipulative devices or as psychological symptoms : either way, the 25 Look at Source of Illustrations page IVAA is acronym for Indonesian Visual Art Archive which is available both online, on but author of this research accessed Archives directly in IVAA center in Jogjakarta.

82 67 approach was purely diagnostic. (Benedict, 1978) Rarely investigators have asked what and why these monuments are saying. Sukarno s heritage today is reflected in the National Monument. This is an enormous complex of monuments that tells a story of national continuity, resistance and firmness. One of the first monuments that followed the obelisk-like sculpture is a sculpture of Diponegoro on horse. This sculpture came from an idea of the former General Consul of Italy in Indonesia Dr. Mario Pitta. He was a famous businessman who loved and admired Indonesia very much. During his time as consul in Indonesia he had an idea to present a memento to the Indonesian people. In 1963 he declared his wish to Indonesian Ambassador in Italy Hady Thayeb. He advised him to make a statue of an Indonesian hero and finally Pitta chose Diponegoro. The Diponegoro statue was made by the famous Italian sculptor Cobertaldo who was sent by Pitta to Indonesia. He conducted research of famous people from Indonesian culture and history. He was thinking for days about the position of Diponeogoro s horse. Finally his statue represents Pangeran Diponegoro in his robe and turban riding his white horse whose front legs are lifted up. He was cast in bronze and it took author one year of extensive work to finish it. In 1965 it was completed, sent to Jakarta, and placed in Freedom Square where now, with its gray colour makes good contrast to the white National Monument behind it 27. These dynamic movements in the nation building process are followed by painting of Basuki Abdulah Diponegoro Lead Battle ( Diponegoro Memimpin Pertemuran ). This impressive oil on canvas (150 cm x 120 cm) is part of the paintings and sculptures collection of Sukarno. It took almost twenty years from initial idea to realisation of this piece it was done between 1940 and Basuki Abdulah is one of the most interesting and controversial figures in Indonesian (art) history. Basuki Abdullah ( ) was the son of the painter Abdullah Suriosubroto. Both are outstanding painters of Mooi Indie. Suriosubroto was well known for painting landscapes, while Basuki had wider themes, but still retaining the spirit of Romanticism. He learned painting in the Netherlands, and later after that he lived and travelled to Italy and France. He lived in Thailand, where he served as palace painter, and was awarded the 27 Accessed from

83 68 Poporo Star Award in 1960 by King Bhumibol Adulyadej. He was also awarded by the Cambodian King. He was also the official painter for Sultan Bolkiah of Brunei Darussalam. (Karnadi, 2006) His portrait of Imelda Marcos, wife of Filipino dictator is also quite famous. He was active in the New Order regime and from that time he was famous for his attractive paintings that include beautiful women, mythological themes, and others including again portraits. He made several portraits of Indonesian second president Suharto. His death was far from the glory and power that artist liked to be surrounded by he was beaten to death by three assailants during a break-in at his Jakarta home where he lived from 1974 until In this painting Diponegoro s title is also omitted, because it can be associated with Javanese royalty and Javanese heritage that cannot be regarded as all-indonesian. He is in action, he leads battle, and he is dynamic and determined. While the painting is an equestrian portrait, it is full of dynamism and action. The horse is black in contrast to Diponegoro s white robe and two of his feet are also lifted as sign of movement. Diponegoro is again in his turban and here he has his keris, because in battle the presence of keris is essential. The background is full of red, orange, yellow, and other warm colours which symbolize fire, destruction, but also sacrifice for glory victory. In that chaos we recognize shadows of warriors and their spears. His index figure is leading us to enter this fight with him and his face is both inviting and strict. This painting is a perfect example of the leadership of Sukarno, his dynamism, energy and leadership, but also sometimes the absence of orientation which can be seen in faces of both Diponegoro and his horse. From one point they look determined and focused, but if we look at the painting again we can also see fear and worry in their gaze. Basuki Abdullah was an amazing painter who lived through all authorities and managed to seduce them with his artwork. First he did that to the Dutch colonial powers, which he convinced with beautiful ladies in Mooi Indië style, then in his painting of Diponegoro we see how he embraced and perfectly depicted Sukarno s leadership. The last twenty years of his life he was also a loyal New Order painter. But what was art in the New 28 Official Web presentation of Basuki Museum accessed

84 69 Order? Especially what was art and the depiction of nationalism and national heroism in the era of the New Order? The New Order s public monuments lie in style of replication, designed to reveal essence and continuity rather than to record existence and change. There is no need to return to them [Diponego s spirit, the 1945 spirit, Majapahit s spirit], because they are, by definition, here. (Anderson, 1978) The most celebrated [New Order monument] is the so-called Proyek Miniatur Indonesia Indah (Beautiful Indonesia in Miniature Project) which shows Indonesia in all its diversity. It is a kitsch project, which united national ideology Unity in Diversity with ideology of New Order which placed development first. This development was not a sustainable one and it was followed by flourishing nepotism, corruption and abuse of human rights across the State (Wood, 2005) Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in main square (alun-alun) in Magelang 6.2. Sasana Wiratama (Pangeran Diponegro Museum Complex) in Tegalrejo, Jogjakarta 6.3. Equestrian statue of Pangeran Diponegoro in front of gate of Universitas Diponegoro (University) in Semarang 7. Pangeran Diponegoro in New Order Era ( ) 29 During the New Order one monumental structure was built in memory of Pangeran Diponegoro. It is called Sisana Wiratama (from Javanese meaning Place for Soldiers ), Museum Monumen Pangeran Diponegoro (Diponegoro Museum-Monument) or just the Tegalrejo complex. The site is believed to have been that of Pangeran Diponegoro puri (palace/quarters) during the Java War though all that survives seems to be a blasted 29 All photos used to illustrate Pangeran Diponegoro in New Order Era ( ) are accessed from the Internet, details about their source is given in Source of Illustrations chapter page 137

85 70 mangosteen tree. Inaugurated by General Surono in August 1969 and financed by the Rumpun Diponegoro ( Family of the Diponegoro Division of Central Java), the monument consists of a large 150-by-60-meter fenced-in compound around a large pendapa (Javanese traditional audience hall) decorated with relief of Diponegoro s exploits, two gamelan from Jogjakarta kraton, and some antique Japara chairs; a museum; a library; an administrative office; and a mosque. A special inscription (prasasti) has been put up which reads that monument is there in order to venerate and record the Fighting Spirit of the Hero Pangeran Diponegoro for eternity. The New Order tries to maintain national ideology through Javanese eyes; mighty empires (Sriwijaya and especially Majapahit) were promoted as proto-indonesian. In East Java monuments were built to remember this glorious past. In Sukarno s time focus was made on the struggle of , while the New Order regime has its own heroes. Achmad Yani s house was made into a museum of the memory of this murdered general whose murder was organized by communist stand, in this same line as Diponegoro s monument in Tegalrejo. His death is there to remind us for eternity of his fight and who were villains in that time (Anderson, 1978). 3. Indonesian Eyes: S. Sudjojono s Vision of Pangeran Diponegoro 3.1. Biography of S. Sudjojono Sindudarsono Sudjojono ( ) is undoubtedly one of the most important figures in the history of modern Indonesian art. Trisno Sumardjo gave him a title Father of Modern Indonesian Painting. He never liked his full first name so, it is common to find in literature, and in this research we will address him only as S. Sudjojono. He said to people who he met Call me Djono. He was a modest and simple man with an interesting and complicated life story (Supangkat, J et al 2013). He was born on 14 December 1913 in Kisaran, North Sumatra in Javanese family. His strong personality came from the hard life of his father who worked as contract labourer in the 1920s in the plantation in Deli. Fortunately since he was 4 years old his teacher (from elementary school level) Yudhokusumo adopted him and brought him to Batavia in 1926 (Supangkat, J et al 2013).

86 71 Through his education at HIK (the teachers training school) and his interactions with intellectuals involved in national movement, his ideas of painting were sharply in the context of socialism. He attended the Taman Siswa School in Yogyakarta in He had learned painting from Pirngadie [Mas Pirngadie realistic painter (c )] in 1928 and from Chiyoji Yazaki, a Japanese painter in One of Sudjojono s biggest contributions to Indonesian Art is arguably his view that art of Indonesia should reflect the character of the land and its people. When Mooi Indië (Beautiful Indies) a style which depicted the idealized representation of Indonesia with beautiful landscapes and sceneries was the dominating art style during the early 20th century, S. Sudjojono strongly rejected the style and coined the term Mooi Indië as a sinister remark to that particular style of paintings. Regarding the paintings of these artists, the artist S. Sudjojono commented, All of them are completely splendid and romantic as heaven, fully pleasant, calm and tranquil. These paintings contain nothing but one message: Mooi-Indië, the Beautiful Indies. (Sudjojono, 2000) A forthright thinker and a passionate art critic, Sudjojono also tirelessly generated his views and the ideas through his writings and commentaries. In 1937 together with Agus Djaya and several other artists, he established Persatoean Asal Gambar Indonesia (PERSAGI) in Batavia. The organization s aim was to conduct a renewal in Indonesian art. The idea was to create paintings which would reflect the social reality of Indonesian society. Painting is not neutral, but it is always dependent from a particular perspective. In this case, the existence of a party that was criticized by Persagi - Mooi Indie paintings were considered to represent a colonial perspective. Sudjojono s ideas about the development of modern Indonesian art are summarized in his book Seni Lukis, Kesenian, dan Seniman (Art of Painting, Art, and Artist) which was first published in Sudjojono also supported the establishment of Seniman Indonesia Muda (SIM) [Young Indonesian Artists organization] in Madiun, East Java in He moved to Yogyakarta in He was also one of the art mentors in Poetra and Keimin Bunka Shidosho. During that time one newspaper article wrote about him: T. S. Soedjojono. He is a leader among unvocal Indonesain painter rarely expressing themselves. His emotion, when overflows, is never held back, on the contrary is set free in search for an outlet. He holds firm to a theory peculiar only to

87 72 himself, despite so manifesting it into practice is possible. The stream (painting style) that he follows is expressionism. Despite his limitation, gilding and looking after needs of other budding painters remains a priority to him. Today, he works in the Main Office of Poetera (Poesat Tenaga Rakjat or Centre for the People s Power). He is now 30 years old. (from Supangkat, J et al. 2013) His involvement in these important associations was done together with many other leading artists at that time, including Affandi, Agus Djaya, Henk Ngantung and Hendra Gunawan. These associations undoubtedly played an important role in the formation and development of modern Indonesian Art. His empathy to the reality of the people life was expressed in his credo jiwo ketok. This was his expression in words, but also in brush strokes, the meaning of these words is visible soul and that is what artist needs to show. Sudjojono showed this in his expressionism style during the period of Persagi. However, after WWII, he began advocating a return to realism, in order that the people could easily understand the paintings. This view very strongly influenced the painters who follow socialism in painting, and was rejected by those who followed other views.(sidharta, 2006) Sudjojono was one of the LEKRA figures and he was even representative in the House of Representatives during the years 1956 to 1957 for PKI. Together with Henk Ngantung, Hendra Gunawan, Sudharnoto, MS Asr, and Hadi, he was sent to Berlin to attend the Youth & Peace World in Berlin from 5 to 19 August Nevertheless, he broke his engagement in LEKRA shortly before this organization and the PKI was dismissed. (Supangkat, J et al 2013) Sudjojono was a prolific artist and writer. His artistic oeuvre covers a wide spectrum, from paintings, sketches, drawings, public art and reliefs as well as ceramic works. His style and artistic preoccupation were also diverse, from his early and monumental works, which significantly reflect the true spirit of Indonesia and the people during the war and their struggle against independence; to landscapes; still-lives; portraits and renditions of his more personal life and family in later years.he wrote memoirs and several books about his life and this work has also been published. He ended his life in 1986 by passing away in his residence and studio in Pasar Minggu, Jakarta. Later this place became S. Sudjojono Center, reference for everyone who wants to study and understand more about this incredible artist.

88 73 Sudjojono is a complex and a multidimensional individual as clearly shown through his works, ideas and thoughts. Based on his main principles of bravery, honesty, and truth, which became the foundation of his personal and artistic life; it was obvious that all his attempts and struggle had always been based on his love of Indonesia and his concern for the people in his surroundings Diponegoro(1979): History and Signs In 1974 S. Sudjojono completed his masterpiece the triptych painting Battle (Pertempuran) Sultan Agung and (dan) Jan Pieterzoon Coen. With this painting he established himself also as a maestro of historical genre as well. Soon after this painting, he continued to research history and its connection with national ideology. Before putting a historical scene on canvas S. Sudjojono always did deep research in the topic. For his painting of Sultan Agung he did profound research in Indonesia and the Netherlands, not just by consulting literary sources, but also by doing field work and observing places where the actual battle took place. For his painting of Diponegoro he did the same. He visited several locations that had a special connection with Pangeran Diponegoro s life, especially the Menoreh Hills that stretch across the north-western sideof Kulon Progo regency, the east of Purworedjo and part of Magelang. These hills used to be one of Pangeran Diponegoro s bases during the war. It was here that Sudjojono created a number of his preliminary sketches (Siregar, 2013b) 7.0. This is one of many sketches and it shows how studious Sudjojono was in his work, notes include information about characters that will appear in painting, also information about horses, dogs, objects, where and how they will appear in painting and so on. Photo of artwork from book Seabad S. Sudjojono (Supangkat et al., 2013)

89 74 7. S. Sudjojono Diponegoro (1979) 7.1.Photo of artwork from book Seabad S. Sudjojono (Supangkat et al., 2013) (Author s Photo) 7.2. Photo of artwork from book Visible Soul (Sidharta, A. 2006) accessed from IVAA The full title of this painting is Pangeran Diponegoro Menyaksikan Kemenangan Pangeran Diponegoro observes battlefield after victory. It first appeared in his solo exhibition at Balai Budaya Jakarta in December Its dimensions are 136 x 200 cm, so this oil on canvas must have been dominant in this exhibition(supangkat, J et al 2013) Icon signs Icon Signs: Portraits of Kyai Mojo, Pangeran Diponegoro and Sentot 7.3. From Sketh 7.4. From Painting 7.5. Notes about it From notes on sketches and the final version of painting we can identify three persons: If we look from left to right the first figure is Kyai Mojo (old spelling - Kiai

90 75 Modjo). He was a great ulama (Islamic scholar) from Mojo and advisor of Pangeran Diponegoro concerning Islam. He is depicted behind Pangeran Diponego riding a white horse and having turban on his old face. Next to him, but in front is Pangeran Diponeoro who is the central figure in this group and in painting. Next to Pangeran Diponegoro (on his left) is Ali Basah Sentot Prawirodidjo. He joined Pangeran Diponegoro after the Dutch killed his father Ronggo Prawirodirdjo, brother-in-law to Hamengkubuwono IV. He was one of the most effective cavalry commanders. (Carey, 2008) These three great men are accompanied by servants who walked beside them, and there is also a person who is carrying Indonesian flag, but we cannot identify them. There is also a note about Pangeran Diponegoro s two horses Kyahi Gentayu and Kyahi Wijaya Tapa, and it is written that one should be white and other black. Pangeran Diponegoro indeed had two horses: Kyai Gentayu was black one with white feet, and Kyahi Wijaya (Krisna) is white one. The first one was bought by Chinese traders in the occasion of Diponegoro s circumcision, and the second one was a cross-bred horse (Sumbawa horse mixed with European) and it belonged to horse breeding farm in Madiun which belongs to old royal families from the time of Raden Ronggo (oldest son of Penambahan Senopati Sutawijaya founder of Mataram Sultanate) 30 This battle was famous in the Java War because along with the Dutch soldiers, numerous Javanese noblemen loyal to the Dutch lost their lives. That is also written in notes, that the Dutch soldiers were followed by royals from Solo and Jogjakarta. Index signs Writing - On the top of the canvas S. Sudjojono wrote In Lengkong, 31 July 1826 (Diponegoro s troops never lost a battle on the field). Lengkong, or Nglènkong in Slèman area was the setting for a big victory of Pangeran Diponegoro s forces which were led by Senthot. This is the battle where the flower of the Yogyakarta nobility perished and month of July 1826 was marked by great victories that brought Diponegoro s army almost to the outskirts of Surakarta (Carey, 2008).Sudjojono wanted to say with this writing that Diponegoro s army was forceful and determined, and that war eventually ended with treachery of the Dutch not on the battlefield. 30 From Web presentation of Diponegoro descendents

91 76 Smoke - Background of this painting is a Javanese forest coloured with dark green. It is hard to see this because the painter put the battlefield in front of it and numerous dead bodies are laying there; horses are running with and without riders. There is one more thing that helps building this atmosphere of chaos and disaster smoke. From the left part of picture it is thick and followed by a big flame that swallows everything in front of it. On the right side, beside Diponegoro the smoke is more like a fog. It looks as if destruction is over, the leader has come, things are settling down. Sentot pointing at battlefield - Famous and forceful cavalry commander is pointing at battlefield under Diponegoro. Over there is active scene: one defeated Dutch soldier is carrying the Dutch flag, the other is carrying a dead body. Gazes - The Dutch people look disoriented and like sad caricatures of defeated ones. But central figures of Javanese victory-makers also do not look powerful and proud over this victory. They look frozen and emotionless. Diponegoro s gaze is direct one and he looks pleased. Interesting gaze in this paint is one on far right that looks like figure of Javanese lady. She looked at this scene with her pale face and small smile that can also be associated with disgust. Diponegoro achieved a Pyrrhic victory. Symbol signs Flags and banners The Indonesian flag is placed above great men who are inspecting the battlefield and it is carried by one man from this group who cannot be identified as any historical figure. In contrast to it is the Dutch flag which is under the feet of Javanese victory makers. It is folded, barely visible and it is carried by a crawling Dutch soldier. Victory is achieved by the Javanese, a great man of the army (depicted by Senthot) and by a great man of religion (depicted by Kyai Mojo), while between is a great man of both army and religion Pangeran Diponegoro. The ideas of the Indonesian nation were developed from the beginning of the 20th century and Sudjojono must have known about that, so his decision to put Indonesian flag in this scene is to show pan-nationalistic ideas which are symbolized by Pangeran Diponegoro and his fight. In the back of the painting there is one more figure riding a horse and carrying a banner. We cannot see the colours clearly and symbolism on it, but the banner is up in the

92 77 air and the horseman is depicted on the same side with victorious inspection so we can assume that this one is also one of the symbols of victorious army. Horses - Horses are an old symbol present in visual art. Depictions of horses are present even in pre-historical cave paintings. From that time until today horses usually symbolize loyalty due to its natural companionship to men. They are also symbol of freedom which is depicted by beauty and grace of horse. Two horses ridden by Diponegoro and Kyai Mojo are beautiful horses, richly decorated; they are symbols of nobility and victory. Senthot horse is black one, but his image is cropped, which symbolizes dynamism and capability of this great cavalry commander and his companion. Colour of horses, central ones, black and white are opponent pair. Black colour usually symbolizes dark, death, mystery, secret, and white is symbol of day, life, purity and vitality. These horses are ridden by two religious figures of that time, so the meaning is that control over death, life, day, night can be given to men, but it is always in the domain of Supreme Power. Besides these four central figures of horses (one is barely seen and it is driven by flag carrier) in painting we see six other horses: three are ridden by victorious soldiers and they are active and dynamic. Two are without a rider one is looking lost and desperate trying to find out what happen to his rider, other one looks like he is running away from death field. Behind this horse there is one tied on a carriage that is carrying some bags. It steps over the Dutch soldier. This small scene can be interpreted as a symbol of colonisation. The carriage is full of bags (it is not important what is in the bags rice, food, money) - these bags symbolize richness of Javanese land and the Dutch people who tried to steal from are punished because of their intentions. While dogs appear in sketches for this painting, we do not see them in the actual painting. Horses are the only living beings beside humans and their symbolic meaning is diverse in this painting they carry victory and freedom, but also bring death and chaos. Geography - Sudjojono used a combination of fantasy and memory to create his surrealistic landscapes. Sometimes, he incorporated elements derived from places that he had seen in books or actually visited. His observations of his surroundings seemed spontaneous, as though they were snapshots of view that appealed to him (Raharjo,

93 78 B.O.2013). This is also incorporated in the landscape in Diponegoro it looks beautiful, green, dynamic, but yet it is setting for war battle, massacre, dead bodies and fire are everywhere. The rich background is a reminder that people and their wars are small and insignificant comparing to nature. People are beautiful, so beautiful (S. Sudjojono) People -One might wonder why, for such a monumental work, Sudjojono did not employ his unique and strong realist technique? Instead, it seems that the painter has chosen a caricature-like approach: the way of painting the Dutch soldiers scattered around the canvas, also the way he has depicted the Diponegoro s soldiers. Sudjojono s uniqueness in reconstructing history on the canvas lies in the care he took in his studies of forms, figures, and objects, including facial features, expressions and so on. His attitude is important for us to remember if we want to appreciate that Sudjojono worked on a basis of truth. (Supangkat et al., 2013) The pale Javanese lady on far right side of painting indicated death, but also with her small, secret smile there is a glimpse of new hope. The Dutch solders in the first plan, the one who carries dead body and the other who is carrying the Dutch flags are clear sign of withdrawing the Dutch and their colonial Empire. The victorious figures of Kyai Mojo, Diponegoro, and Senthot are the Javanese and Indonesian leadership that will come embraced in politics which combines strong religious roots, army guidance and control, and strong and influential leadership. Pangeran Diponegoro and his religious adviser Kyai Mojo wear turbans on their heads. The turban is already an established symbol of Diponegoro drawn from the earliest depiction of him. It symbolizes his pan-islamic orientation and somehow differentiates him from other Javanese historical figures. Here, his closest associate shares the same detail, the meaning that they share same beliefs toward religious issues. His closest followers were wearing turbans. Yet, in this painting, other than these two persons mentioned above, it looks like everybody is wearing a blangkon the Javanese traditional hat. In ancient Javanese society, blangkons are believed to originate from the legendary story of Aji Saka. In the story, Aji Saka defeated Dewata Cengkar, a giant who owns the land of Java, by spreading a giant

94 79 piece of headdress that could cover the entire land of Java. There are theories stating that the use of blangkon is the influence of Hindu and Islamic culture absorbed by the Javanese. The first Muslims who entered Java are people from mainland Arab and Gujarati traders. Blangkons are believed to derive from turbans worn by Gujarati traders. 31 Both stories can be interpretative in this painting the Javanese army defeated the Dutch army, a giant who took the Javanese land. Also it shows the Islamic character of its fighters, and now it is considered as Javanese national head-dress. This is one of the two paintings by Sudjojono depicting the Indonesian national hero Pangeran Diponegoro, a subject matter that is rarely seen in the artist s oeuvre. Another painting (oil on canvas, 100 x cm) was recently sold in Hong Kong s branch of famous auction house Sotheby s. It was estimated in excess of 20 million Hong Kong dollars (2.5 million US dollars). It reached an almost three times higher price: It was sold for 58.4 million HKD (7.5 million USD) and with that set an artist s auction record. 32 Recognised as the Father of Indonesian Modern Art, S. Sudjojono s oeuvre was largely influenced by his nationalistic ideals and patriotic responsibilities. Executed in 1979, Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponoegoro (Our Soldiers Led Under Prince Diponegoro) demonstrates the magnitude of Sudjojono s creative vision and political dogma through the depiction of the country s legendary hero, Prince Diponegoro, as well as his military troops victory against the the Dutch colonial soldiers during the Java war ( ). The Indonesia that Sudjojono knew was experiencing an identity crisis for the country was locked in a struggle between foreign influences and revolutionary ideals. By drawing parallels between the Dutch colonialists with the local Indonesian government, Sudjojono s painting turns into a social commentary about the power of human faith amidst political and emotional tyranny. Painted with energy, passion and hope, Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponegoro expresses the artist s pride and devotion to his homeland. This masterpiece was acquired directly from the artist through S. Sudjojono Center. (Chuan, 2014) 31 The Internet presentation about Javanese heritage Indonesian art Web site

95 80 8. S. Sudjojono Pasukan Kita Yang Dipimpin Pangeran Diponegoro (Our Soldiers Led Under Prince Diponegoro), Djajeng Asmoro painting Pangeran Diponegoro 34 from 1980 is oil on canvas - portrait of national hero. This painting has modest size (42 x 55 cm) and it shows Pangeran Diponegoro in an unusual way. Painter left us note (index sign) on right side of painting - Pangeran Diponegoro as the Sultan Amir Kaherutjokro a wise, patient, and calm leader, far removed from the chaos of war. From the energetic national heroes at the Revolution Era, to their duplicates in New Order era we come to depiction of a modest, calm, and wise national hero. Artists in the New Order should not comment on the present situation, political violence, corruption, and other crimes of New Order are not to be seen. Therefore artists decided to go to glory past, to look with nostalgia toward heroes of that time and to aspire for new heroes to emerge. This time the leader should be one who is wise, patient and calm. Indonesia and its people will wait for change for almost twenty years, but before that artists will start to raise their voices and shout for change. 33 For details about the source of illustrations look at page Ibid.

96 81 8. Pangeran Diponegoro: One Brick in Wall of Nation ~ Bangsa yang besar adalah bangsa yang menghormati jasa pahlawanya. Soekarno ( ), Presiden Indonesia, Pidato Hari Pahlawan,10. Nopember A great nation is a nation that respects the services of the hero. Soekarno ( ), Indonesian President, From Speech on Heroes Day,10 th November 1961 When the first Indonesian president stated these words he knew little that Indonesia will grow to be the country with the biggest number of national heroes. Would this fact make the late president confused or proud? It is hard to answer this question, but there is something strange about the greatness of one nation that continues to declare its national heroes. In her paper Unpacking National Heroine: Two Kartinis and Their People Rutherford, D. (1993) gives her critical approach to two Indonesian writings about a national heroine. The first is an analysis of the writing of Pramoedya (in his book from 1962) who locates his Kartini and her people in a history of struggle. Second is the writing of Soeroto (her book is from 1977) who located hers in the naturalized categories and boundaries of the State. The author gives us two Kartinis one for the Old Order and one for the New Order and how different ideologies want people to see her. (Rutherford, 1993). Under every name of those 159 names of national heroes and heroines in Indonesia there are at least two stories. Here we will quote two authors who wrote about Indonesia and how they see Pangeran Diponegoro and his position within Indonesian history, as well as his position of lives of people today. the mania for seeking absolutely splendid ancestors typically gives rise to nonsense, and often very dangerous nonsense. A nice local example is Prince Diponegoro, who in the 1950s was anointed as No. 1 National Hero, as if the Prince had led a movement for Indonesia's national independence from the clutches of Dutch colonialism. But if one looks at what the Prince himself said in his memoirs, his actual words about his political goal were that he intended to subjugate - yes, subjugate - Java. The concept Indonesia was wholly foreign to him (as was the idea of freedom ). (Anderson, 1999)

97 82 Benedict Richar O Gorman Anderson is American author who was, due to his writing relevant to the overthrow of Sukarno and dispute about the role of PKI in this, banned from entering Indonesia in After more than 25 years, he came back in 1999 and he delivered his speech about Indonesian nationalism. The insert about Diponegoro is from that speech. He made his point of view toward national heroism practice in Indonesia and he made error by saying that Pangeran Diponegoro was the first national hero. Indonesian historians do write about Pangeran Diponegoro as proto-indonesian fighter, and his place in Indonesian national mythology is there, next to founding fathers of Independence in Pangeran Diponegoro did not have connections with Indonesian idea. He detested the Malay language that the Dutch officer tried to speak with him, that language will soon be a uniting force and one of the main elements of Indonesian nationhood. So, what makes Diponegoro a national hero? The answer to this question is more complex, than one what does not make him national hero. One of the contemporary interpretations of Pangeran Diponegoro and his position in history: Diponegoro was no revolutionary. He stood for the rights of autocracy and inherited privilege. He had no interest intellectually in ideas of a new social contract. Diponegoro followed injunctions in the hadith on the the distribution of booty: he enslaved prisoners and took female slaves into his household as sex partners. Like all Javanese kings, he assumed a variety of reign titles, including the Islamic First Among Believers, Regulator of the Faith, Sultan and Caliph of the Prophet of Allah, as well as on older title of Erucakra, which has meaning of Emergent Buddha. Diponego s action shows that it was not only Java s Islamic specialists who perceived themselves as members of a universal community of Muslims. (Taylor, 2013) In this view, Pangeran Diponegoro is depicted more as a terrorist, rather than a hero: he was not a revolutionary, he enslaved, and he gave himself great names. Even in Indonesia until today there is no consensus over Pangeran Diponegoro s (national) hero status. [Pangeran Diponegoro] continues to have a bad press in some circles in Indonesia. One thinks here of the Yogya kraton (sultanate), who see him as a traitor to his lawful sultan (HBV) for whom he was appointed guardian (1822-5), or the Kampong Jawa Tondano (Minahassa) community descendants of Diponegoro s principal religious adviser, Kyai Mojo who see him as having been consumed by worldly ambitions the santri (student of religion) view. Others like the late author and playwright, W.S. Rendra ( ), bitterly criticized his contacts with the

98 83 criminal underworld and his willingness to use bandits against the Dutch. The historic judgements of the Dutch who tried to destroy the prince s reputation by stating that he only rebelled because of disappointment at not being appointed Sultan and because a road was built over his property likewise continue to poison perceptions of the prince in modern Indonesia. There are also whole swathes of Indonesia where Diponegoro s name means nothing one thinks here of the Sundanese speaking areas of West Java, where the Dutch first contemplated exiling him (in Bandung): how many Jalan Diponegoro[Diponegoro Streets] or Diponegoro statues are there here? (Carey, 2014) S. Sudjojono visions intelligently play with these stereotypes and questions behind (national) heroism of Javanese prince. After a period of extensive national building in 1950s and 1960s, Indonesia entered a period where national heroism and struggle was not a matter of priority, development and attracting foreign investments was placed higher on the list of the state agenda. Yet, the tradition of declaring national heroes was not forgotten, and their iconography was maintained. S. Sudjojono himself experienced turbulences in Indonesian politics and its connection with art. Due to his strange luck and breaking out with LEKRA just few years before PKI and this art affiliate organization were demolished, Sudjojono skipped jail or punishment for his engagement. His ideas were always that art need to be engaged and to work from people to people. It is hard to paint national ideology themes and not to be declared a propaganda artist. S. Sudjojono is one of the rare artists who belong to this category. When he painted national heroes he always gave them more than just national ideological narratives. His colossal depiction of Sultan Agung showed Javanese ruler as dominant and supreme figure, but on the other hand, his rival Jan Pieterzoon Coen was also not stripped of dignity. He studied Coen s life with the same passion that he dedicated to research of Sultan Agung. In 1975 he painted Untung Seropati a rebellious character against the Dutch colonial powers in 17th century Java. He uses the metaphor of a journey on a boat or ship through rough waters to potray life. In the painting, Untung Suropati is depicted as if he were on a boat together with his love Suzzane (from Sidharta Auctioneer, 2013) S. Sudjojono met his love also in Europe, and he could identify with this with national hero. Instead of showing him on the battlefield he showed him in a turbulent journey with his loved one. Finally, in his depiction(s) of Diponegoro from 1979, Pangeran is the victor, and an energetic leader, but

99 84 in artwork analyzed later in this research he is also aware and afraid of effects of his victories on lives of many in Java. Almost one third of Javanese population suffered from impacts of fighting. It is logical that he was not recognized immediately as a national hero, and years after his struggle passed people start to realize that his act fight against all odds with belief in his religion and people is what people should do for their own nation-to-be Indonesia. His tactics and motifs can be unclear (thousands of lost, anger over throne or road ), his role in religion and society in that time can be disputed (subjection of Java, erasing foreigners from it), but he entered history and national mythology as one who was brave enough to try to stop Java to fall into foreign sphere of interest in all fields political, economical, cultural and that is what makes him a hero. C. Indonesian art (1990 today): Nation in need of (super) Hero 1. Art and Life of Indonesia Today If we look at the history of art in Indonesia we will always see: dynamism, reaction and contra-reaction. This is illustrated well with Pangeran Diponegoro as example in these narratives the Dutch established visual supremacy; they were the ones who brought painting as we know it today to Indonesia. Soon local artists started to reply to the Dutch visual representation of Indonesia. The first one was Raden Saleh with his depiction of the arrested Pangeran Diponegoro, later S. Sudjojonowith his writing and formulation of Mooi Indie Beautiful Indies where the Dutch painters together with local ones depicted Indonesia as tropical paradise away from social, political, economic problems. In the years after gaining Independence, art entered a debate divided in two camps: those who support the universality of art, and those who pushed for alignment of art towards the people. In that time (in 1954) artist from Bandung were labelled as the result of education in the Western laboratory (Siregar, 2013a). In 1974 a group of rebellious young artist sent a bouquet of flowers with writing Our condolence for the death of painting in Indonesia. They were not pleased with voting in the Grand Exhibition of Indonesian Painting in the end of year in Jakarta. For some art critiques that was the time when Indonesian art entered the post-modern arena. Entering

100 s in Yogyakarta four genres were really popular realism, surrealism, abstract and decorativism. These genres and artistic climate in Yogyakarta paved the way to new art form that is more engaging installation art, performance art, happening art, site-specific projects and so on. Art explorations were also done within group of artist/informal groups Kelompok Apotik Komik and Kelompok Jendela are among the most famous ones (Siregar, 2013a). The end of the 1990s marked big changes in Indonesia and region of South-East Asia. This region was hit by big financial and economic crisis, which effects were felt in Indonesia as well. Simultaneously Indonesian people were trying to dismiss the New Order regime which had Indonesia under its control for more than 30 years. Popular protests were also followed by unrest and violence throughout Indonesia in 1998/1999. In 2002 East Timor declared independence and Bali suffered terrorist attacks. In 2004 Indonesia got its first democratically chosen president and in the same year a peace agreement was signed with pro-independent province Aceh. Indonesia still has a lot of problems, but it enters the second decade of the 21st century with great ambitions and potentials. Art is following this optimism. New interest in art in Reformation era emerged and it is followed by excitement in exploring discourses that steam from post-modern thought. There is contemporary art fever and it is marked by how often the term was used to explain the most current art practice. Many young artists used art as an instrument for social change and emancipation. It is difficult to interpret living artists, as their artwork is also living and changing and the history of art will show how influential and impressive their works were. Two artists chosen for this research are the ones who established themselves as one of the main figures in contemporary Indonesian art scene. Also their work is courageous experiment in involvement of art in politics and vice versa.

101 86 2. Contemporary Indonesian Eyes Look Toward Pangeran Diponegoro Biography of Agung Kurniawan Agung Kurniawan was born in Jember, East Java, on March In Yogyakarta, he once studied archaeology at Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM, Gajah Mada University), and then went into graphic art in the Faculty of Fine Arts and Design at ISI Yogyakarta, but he did not finish this program as well. He is owner and curator of Kedai Kebun Forum for contemporary art in Yogyakarta ( where he now lives and works. The artist is very critical about situations and conditions around him. Agung tends to criticise whatever moves him, and pays attention to events that take place. One of the most important topics in his work is politics, and he exploits political issues in his works to make strong statements. He actively presents works of government in political and the economic issues by denouncing their irregularities. While other artists have fully made use of such themes, many art critics consider Agung one of the foremost movers during the 1990s when Indonesian contemporary art experienced an outburst of creativity and individual criticism about politics (Karnadi, 2006) Agung works with etching, woodblock printing, pencil, pastel, sculpture, installation and animation. His skills lie in the energetic use of materials and dramatic illustrations. The lines and smudges in his works are strong and important signs. He takes interest in stories, narratives and current events by showing them in charcoal and pastel on canvas or paper.

102 Homage to Prince Diponegoro (1994) History and Signs Illustration 10. This artwork was accessed through IVAA slides archives This mix-media painting (pastel, paper, conte, collage) is executed in In that time New Order was still main state ruler, nevertheless the changes were happening and artists were brave enough to show that. One of the example of this pre-reformation strength and bravery is this artwork (dimension of it are 90 x 100 cm). The author named this painting in English so Pangeran Diponegoro becomes Prince and the author wants to pay homage to him. As we saw before Pangeran Diponegoro is a complex historical figure so the main question is to which Prince Diponegoro artist is paying homage? Index signs The central part of this composition belongs to tagged Raden Saleh s Arrest of Diponegoro which was interpreted before. This fragment of painting is zoomed to Pangeran Diponegoro and his proud and angry face that he shows to his opponent General De Kock. It looks like the painting is piece of ripped canvas that floats in the air between these futuristic visions. Gazes do not exist because figures are faceless. Nevertheless they wear similar uniform to the Dutch militia that we saw in Raden Saleh painting. We are witnessing again a scene of someone being arrested military figures look like they are laughing, while there are also women like figures that look like they are grieving over destiny of our main (super)hero. Icon signs

103 88 We recognize three figures inside Raden Saleh painting Pangeran Diponegoro, General De Kock, and De Stuers. Painting itself is an icon sign; it is cropped to show exactly the same scene that is mimed. We recognize that it s Raden Saleh depiction with angry Diponegoro and confused de Kock, but it is same as rest of artwork done in black and white. Symbol signs Other figures in this artwork are sharing same position and posture like those in Raden Saleh painting. Their iconicity is questionable because they do not look like historical characters that Raden Saleh (and other artist before Agung) depicted. They are icons of past with their position and posture they mimic figures from Raden Saleh s masterpiece, but how they look and the setting where they are depicted is different and with that these figures carry strong symbolic messages Cropped detail of Kesatria Baja Hitam Pangeran Diponegoro-like figure (Kamen Rider Black), Japanese superhero (Source: IVAA) (Source: the Internet 35 ) Main hero of artwork national hero or superhero? The Pangeran Diponegoro posture figure looks like Japanese TV series superhero Kamen Rider Black (Kesatria Baja Hitam) who was popular in Indonesia at the end of 1980s and beginning of 1990s. The author wants to say that heroes are dead now is time for superheroes. But they are also not stronger than forces of power. We are witnessing 35 Details on page 137 Source of the illustrations

104 89 their arrest also. Agung Kurniawan always questions the ideas about Indonesian identity. In one of his projects he investigated an idea of Indo people in Indonesian society and their treatment by established Indonesian state. They soon become enemies of the state, but today they are dominant figures in television and film industry. A similar position is occupied by superheroes in a country that still produces national heroes and builds nation they are seen as foreign influence, something that corrupts and misleads youth, nevertheless they are popular in Indonesia as they are popular in other countries. Faceless men-like figures wear uniforms who look like one the Dutch were wearing in time of capturing Diponegoro. These uniforms represent power and oppression. Their faces do not have eyes, but they look like pleased and smiling faces. In Raden Saleh s painting the Dutch faces were full of surprise and they looked disoriented. In Kurniawan vision power again has control and that is why faces that do not have eyes nor nose are decorated by pleasing smile. Benedict Anderson (1999) said that it is a dangerous and historically ignorant illusion of those who in Indonesia still believe that colonialism is reserved for Western over non-westerns. Kurniawan present colonial power as universal power, and what was once colonial violence and injustice is now (or it will be) violence and injustice of others who have power. Faceless women-like figures wear decorative skirts, but their faces are hidden because of grieving. Women in Indonesia still face violence, from Raden Saleh s vision to Kurniawan s one, they do not show themselves, but rather choose to be hidden by dominant man (super) hero. In Raden Saleh s vision we could almost recognize Pangeran Diponegoro s second wife, here again women-like figures are anonymous. There is also a bird-like creature which looks like duck or penguin. Penguins and ducks are the most frequent birds used in cartoons. Donald Duck is the most famous animated duck unlike Mickey Mouse (his fellow) Donald Duck is aggressive, angry, stubborn, active and emotional. Also ducks are among rare beings on Earth that can fly, walk on the earth, and swim and dive into the water. Those attributes are responsible for them being connected with the ideas of freedom and independence. The duck-like figure looks funny and like a caricature perhaps it is a mockery of freedom that the Indonesian people gained which was short lived and suppressed by New Order.

105 90 Turbans and blangkon were replaced by strange looking hats that power structures are wearing they look like police hats, while figures in front (who can resemble like Diponegoro s followers in imitated painting) are wearing strange, acorn like hats. Turbans were connected with Islam, while the blangkon is a mark of Javanisity, and the absence of these elements, or their distortion means absence of identity or its distortion. Raden Saleh painting itself is also icon sign here with strong symbolic meaning. It is brought and torn apart for us from past and now it is levitating in the middle of painting as a reminder, warning and also homage to work of art and person whose life scene is captured there. Therefore this homage is not to Prince Diponegoro only, it is homage to Raden Saleh and how he saw the figure of Diponegoro, as a symbol of resistance, freedom and fighting against oppression. It is an homage to Indonesia that never existed and to an Indonesia that people never created. As a result, the whole painting is a critique of Indonesia in 1994, but it is also a call for people to take action in their own hand and to change it. Heroes are arrested, national heroes are for history, and superheroes are also under attack. Only here, in this seemingly hopeless situation, does one need to find out that the hero lies inside him (or her). It looks simple and it is simple. This artwork was also done only with usage of two colours black and white. With this simplicity the artist sent a simple, yet strong message: life, politics, economy, majority of things that we try to grasp in life can look gray - between black and white. Yet, basically the contrast between good, the one who suffers from violence (white) and bad, the violent one (black) is universal Biography of Heri Dono Heri Dono was born in Jakarta on 12. June He studied art at Faculty of Fine Art and Design at ISI Yogyakarta from 1980 to 1987 and became familiar with the unique wayang kulit (leather puppets) made by Sukasman from 1987 to He now lives and works in Yogyakarta (Karnadi, 2006). The artist has participated in Asia-Pacific Triennial Contemporary Art in 1993 and Shanghai Biennale in China in 2000, Yokohama Triennale in Japan in 2001, and Venice Biennale in Italy in Heri also held solo exhibitions at the Japan Foundation

106 91 Forum in Tokyo in 2000 and at Galeri Nasional Indonesia in He received the Prince Klaus Award in 1998; UNESCO prize in the International Biennale in Shanghai, China, in 2000; and an award in the 2 nd Annual Enku Grand Awards in Gifu, Japan, in 2002 (Karnadi, 2006). Heri has developed a kind of narrative by drawing upon local messages and contexts which he has experienced. He works in painting, art installation and performance art. His visual language draws upon puppetry and cartoon figures. They show a tendency towards being decorative but take into account such ideas as stupidity, irrelevance, prejudice, superstition and ideology. According to the artist, the lower level of society has its own narrative that is not recognised by dominant cultural mainstream. Through various forms of humour, the lower ranks strive to survive Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro (2007): History and Signs Illustration Reproduction was accessed from IVAA archives Salah Tangkap Pangeran Diponegoro or The Wrongful Arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro was exhibited for the first time in Yogyakarta during an exhibition The Bicentennial of Raden Saleh: Illusions of Nationalism, made in Jogja Gallery between 18. August 9. September Heri Dono made an improvement on it for exhibition in Nadi Gallery in Jakarta in Other names for this painting (150 x 200 cm) appeared Tanah

107 92 Harapan Land of Hope, which has an optimistic, rather than critical message, that was carried by with the first title. The name of exhibition is also symbolic the first name was The Dying King and I but just one day before opening of exhibition ( ) the former ruler of New Order passed away and exhibition change its name to The King is Dead Long Live the Puppets (Khoiri, I. 2007). The composition imitates Raden Saleh s painting Arrest of Diponegoro from But while Agung Kurniawan with his mimicry is sending a message with call of change and giving homage to Raden Saleh (and Pangeran Diponegoro) Heri Dono made strong and politically engaged satirical piece where he makes a mockery of almost everybody, including himself. This can be easily seen when we analyze the visual semiotic signs in this work. Index signs Smoke is visible from volcanic mountains. It indicates change, and danger. In the time of Raden Saleh Merapi Mountain was also quite active and he documented that in several of his paintings. Some of these paintings also have a hidden political agenda. In Heri Dono s vision volcanic eruption can be the eruption and expectations of people from change. In the painting no one is shocked and worried about this index sign, so it is something that is in the air, but does not affect anyone from the people in the main arena. A white horse with wings turned his back toward us and looks like he is flying toward the smoky mountain. As we saw before, Diponegoro entered the folk legends with his two horses as well. There was one black and one white that were always depicted with him in his battles. They represent dynamism, but also show uniqueness of this supreme Javanese leader. Pangeran Diponegoro a national hero, call for change, energetic and charismatic leader was always depicted on his horse. Now, the horse is flying away. In cartoons when someone dies he/she/it get wings and goes to heaven. Diponegoro s horse in Dono s vision got wings and it flies away to an unsafe zone, the volcano. It looks like everything is better than to witness the main scene. Gazes are toward scene of arresting, people react differently toward the scene of arresting. The arrested one (Suharno) does not look worried and he even looks like he is smiling. Same goes to one who is arresting him. Others look slightly worried or just

108 93 indifferent. Pangeran Diponegoro has his gaze directly toward us and he is laughing. He realized how this scene is comical and he wants to share that with us. Icon signs The painting is one big caricature where artist is presenting us numerous political figures of Indonesia. Susilo Bamabang Yudhono (Indonesian president in two terms, from 2004 until 2014) is in De Kock s place. Pangeran Diponegoro s position is taken by Suharto, holding him and grieving is Bacharrudin Jusuf Habibie, who was president shortly after Suharto resigned. There are also depictions of Amin Rais the father of Reformasi, Abdurrahman Wahid Gus Dur, president after Habibie. The painter also put himself into this scene as contemporary to present political situation in Indonesia.Artist said - Siapa yang bisa tangkap Suharto saat ia masih hidup? Yang bisa menangkap ya hanya lukisan. Jadi kapan harus membuat lukisan juga harus disesuaikan dengan idenya. (Dono, 2007) Who can capture Suharto while he is still alive? The artist can make a painting, and he used the previous painting as role model. He used ideas of capturing, ideas of villain and hero, to send his unique message. That is why he also painted himself in this scene he is on the balcony, a character with glasses, but he looks confused and lost. Pangeran Diponegoro is on the roof and he is laughing at us and at scene of wrong arrest. The only thing that we recognize from previous depictions of Diponegoro is his turban. His face is more like a clownish one and a caricature than one that belongs to stoic hero figure. His horse is flying away toward the smoky mountains, and he is mentioned in Index signs. Symbol signs In Heri Dono vision only flag that is visible is banner of Golkar. Golkar stands for Golongan Karya which is translated into English as Functional Groups. Party of Functional Groups was in power in New Order regime between 1966 and 1999, shortly after that during presidency of B. J. Habibie. Later, from 2004 until now, it has been part of the coalition around President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY). We saw the Dutch flag (in Nicolas Pienemaan painting) which was above all figures in the painting. In S. Sudjojono s painting there was an Indonesian flag it was a mark of victory on the battlefield that the scene was depicting, but also to mark the victory of Indonesia after WWII. In this painting

109 94 the banner is in the hand of a supporter, it does not mark any dominant power, or victory, it is just sign of political support. It is carried by one panakawan like figure which usually serves in wayang performance to entertain but also question the audience. The flag carried by this figure has the same meaning; it is here to entertain and to question authorities and the loyalty of Indonesian people toward this political structure. First aid box and figure of first aid medical is also supported by a Semar-like figure. Semar is a supreme panakawan figure and here he supports medical stuff. The person with the box looks like he (or she) is kneeling next to the central figures of Suharto and SBY. It looks afraid and confused. This sickness of Indonesia was frequent motif in the first year of painting in Reformasi era. Indonesia needs to be cured, there are so many diseases that are constant threat to Indonesia, but it looks that no one is brave enough to do this. Semar is considered as one of the wisest characters in wayang stories, and he is supporting medical stuff to help and to advance to main stage, but he (or she) is questioning its role and overall looks more like beggar and one that requests and receives help rather than one who is giving help. Beside the medical person, as we mentioned above there is figure that looks like Semar. Semar is the central panakawan character. Sometimes he is called the guardian spirit of island of Java. Usually he is followed by his three sons. In this depiction around Semar there are also three figures one which is carrying a Golkar banner that we already mentioned. One is looking as Teletubbies character. This controversial TV series was also broadcasted in Indonesia. Controversy relating to homosexuality was made over one character. The show was also famous for its approach to audience to toddlers of two year old and younger. This was also cause for controversy, as many saw in Teletubbies a threat to future generations. (Kraidy, 2005) Next to this is a strange looking character that is carrying a bird in his arms. The bird and character have a long nose and beak. One of the sons of Semar Petruk is the slimmest one and he has the longest nose. The bird is just behind Golkar banner and it can be seen as a symbol of the mythological bird Garuda which is on the coat of arms of Indonesia. In this vision the Garuda has lost its strength and pride, but it is still lifted as sign of protest and warning for new/and old government. Panakawan characters

110 95 are there to entertain wayang kulit audience, but also to give artistic freedom to dalang, because in this part he can express his criticism. Heri Dono was dalang in this performance and his critic is really strong. Heri Dono is Javanese and he was educated by famous dalang about wayang stories, therefore he implemented this experience in his painting. Yet, he is strongly opposed to Javanisation as (un)official policy of Indonesia. We can see that in the way he dressed his figures. One man next to grieving figure is in Javanese lurik shirt. Suharto was key leader of Javanisation policy. The Javanese figure does not look sad, his posture is up toward the scene and he is holding a cigarette in his hand. He looks worried or indifferent. Other ethnographic details include traditional batak hat and sarung in what looks like Amien Rais. This is also one of the jokes of Heri Dono, because Amien Rais is Javanese. Diponegoro is in his iconic robe and turban but they do not look like robes of nobility, nor look different that robes that panakawan figures or other common people wear in this painting. Uniforms of the central figures look more official and they have marks on them medals, badges, and other titular marks. The majority of figures wear brownish like clothes, but there are some figures that look from shadow that wear green, blue, black, one of these figures looks like a monkey, one as a Catholic bishop, one as a white person, they can symbolize variety in Indonesian society and those one interested in it. One of the interesting figures in this painting also is carriage driver who has slightly different attires. He is also in brown suit, but his strange looking hat is red cylinder top hat. This hat is usually connected with industrials and bankers of the 19th and the 20th century. It is black and elegant. Here it is bloody red. Drivers carries with him jar full of gold in back seat. His horse is also more like a wolf head creature than horse. His hooves are also blood red which is unusual. This figure symbolizes a lot of elements of New Order regime ruthless development, corruption and abusing of human rights which also including killing people from Aceh to Papua, via a bloody mark left on today independent East Timor. The scene took place in dark, sky is black and ground is brownish, but figures are bright and easily recognized, which creates an atmosphere of theatre of the absurd or reverse wayang kulit. Political situation in Indonesia is equal to theatre of the absurd,

111 96 everything looks transparent and clear, but actually everything is distorted and confusing, that even national heroes are laughing and are ready to leave this scene. 12. Heri Dono Raden Saleh Jadi Londo (from Kraus, 2005) 13. Heri Dono The Error of Pienemaan s Perspective (Source: the Internet 36 ) In 2002 Heri Dono painted Raden Saleh as londo (Javanese term for the Dutchman and all foreigners), in this artwork he acknowledged and made a joke of his hybridity. It is also a statement about the hybridity of Indonesian painting as Raden Saleh is considered the father of Indonesian painting. (Kraus, 2005) In 2007 he gives a caricature of the wrongful arrest of Pangeran Diponegoro and in 2009 he painted the same painting in a realistic manner. This was the first painting that he did in this way, and by showing clearly Indonesian politics he avoids accusations that his work is just simple caricature and not strong to convey message in more direct way. He gave visual explanation of who is who on his painting, and now he put himself in the first line, giving with that move more responsibility to himself as citizen of Indonesia and as artist in this country. The Error of Pieneman s Perspective is the name of this artwork and with it there is a closing circle for this research as well, which starts by analysing Nicolaas Pieneman s painting from and ending almost two hundred years later with a painting by one contemporary Indonesian artist who is questioning Pieneman s perspective. Pada Salah 36 Source of Illustrations page 137

112 97 Tangkap Diponegoro, Heri Dono menyaksikan penangkapan Diponegoro itu dari jauh. Adapun pada The Error of Pieneman's Perspective, Heri Dono hadir di lokasi penangkapan- this is the main difference between artwork (Heri Dono in the first raw, while in 2007 he was far away) that was examined previously and this one, by the explanation of curator of this exhibition. Mikke Susanto was the curator of an exhibition called Heri Donology presented in Jogjakarta in July In the same exhibition he again makes a mockery of Raden Saleh with his sculpture, together with Anwar (famous Indonesian poet) and Affandi (probably the most well-known Indonesian artist outside Indonesia) and 17 others figures that he called Agents of Change II. By using fibreglass he made this sculpture around 30 cm high and placed them in squatting position and they look like they are defecating, complete with a piece of faeces underneath them. This is the critique of demand for artist to create their artworks and to change the world. Sedangkan posisi jongkok pada Agent of Change II, menurut Heri Dono, sebagai gerak simbolik saat para seniman sedang merenung untuk menghasilkan karya untuk mengubah dunia, meski yang tampak adalah luncuran tinja (Dono, 2007). 3. Who Are the Heroes Now and Do We Need Them? ~ I think a hero is any person really intent on making this a better place for allpeople Maya Angelou ( ), American poet Contemporary art scene in Indonesia contributes to discussion about (national) heroism as we show above. Agung Kurniawan together with Agus Suwage, Maryanto and Lian Sahar made an exhibition and project Sukro Dimejo: Pahlwan atau Jahanam? Sukrodimejo was a historical figure from 19th century Banten and he fought against the Dutch, nevertheless he is not recognized as a national hero. In this artproject artists were exploring what is that that makes one a national hero while another still stays in a sphere of oral mythology and heroism in people s stories. 38 Agung Kurniawan is always posing these 37 Tempo online edition - Kengawuran Cemeti Art-house archive

113 98 provocative questions in his work questions about (national) identity, unity, mythology and others. As we also saw in Heri Dono s art opus, he also questioned every authority. These artists are artists of era called Reformation and they want to give their contribution in reforming Indonesian identity by questioning it and challenging their audience to think about numerous questions. While living its reformation/reformulation era Indonesia is also widely open to world, its rules of markets and economies, but also it receives influences from different cultures. Indonesia is one of the rare countries in the world that one can read this news: Swedish-Lebanese pro-islamic singer Maher Zain will give his signatures to his fans in super-fancy Kuningan City mall in Jakarta. 39 The next day he will perform in a free concert organized by one presidential candidate as one of the strategy for winning battle in upcoming president elections. Pop culture, Islam, Orientalization vs Occidentalisation, Consumerism culture, Politics, Power those are all terms one can read from this news. New views of Pangeran Diponegoro are illustrated in pictures below Diponegoro meets General De Kock from Opera Diponegoro (the Internet Source 40 ) Landung Simatupang - Dramatic reading about Diponegoro (the Internet Source 41 ) For details Source of illustrations page Ibid.

114 Indiegerillas 2012 This Hegemony Life Tin Tin like Diponegoro (the Internet Source 42 ) Manga Diponegoro (the Internet Source/Author s photo 43 ) 14. Contemporary Look at Pangeran Diponegoro Pangeran Diponegoro as motif moved from traditional performing arts of Java (and Indonesia) such as wayang and entered contemporary traditional art forms. In November 2011 choreographer Sardono W. Kusumo together with musician Iwan Fals presented Java War! Opera Diponegoro ( ) in Taman Ismail Marzuki in Jakarta. Landung Simatupang is a famous Indonesian actor who directed a stage reading about Diponegro in Yogyakarta, Malang, Jakarta and Makassar in 2013/2014. There were plans to make the first Indonesian 3D animation depicting fight of Diponegoro. Yet, he entered manga like comics, video games; his face (or his figure riding horse) is motif in t-shirts. Diponegoro takes on a new significance in the twenty-first century. His ideology is a clear indication of the deep roots of those Islamic organizations in Indonesia today that reject pluralism and campaign (in word and suicide-killings) for the removal of non-muslim foreigners from the country. (Taylor, 2013) Diponegoro indeed takes on a new significance in the twenty-first century, but it is hard to believe that this significance is only connected with radical Islamic groups. This writing can also be looked at in a Postcolonial manner, where the West is still producing the East, and now the East is almost entirely identified with the Islamic world, which is again identified with terrorism and fundamentalism. Indonesia, as the country with the biggest Muslim population shows different. Indonesians, with their creativity can create 42 For details about source of illustration look page Ibid.

115 100 operas, theatre plays, comic books, animations with the same skills like everywhere else in the world. Art and artist of Indonesia embrace this global hybridity and with bravery challenge and change society. Diponegoro is, and it will always be the light of country, because that light is casting the ideas of freedom, independence, creativity, discussion, growth, and not the ideas of xenophobia and exclusion. That is why he is a national hero. That is why the nation needs to realize that by sharing and accepting values of knowledge and ideals of freedom, a nation soon will not need national heroes any more - it will be a nation of heroes, where heroes are like the one mentioned in motto for this subchapter one who tries their best to make this place (kampung, city, province, country, world) a better place for all people. D. Depicting Pangeran Diponegoro from 19th until today From the first portrait made when Diponegoro was around 16 years old to modern visions of Diponegoro in manga comic books, visual depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro have moved significantly. Depiction of one historical figure varies from time, ideology, author and other concepts. Depictions of Pangeran Diponegoro from 19th century were chronics of their time. He lived in that century and he could witness his own depiction(s). In the first painting made by a local (unknown) artist from Yogyakarta Kraton Diponegoro is shown in his Javanese attire. That was the first and the last depiction in this sense. Later he will be shown in his Turkish (and pan-islamic) attire. Nicolaas Pieneman made his depiction just after the Java War was over. This war attracted attention in the cities of the Netherlands, but also the Dutch people who lived in the East Indies were occupied and worried. Interesting hybrid form of culture was made from those concerns: Batik Perang Diponegoro. This batik motif is designed by the Dutch, crafted by locals, with primitive and simple depictions of Diponegoro and his forceful soldiers. Pieneman made his painting like a homage to his glorious nation and their honourable protectors. Diponegoro is submissive, but with dignity. He is the central figure of the painting, together with grieving figures. General De Kock is placed slightly above him, but above all are signs of the

116 101 Netherlands the flag and coat of arms. The same reality was interpreted twenty years after in a different manner. The Javanese artist Raden Saleh chose to depict the same scene, but he gave it different signs: oversized heads for the main the Dutch officials, absence of signs of the Dutch nation, the Javanese with nice batik and dignity. It was a comment from one man who owes his life to the West (he was an educated painter with great experience in Europe), but he also had roots in Java and its higher society. It was the boldest message that one local artist could produce in that time. Both paintings (Pieneman s and Saleh s) are icon paintings. They focus more on the depiction of several historical figures from that time, rather than to comment on reality. They both depict the same scene the submission or arrest of Diponegoro. With these differences they show how the concept of heroism is time-bound and culture-bound (Zimbardo, 2011). In that time and from the Dutch point of view, Diponegoro was a villain submitted to the heroic De Kock. From the Javanese (and later Indonesian) point of view things are put the other way around. Recognition of the heroism of Diponegoro came later in Java (and Indonesia). His war (in Javanese and Indonesian the Java War was called the Diponegoro War) left Java devastated and made it even easier prey for Dutch colonizers. Later his fight became a symbol of resistance and implacability with injustice and colonization. It was after WWII that these ideas appeared most strongly in Indonesia. With the end of war Indonesia still had to fight for its independence. The first years (even decades) of Indonesian independence were turbulent. At the end of the 1950s the state started to declare national heroes, a title to remember great men and women who had built a narrative of the Indonesian nation. Depictions of Diponegoro in that time are index paintings. They show battles, fire, smoke, heroes who are riding horses, heroes who are in action. The New Order regime was different than the previous one in many cases, but the practice of declaring new heroes continued. Some heroes who were close to the ideas of the PKI were erased (Bagus, I. M. in Rao, U. and Hutnyk, J. 2006), but fallen generals in 1965 were immediately to step in their place. Cultural memory of that time keeps the practice of depicting heroes in action: equestrian sculptures of Diponegoro were made for different places.

117 102 S. Sudjojono s painting of Diponegoro from 1979 was analyzed here as depiction from New Order period, but not as New Order depiction of national hero. This artwork is also index painting: fire and smoke are dominating canvas, background is dynamic, there is also writing that said that Diponegoro forces never lost a battle. It has even an Indonesian flag! Artist decided to remember even something that was not there, and with that he senta message: state ideology (with its declaration of heroes) is remembering something that was not there. The fights, resistance, and power of people of past when Indonesia did not exist are made for shaping a memory of Indonesia (and its people) today. Zimbardo (2011) introduced his banality of heroism in contrast to the banality of evil 44. Arendt was saying in essence that such perpetrators of evil were normal before and again after being embedded in evil-generating situations (Zimbardo, 2011). The same normality is expected from new heroes. That is the message of contemporary Indonesian artists. One, Agung Kurniawan made his artwork and homage to Diponegoro in interesting artwork: the scene is futuristic and full of robotic and faceless figure, yet their postures are same like figures in Raden Saleh of Diponegoro s arrest and that painting is floating in this one as memento. Another, Heri Dono is an artist who knows no authority. He made caricatures of Raden Saleh, great names in the history of art (both Indonesian and Western) and concept of heroism is not left behind. Both artists choose to reply to Raden Saleh vision of Diponegoro and his arrest. After more than 150 years after the actual event happened, contemporary artists are sending a strong message that history can be glorious, but it is also full of contradictions, heroes are also villains for some people, there are no great narratives, and with acceptance of this as true, the only one who is responsible for people s lives will be the people themselves. Are people in Java and Indonesia ready for that responsibility? That is another question. 44 This concept is used by Hannah Arendt, Jewish German-American political theoretician who witnessed trial of Nazi SS officers and one of the organizers of the Holocaust

118 A. Conclusion CHAPTER V Semiotic signs and Postcolonial theory view toward paintings with Pangeran Diponegoro reveal a lot how the concept of heroism in Indonesia changed during the time. In 19th century just after the Java War was over and Pangeran Diponegoro captured, the political situation in the Netherlands and its major colony the East Indies was settling. In the painting of Pieneman we see that glory of establishing old-new order in Java. The Dutch VOC (East Indies Company) was replaced by the Dutch state. Nicolaas Pieneman s vision of capturing Diponegoro (1830-5) shows that. The Dutch state with its waving flag and coat of arms is above everyone in that picture. The hero is not Pangeran Diponegoro the hero is the man who captured him and the one who ordered this artwork General Baron de Kock. The west is dominant in this painting, figures of the Dutch army and their supporters are encircling the Javanese figures. The figures the head of the Dutch men are all above Diponegoro and his supporters. Pieneman s vision can be a perfect illustration for Edward Said and his concept of Orientalization. But, it also show us flaws in the Dutch vision of their subordinates Diponegoro s followers were depicted more as people from the Middle East, rather than Java, and it seems that landscape represents hills in Central Europe, rather than volcano mountains in Central Java. Raden Saleh vision in capturing Diponegoro is an intelligent answer to Pieneman s vision (1857). In his painting the absence of signs tells more than their presence. There are no signs of the nation: no flag, nor coat of arms. Diponegoro s gaze is challenging and angry. Among Diponegoro s supporters the artist painted himself. It is hard to assume that this painting is proto-indonesian, but it is a clear artistic answer to injustice that Pieneman painted. The most famous feature of Raden Saleh vision of capturing Diponegoro are the big heads of the Dutch main officers. They symbolize arrogance and the absence of balance from Western people in contrast to Javanese. More than one hundred years later, the great Indonesian artist S. Sudjojono painted Diponegoro. In the beginning of the 20th century he was shaping Indonesian painting by asking questions about where art and painting should be in lives of Indonesian. S. Sudjojono s paintings were engaging, but he never crossed the line to be punished by some 103

119 104 political structures that were punishing artists (and others ) freedom to speak. After an extensive period of nation building in 1950s and 1960s, S. Sudjojono painted his Diponegoro in He painted him after battle. His painting is full of index signs, in contrast to Pieneman s and Saleh s vision which can be interpreted as group portrait paintings icon signs. These index signs (smoke, fire, traces) are there to warn us about the destructiveness of war and violence. The portraits of the three main characters in this painting have the pride and dignity of victorious Javanese, but they also do not have pathetic, ideological faces, rather they are painted in a more human approach, with concerns and worries reflected in their gazes. Interesting is that in this vision the Indonesian flag is present and it s above main three characters, while the Dutch one is folded and crawling down from the center of the painting. There are discussions and interpretations (and re-interpretations) of Pangeran Diponegoro and his role in Indonesian history. For one he is a revolutionary character who wanted changes in Java, for others he is not a revolutionary character he is a keeper of the old order in Java and he only wanted control and power on his side, rather than on the side of foreign invaders. Almost every person from the list of national heroes in Indonesia is controversial. Nation did not decide to declare and promote this people with their complexity and their complicated biographies. Diponegoro is therefore the light of the nation, a fighter against Dutch, and the one before numerous fighters who will give their lives to build and to maintain the Indonesian nation. That was the meaning and message of the state declaring national heroes which can help partially in understanding S. Sudjojono vision. Nevertheless this vision is much more complex and like it calls for debate. After the New Order regime, Indonesia entered Reformation era. In 1994 the New Order was still in power, but changes were visible. Artists and their expression became more direct and provoking. One of the most interesting artists in this period is Agung Kurniwan who created his homage to Prince Diponegoro. In this painting Diponegoro from Raden Saleh s vision is floating in a re-make of that scene in a sci-fi setting. Figures are miming people in Saleh s vision, but they look like toys or robots, rather than Javanese or Dutch people. This message is strong an artist who is famous for his action and engagement ask his audience for the same amount of action and engagement.

120 105 In 2007 Heri Dono again used Saleh s setting to deliver his message of corrupted Indonesian politics. 150 years after Saleh painted the arrest of Diponegoro, Dono sets him free and place him on the roof from where he observes this wayang like scene of false capturing of Suharto. Art theoretician in the 2000s and beginning of the 2010s see Indonesian art and artists like motor of change of society. Their visions are bold and direct. One of the first and most constant motifs in Indonesian painting is the depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro; Raden Saleh s response to Pieneman s vision is an icon for Indonesian artist. It shows bravery, visionary and intelligence of an artist that many followed. And many will continue to do that, because that is the role of heroes in art. B. Recommendations One person s idiolect (Barthes, 1964) means that how many associations and connotations one person can name in one image depends on that person s knowledge. This is also a limit of this research, but hopefully it will be an open-call for more writings about Pangeran Diponegoro as motif in Indonesian art. Here only relevant paintings were examined, but Pangeran Diponegoro has also entered literature, graphic novels, theatres etc. Also, there is room for an examination of other national heroes and their connection with Indonesian art and culture. Even if the tradition of declaring new heroes stops today, there are almost 160 names on this list. Behind their names and merits to nation, there are their stories that inspired artists and people this connection is yet to be discovered.

121 106 SUMMARY The concept of heroes is too broad: it is used to describe many deeds many people. From popular media personas, to new Hollywood blockbusters, names of streets, statues we are surrounded (and guarded) by heroes. This research took the state definition of national heroes of Indonesia and tried to examine how the status of hero has changed over time in this country. There is an old saying History is written by the victors and we can see that saying illustrated very well in the case of heroes. In the 19th century Java became the prime colony of the Netherlands. At the beginning of that century, however one man tried to stop that. He led Javanese people to war against the foreign invader and its habits and culture. His motifs are questionable, but what is not questionable is that he saw injustice and change and he wanted to stop it. His name was Diponegoro, and in Java they call war that he led the Diponegoro War, elsewhere it is remembered as the Java War. His fight ended with his capturing. The general-governor in charge for doing this was Hendrick M de Kock. In that time he was celebrated as a hero and peace and prosperity maker. This was shown in the first painting analysed in this research Nicolaas Pieneman, a Dutch artist made a painting with Diponegoro s submission to General De Kock. In the depiction of Diponegoro, yet this painting is always looked upon like an expression of dominance and arrogance of the foreign invader towards the local population of Java. Signs used in this painting prove its Orientalisation intention. Historical paintings in Europe were made in same pattern the main character is victorious and proud, the defeated side is ashamed and subordinate. The appearance of another painting in same time contributes to this discussion. Raden Saleh was the first Javanese who was educated in Europe about painting. He painted same scene as Pieneman, but he tried to give Javanese people their dignity back: he named Diponegoro as Pangeran (Prince), in Pieneman s vision Diponegoro was just a rebel without a title or history. Painting the Dutch heads slightly out of proportion and making them too big he sent a clear message of injustice and arrogance of Hollanders. He even painted himself in the group of Diponegoro s followers. Painting has always had difficulties in Indonesia, so numerous researchers failed to see these signs from Saleh s side, but saw one fade a copy of Pieneman s work, a servile message of an artist to the king whom he sent this piece. When it was brought back to Indonesia it raised a lot of nationalistic interpretations. Indonesia gained its independence in 1945, but it was in 1950 when The Netherlands officially recognized this fact that Indonesia achieved self-determination. Sukarno was the prime man of that time, and with first few years of full democracy, he took all power in his hand and the country entered in the period called Guided Democracy. It was a period of consolidation and extensive national-building. In 1959 state apparatus also started to declare national heroes. In 1965 there was a controversial killing of generals in Indonesian Army, and Suharto rose to be the new national leader. Between 1966 and 1998 he ruled Indonesia and this period was called the New Order (as contrast to the old order of Sukarno s rule). It was marked by extensive development in Indonesia, but also by numerous human rights abuse. These turbulences in Indonesian politics were accompanied

122 107 by events in the art world. The New Order regime continued to declare National Heroes, but with a less energetic pace. In 1973 Pangeran Diponegoro was elevated to this status. In 1979 the famous Indonesian painter S. Sudjojono painted Diponegoro. He was one of the most influential Indonesian artists due to his constant revising and questioning of the position of art and its role in one society. In his vision Diponegoro is on the battlefield, he has the Indonesian flag, he is victorious and proud. There is no doubt that his message is patriotic, Diponegoro is proto-indonesian, and the values of freedom and dignity of the Javanese people (Indonesian people) are values above any other. Nevertheless S. Sudjojono would not be one of the greatest artist in Indonesia (he would be one of the greatest propaganda-artist) if he had not left any other message in his work. In one analysed in this research there are signs of the brutality of war and violence and Pyrrhic victory of Diponegoro. S. Sudjojono painted numerous national heroes (most famous is his depiction of Sultan Agung), and he followed national narrative and did not make mockery of national ideology, but he always sent intelligent and humanistic messages through his artwork. The end of the New Order was felt already in the beginning of the 1990 s, but it was not until 1998 that unsatisfied Indonesian overthrew Suharto and entered Reformation Era. One art critic coined the term New Disorder to describe this part of Indonesian history that Indonesian still live. It is true that numerous things are not clear in Indonesia today, there is no strong national leader, national ideology is revising, Indonesia entered global arena somehow vulnerable and not prepared. The one who were prepared for this were artists in 1994 Agung Kurniawan painted his homage to Prince Diponegoro, where he identified him with TV super heroes, and Heri Dono in 2007 (and 2009) placed him on the roof to observe Indonesian politics of today. They both used him as strong motif of fighter for freedom, equality, and justice that Indonesia and its people still want to see. Pangeran Diponegoro and his heroic fight continue to inspire artist in Indonesia. He moved from academic painting of the 19th century to t-shirts, comic books, and videogames of 21st century. His deeds are being revised, like everything in history, but the people of Indonesia, and their artists like to choose to remember that they have power to be brave and to take control of their own lives, and that is the crucial message that Pangeran Diponegoro (as a motif in painting, as well as from other art forms) is sending us.

123 108 RINGKASAN Konsep pahlawan terlalu luas: digunakan untuk menggambarkan berbagai perilaku dan juga ditujukan kepada banyak orang. Dari personas media populer, sampai Hollywood blockbuster baru, nama-nama jalan, patung... kita dikelilingi (dan dilindungi) oleh pahlawan. Penelitian ini mengambil definisi keadaan pahlawan nasional Indonesia dan mencoba untuk mengkaji bagaimana status pahlawan berubah dari waktu ke waktu di negeri ini. Ada pepatah lama yang mengatakan 'Sejarah ditulis oleh para pemenang' dan kita dapat melihat bahwa pepatah diilustrasikan dengan sangat baik dalam kasus pahlawan ini. Pada abad XIX, Jawa menjadi koloni utama Belanda. Pada awal abad tersebut, satu orang mencoba untuk menghentikannya. Ia memimpin orang Jawa berperang melawan penjajah asing dan kebiasaan dan budaya. Motif nya dipertanyakan, namu hal itu tidak dipertanyakan bahwasanya ia melihat ketidakadilan dan perubahan dan ia ingin menghentikan itu semua. Namanya Diponegoro, dan di Jawa mereka sebut dengan perang Diponegoro. Di tempat lain, itu dikenang sebagai Perang Jawa. Perjuangannya berakhir dengan tertangkapnya dia. Gubernur Jenderal Hendrick M de Kock adalah yang bertanggung jawab dalam melakukan hal ini. Pada waktu itu ia diagungkan sebagai pahlawan dan pembuat perdamaian dan kemakmuran. Hal ini terlihat dalam lukisan pertama yang dianalisis dalam penelitian ini - Nicolaas Pieneman, seniman Belanda membuat sebuah lukisan dengan penyerahan Diponegoro kepada Jenderal De Kock. Dalam lukisan ini terlihat martabat dan kebanggaan Diponegoro, namun lukisan ini selalu dipandang seperti ekspresi dominasi dan arogansi penjajah asing terhadap penduduk Jawa setempat. Tanda yang digunakan dalam lukisan ini membuktikan niat sebenarnya. Lukisan sejarah di Eropa dibuat dalam pola yang sama - karakter utama adalah kemenangan dan kebanggaan, mengalahkan sisi kemaluan dan kerendahan. Lukisan ini menunjukan orang-orang yang mengalami kolonisasi dan setelah mendapatkan kemerdekaan negara, mereka juga ingin martabat mereka kembali. Penampilan lukisan lain dalam waktu yang sama memberikan kontribusi untuk diskusi ini. Raden Saleh merupakan orang Jawa pertama yang menempuh pendidikan di Eropa mengenai lukisan. Ia melukis adegan yang sama dengan Pieneman, tapi ia mencoba untuk membawa kembali martabat orang Jawa: dia memberi nama Diponegoro sebagai Pangeran, dalam visi Pieneman, Diponegoro hanya pemberont tanpa gelar dan sejarah. Dengan lukisan kepala Belanda sedikit keluar dari proporsi dan membuat mereka terlalu besar, ia mengirim pesan yang jelas ketidakadilan dan arogansi orang Belanda. Dia bahkan melukis dirinya sendiri dalam kelompok pengikut Diponegoro. Mungkin karena dibawa dari barat - lukisan selalu mengalami kesulitan di Indonesia, sehingga banyak peneliti gagal untuk melihat tanda-tanda ini dari sisi Saleh, tapi melihat satu salinan memudar karya Pieneman itu, pesan merendahkan seorang seniman untuk raja yang ia kirim dalam bagian ini. Ketika dibawa kembali ke Indonesia, itu mengangkat banyak interpretasi nasionalistik. Indonesia merdeka pada tahun 1945, tetapi itu hingga 1950 ketika Belanda resmi mengakui kenyataan bahwa Indonesia memasuki penentuan nasib nya. Sukarno adalah seorang pria utama pada saat itu, dan dengan beberapa tahun pertama demokrasi penuh. Ia mengambil semua kekuasaan di tangannya dan negara masuk dalam periode yang disebut Demokrasi Terpimpin. Itu adalah periode konsolidasi dan pembangunan nasional yang luas.

124 109 Pada tahun 1959 aparat negara juga mulai mendeklarasikan pahlawan nasional. Pada tahun 1965 ada pembunuhan kontroversial jenderal di Tentara Nasional Indonesia, dan Soeharto naik menjadi pemimpin nasional yang baru. Antara tahun 1966 dan 1998 ia memerintah Indonesia dan periode ini disebut Orde Baru (sebagai kontras dengan orde lama pemerintahan Sukarno). Hal itu ditandai dengan pengembangan yang luas di Indonesia, tetapi juga diikuti oleh berbagai pelanggaran hak asasi manusia. Gejolak ini dalam politik Indonesia diikuti pula oleh peristiwa dalam dunia seni. Rezim Orde Baru terus menyatakan Pahlawan Nasional, namun dengan kecepatan yang kurang energik. Pada tahun 1973 Pangeran Diponegoro diangkat ke dalam status tersebut. Pada tahun 1979, pelukis terkenal Indonesia S. Sudjojono melukis Diponegoro. Dia merupakan salah satu seniman Indonesia yang paling berpengaruh karena revisi konstan dan posisinya dalam mempertanyakan seni dan perannya dalam satu masyarakat. Dalam visinya Diponegoro di dalam medan perang. ia memiliki bendera Indonesia, dia menang dan membanggakan. Tidak ada keraguan bahwa pesannya adalah patriotik, Diponegoro adalah proto-indonesia, dan nilai-nilai kebebasan dan martabat masyarakat Jawa (masyarakat Indonesia) adalah merupakan nilai-nilai di atas apapun. Namun demikian S. Sudjojono tidak akan menjadi salah satu seniman terbesar di Indonesia (dia akan menjadi salah satu propaganda-seniman terbesar) jika dia tidak meninggalkan pesan lain dalam karyanya. Dalam satu analisis dalam penelitian ini, ada tanda-tanda dari kebrutalan perang dan kekerasan dan kemenangan Pyrrhic Diponegoro. S. Sudjojono melukis banyak pahlawan nasional (yang paling terkenal adalah gambaran tentang Sultan Agung), dan ia mengikuti narasi nasional dan tidak melecehkan ideologi nasional, tapi dia selalu mengirim pesan cerdas dan humanis melalui karya seninya. Akhir Orde Baru dirasakan pada awal 1990-an, namun itu sampai tahun 1998 ketika Indonesia menunjukan ketidak puasannya sehingga menggulingkan Soeharto dan akhirnya memasuki Era Reformasi. Salah satu kritikus seni menciptakan istilah 'Disorder Baru' ini bagian dari sejarah Indonesia ketika Indonesia masih hidup. Memang benar bahwa banyak hal yang tidak jelas di Indonesia saat ini, tidak ada pemimpin nasional yang kuat, ideologi nasional direvisi, Indonesia memasuki arena global entah bagaimana kerentanan dan ketidak siapannya. Orang yang siap untuk ini adalah seniman - pada tahun 1994 Agung Kurniawan melukis Pangeran Diponegoro sebagai penghormatannya, di mana ia mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan pahlawan TV super, dan Heri Dono pada tahun 2007 (dan 2009) menempatkan dia di atap untuk mengamati politik Indonesia hari ini. Mereka berdua menggunakan Diponegoro sebagai motif kuat pejuang kebebasan, kesetaraan, dan keadilan bahwa Indonesia dan rakyatnya masih ingin melihat itu semua. Pangeran Diponegoro dan pertarungan gagahnya terus menginspirasi seniman di Indonesia. Dia berpindah dari lukisan akademik abad XIX menjadi untuk t-shirt, buku komik, dan video game abad XXI. Tindakannya merevisi, seperti segala sesuatu dalam sejarah, tapi orang-orang dari Indonesia, dan mereka seniman ingin memilih untuk mengingat bahwa mereka memiliki kekuatan untuk berani dan mengambil kendali atas kehidupan mereka sendiri, dan itulah pesan terpenting bahwa Pangeran Diponegoro (sebagai motif dalam lukisan, serta dari bentuk-bentuk seni lainnya) yang dikirimkannya.

125 110 APPENDICES The concept of national hero in Indonesia is somehow easy to access, but yet it was rarely the subject of the analyses of researches in domain of cultural studies. It is said that they are promoting the national ideology of Indonesia, but without any clear definition what that ideology is. During its history as independent nation Indonesia had different ideologies, yet the tradition of declaring national heroes did not stop. The next pages are dedicated to the modest analyses of who are behind names of the national heroes and the attempt to grasp pieces of the national ideology within it Table one is full list of the national heroes of Indonesia with date of their elevation to the national heroes. The list is sorted by alphabetical order of names of heroes. Beside the name is year of birth and death and under it is short insert from a biography and how they are remembered in the nation Table 1 NATIONAL HEROES IN INDONESIA Indonesian National Hero & Year when they are elevated to that status Abdul Halim ( ) Independence activist and politician, fourth Prime Minister of Indonesia Abdul Haris Nasution ( ) General in the Army, twice appointed Army Chief of Staff Abdul Kadir ( ) Nobleman from Melawi, promoted economic development, fought against the Dutch colonial forces Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah ( ) Islamic scholar and author Abdul Muis ( ) Politician, later author Abdul Rahman Saleh ( ) Early figure in Air Force, killed when his medical flight was shot down by the Dutch Andi Abdullah Bau Massepe ( ) Bugis nobleman, led attacks against the Dutch forces during the National Revolution Achmad Subarjo ( ) Independence activist and government minister Adam Malik ( ) Journalist and independence activist, third Vice President of Indonesia Adnan Kapau Gani ( ) Independence activist turned government minister, smuggled weapons to support the National Revolution Nyi Ageng Serang ( ) Javanese guerrilla leader who led attacks on the Dutch colonials on several occasions Agus Salim ( ) Minang Islamic leader, politician, independence activist

126 Agustinus Adisucipto ( ) Early figure in Air Force, killed when his medical flight was shot down by the Dutch Ahmad Dahlan ( ) Javanese Islamic leader, established Muhammadiyah Ahmad Rifa i ( ) Islamic thinker and writer known for his anti-dutch stance Ahmad Yani ( ) Leader of Army, killed by the 30 September Movement Alimin ( ) Independence advocate, politician, and Communist Party of Indonesia figure Amir Hamzah ( ) Poet and nationalist Antasari ( ) Fought against the Dutch colonial forces in the Banjarmasin War Arie Frederick Lasut ( ) Geologist and educator who was executed by the Dutch Bagindo Azizchan ( ) Mayor of Padang resisted the Dutch forces during the National Revolution Basuki Rahmat ( ) General, witness to the Supersemar Teungku Chick di Tiro ( ) Acehnese Islamic figure and guerrilla leader who fought the Dutch colonial forces Cilik Riwut ( ) Soldier and politician, promoted economic and cultural development in Central Kalimantan Cipto Mangunkusumo ( ) Javanese politician, mentor to Sukarno Cokroaminoto ( ) Politician, leader of Sarekat Islam, mentor to Sukarno Ernest Douwes Dekker ( ) Indo journalist and politician who advocated Indonesian independence Dewi Sartika ( ) Educator, established the country's first school for girls Cut Nyak Dhien ( ) Acehnese guerrilla leader who fought against the Dutch colonial forces Diponegoro ( ) Son of the Sultan of Yogyakarta, fought a war against the Dutch colonial forces Donald Izacus Panjaitan ( ) General in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement Eddy Martadinata ( ) Admiral in the Navy and diplomat, killed in a helicopter crash Fakruddin ( ) Islamic leader, negotiated protection of Indonesian hajj pilgrims Fatmawati ( ) Sewed the first national flag, social activist, a wife of Sukarno Ferdinand Lumbantobing ( ) Doctor and politician, fought for the rights of forced labourers Frans Kaisiepo ( ) Papuan nationalist who helped in the acquisition of Papua Gatot Mangkupraja ( ) Independence activist and politician, suggested the formation of Defenders of the Homeland Gatot Subroto ( ) General, deputy chief-of-staff of the Army

127 Halim Perdanakusuma ( ) Early figure in the Air Force, killed during the National Revolution Hamengkubuwono I ( ) Sultan of Yogyakarta, fought against the Dutch East India Company, established Yogyakarta Hamengkubuwono IX ( ) Sultan of Yogyakarta, independence activist, military leader, and politician; second Vice 1990 President of Indonesia 42. Harun Bin Said ( ) Bombed the MacDonald House during the Indonesia Malaysia confrontation Hasan Basri ( ) Soldier during the Indonesian National Revolution, supported the integration of 2001 Kalimantan in Indonesia 44. Hasanuddin ( ) Sultan of Gowa, fought against the Dutch colonial forces Hasyim Asy ari ( ) Islamic leader, founder of Nahdlatul Ulama Hazairin ( ) Legal scholar, independence activist, government minister, and educator Herman Johannes ( ) Engineer, made weapons during the National Revolution, helped establish Gadjah Mada 2009 University 48. Ida Anak Agung Gde Agung ( ) Independence activist and government minister Idham Chalid ( ) Leader of Nahdlatul Ulama, politician Ilyas Yakoub ( ) Independence activist, politician, and guerrilla fighter Tuanku Imam Bonjol ( ) Islamic figure from West Sumatra who fought against Dutch colonial forces in the Padri War Radin Inten II ( ) Nobleman from Lampung, led a revolution against the Dutch colonists Iskandar Muda ( ) Sultan of Aceh, expanded the state's influence Ismail Marzuki ( ) Composer known for numerous patriotic songs Iswahyudi ( ) Early figure in the Air Force, killed during the National Revolution Iwa Kusumasumantri ( ) Independence activist, lawyer, and politician Izaak Huru Doko ( ) Independence activist and educator, helped establish Udayana University Janatin ( ) Bombed the MacDonald House during the Indonesia Malaysia confrontation Jatikusumo ( ) General in the Army and politician Andi Jemma ( ) Independence activist, led attacks against the Dutch forces during the National Revolution Johannes Abraham Dimara ( ) Papuan army officer who helped in the acquisition of Papua Johannes Leimena ( ) Early Minister of Health, developed the Puskesmas clinic system Juanda Kartawijaya ( ) 1963

128 Sundanese politician, final Prime Minister of Indonesia Karel Satsuit Tubun ( ) Police brigadier, killed by the 30 September Movement Kartini ( ) Javanese women's rights figure Ignatius Joseph Kasimo ( ) Independence activist, Catholic Party leader Katamso Darmokusumo ( ) General in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement I Gusti Ketut Jelantik (XX 1849) Balinese leader who fought against the Dutch colonial forces I Gusti Ketutu Puja ( ) First governor of Bali Ki Hajar Dewantara ( ) Educator and government minister, established Taman Siswa Ki Sarmidi Mangunsarkoro ( ) Educator with Budi Utomo and Taman Siswa, government minister Kiras Bangun ( ) Batak guerrilla leader who fought the Dutch colonialists Kusumah Atmaja ( ) First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court La Maddukelleng ( ) Nobleman from Paser Sultanate, repelled the Dutch forces from Wajo Kingdom Lambertus Nicodemus Palar ( ) Diplomat, negotiated recognition of Indonesia during the Revolution John Lie ( ) Rear Admiral in the Navy, smuggled products to fund the National Revolution Mahmud Badaruddin II ( ) Sultan of Palembang, fought against English and the Dutch colonists Mangkunegara I ( ) Fought against the Dutch colonists and collaborators in Central Java Andi Mappanyukki ( ) Bugis nobleman, led attacks against Dutch forces in the 1920s and 30s Maria Walanda Maramis ( ) Women's rights advocate and educator Martha Christina Tiahahu ( ) Guerrilla fighter from Maluku who died in the Dutch custody Marthen Indey ( ) Nationalist and independence activist, promoted Papuan integration in Indonesia Mas Mansur ( ) Islamic scholar, Muhammadiyah leader Mas Tirtodarmo Haryono ( ) General in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement Maskun Sumadireja ( ) Independence activist and politician Cut Nyak Meutia ( ) Acehnese guerrilla leader who fought against the Dutch colonial forces Mohammad Hatta ( ) Independence activist, First Vice-President of Indonesia Mohammad Husni Thamrin ( ) Politician and independence activist

129 Mohammad Natsir ( ) Islamic scholar and politician, fifth Prime Minister of Indonesia Teuku Muhammad Hasan ( ) Independence activist, first governor of Sumatra Muhammad Yamin ( ) Poet turned politician and independence activist Mustopo ( ) Leader during the Battle of Surabaya, established Dr. Moestopo Dental College Muwardi ( ) Handled security for the Proclamation of Independence, established a hospital in Surakarta Nani Wartabone ( ) Independence activist and politician, helped put down the Permesta rebellion I Gusti Ngurah Rai ( ) Balinese military leader during National Revolution Nuku Muhammad Amiruddin ( ) Sultan of Tidore, led several naval battles against the Dutch colonial forces Noer Alie ( ) Islamic leader and educator, led student soldiers during the National Revolution Teuku Nyak Arif ( ) Acehnese politician and resistance leader, first governor of Aceh Opu Daeng Risaju ( ) Early woman politician, fought against the Dutch during the National Revolution Oto Iskandar di Nata ( ) Politician and independence activist Pajonga Daeng Ngalie ( ) - Coordinated attacks in South Sulawesi during the National Revolution, promoted national integration Pakubuwono VI ( ) Susuhunan of Surakarta, rebelled against the Dutch colonial forces Pakubuwono X ( ) Susuhunan of Surakarta, supported various projects which furthered Native 2011 Indonesian interests 104. Pattimura ( ) Guerrilla from Maluku who fought against the Dutch colonial forces Pierre Tendean ( ) Soldier in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement Pong Tiku ( ) Torajan noble, fought against the Dutch colonialists Raja Ali Haji (1809 c. 1870) Historian and poet from Riau Raja Haji Fisabilillah ( ) Warrior from Riau who fought against the Dutch colonial forces Rajiman Wediodiningrat ( ) First head of the People's Representative Council Ranggong Daeng Romo ( ) Led troops in two battles against the Dutch forces during the National Revolution Rasuna Said ( ) Women's rights advocate and nationalist Robert Wolter Monginsidi ( ) Guerrilla fighter in Makassar during the National Revolution, executed by the Dutch Saharjo ( ) Minister of Justice, pioneered legal reform in the country Sam Ratulangi ( ) 1961

130 Minahasa politician and supporter of Indonesian independence Samanhudi ( ) Businessman, established Sarekat Islam Silas Papare ( ) Fought for Papua's independence from the Netherlands, promoted Papuan integration in Indonesia Sisingamangaraja XII ( ) Batak leader who fought a lengthy guerrilla campaign against the Dutch forces Siswondo Parman ( ) General in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement Siti Hartinah ( ) Wife of then-president Suharto, active in social work, established Taman Mini Indonesia Indah Siti Walidah ( ) Founder of Aisyiyah, Muhammadiyah figure Slamet Riyadi ( ) Brigadier General in the Army, killed while putting down a rebellion in Sulawesi Sudirman ( ) Commander in Chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces for most of the National Revolution Albertus Sugiyapranata ( ) Javanese Catholic bishop and nationalist 124. Sugiyono Mangunwiyoto ( ) Colonel in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement 125. Suharso ( ) Medical pioneer in prosthetics 126. Sukarjo Wiryopranoto ( ) 127. Independence figure, diplomat, and politician Sukarno ( ) Independence activist who read the Proclamation of Independence, first President of Indonesia 128. Sultan Agung ( ) Sultan of Mataram, fought against encroaches by the Dutch East India Company Andi Sultan Daeng Radja ( ) Independence activist and politician Supeno ( ) Government minister, killed while fighting against the Dutch during the National Revolution Supomo ( ) First Minister of Justice, helped write the Constitution Suprapto ( ) General in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement Supriyadi ( ) Leader of a rebellion against the Japanese occupation forces in Blitar Suroso ( ) Politician and independence activist Suryo ( ) Governor of East Java during the National Revolution Suryopranoto ( ) Education and workers' rights figure Sutan Syahrir ( ) Politician, first Prime Minister of Indonesia Sutomo ( )

131 116 Javanese educator, established Budi Utomo 139. Sutomo ( ) Military officer who led troops in the Battle of Surabaya 140. Sutoyo Siswomiharjo ( ) General in the Army, killed by the 30 September Movement 141. Syafruddin Prawiranegara ( ) First governor of Bank Indonesia 142. Syarif Kasim II ( ) Sultan of Siak, promoted integration of the East Sumatran kingdoms 143. Tahi Bonar Simatupang ( ) General who served as chief of staff from 1950 to Tuanku Tambusai ( ) Islamic leader from Riau who fought against the Dutch forces in the Padri War 145. Tan Malaka ( ) Minang politician and communist activist 146. Thaha Syaifuddin ( ) Sultan of Jambi, led an armed revolution against the Dutch colonial forces 147. Tirtayasa ( ) Guerrilla from Banten who fought against the Dutch 148. Tirto Adhi Suryo ( ) Early journalist, exiled for his anti-dutch editorials 149. Teuku Umar ( ) Acehnese guerrilla leader who fought against the Dutch colonial forces 150. Untung Surapati ( ) Led several rebellions against the Dutch East India Company 151. Urip Sumoharjo ( ) Early leader of Indonesian Armed Forces, second in command to Sudirman 152. Wage Rudolf Supratman ( ) Composer of the national anthem Indonesia Raya 153. Wahid Hasyim ( ) Leader of Nahdlatul Ulama, first Minister of Religion of Indonesia 154. Wahidin Sudirohusodo ( ) Doctor and leader in Budi Utomo 155. Wilhelmus Zakaria Johannes ( ) 156. Medical pioneer in radiology Yos Sudarso ( ) Commodore of the Navy, killed in a confrontation with the Dutch over Netherlands New Guinea 157. Yusuf Tajul Khalwati ( ) Islamic leader, led a guerrilla rebellion against the Dutch East India Company 158. Zainal Mustafa ( ) Islamic leader who fought against the Japanese occupation forces 159. Zainul Arifin ( ) Politician and guerrilla fighter, killed by an assassin targeting Sukarno Source: Official Web Page of The Ministry of Social Affairs and Mirnawati (2013) ( )

132 117 STATISTICS BEHIND LIST OF NATONAL HEROES IN INDONESIA The tradition of proclamation heroes started with 1959 when the first president of Indonesia Sukarno declared three men the heroes of independence (Pahlawan Kemerdekaan). Heroes were named like this until 1965 when in October 1965 twelve men who died by 30 September Movement were declared the heroes of Revolution (Pahlawan Revolusi). Overall 36 men and women are declared the heroes of independence. From 1966 until today the heroes are named the national heroes (Pahlawan Nasional). Chart 1 is showing the number of people who are declared heroes from the beginning of this practise until today. Year 1964 was one with the biggest number of declared heroes 14. Already mentioned, turbulent year 1965 is following with 12 men entering the list, same as in Eight people were declared in 1961 and 2006, seven in 1975 and 2011, and other years usually less than five people entered the list. Fourteen years were without declared heroes, between 1976 and 1992 there were only eight people who were declared national heroes. Chart 1 Number of declared (national) heroes from 1959 until 2013 Chart 2 Number of declared heroes by decades If we group these data into decades we will get the data presented in Chart 2. As we can see 1960s were years of the extensive national building which is visible in the chart

133 118 where 35% of the heroes were declared. If we break this data into the Indonesian ideological timeframe Sukarno s Era ( ) declared 37 people as heroes, transition to the New Order (1965) is marked by 10 heroes of the Revolution, the New Order regime ( ) declared 64 new heroes and the Reformation ( ) listed 53 new people. An average number will show differences from 1959 until 1966 an average six people entered the list, 12 people entered in 1965, from 1966 until 1998 an average two people per year entered the list, and from 1999 until today 3, 5 is an average number of the people per year who entered the list. From this we can conclude that the national building with usage of the national heroes was most active during late Sukarno s era (Guided Democracy). The New Order regime was not so interested in this topic, it was mentioned in research that the New Order regime prefered duplication and maintaing heroism from the previous period and with the important adding of the heroes of Revolution. It is interesting to see that the new era in Indonesia is trying to awake the national spirit with an active promote of the new national heroes. The national heroes of Indonesia are dominantly male only 11 women entered the list, which is only 7% of all the entries. From these eleven ladies Kartini is the heroine form Central Java whose day is celebrated as the Women Day in Indonesia. It is also interesting to see that from these eleven women, two comes from Aceh this is only sharia ruled province in Indonesia and there are seven heroes from Aceh, which makes that one third of Acehnese heroes are - heroines. The two controversial entries are Fatmawati second wife of Sukarno and Siti Hartinah wife of Suharto who is declared heroine while her husband was still ruling Indonesia in 1996 in the same year when she passed away. The youngest declared hero is also heroine Martha Cristina Tiahahu who died when she was 18 fighting the Dutch colonial powers in her native Moluccas. Chart 3 Age of late national heroes

134 119 More than two thirds are people who had more than 50 years when they died. The longest living hero is Abdul Kadir who died at the age of 104, Tuanku Tambusai lived 98 years, three more heroes lived more than 90 years, fourteen more than 80 years, and so on. This shows that the majority of people who lived after their heroic acts did not compromise themselves and they stayed in the good memory of the people who later propose them to this title. It also shows that Indonesian culture in which elders are well respected part of the community. The idea of Indonesia appeared from the 20th century; nevertheless the national heroes of Indonesia are also historical characters from the 17th century. Sultan Agung ( ) and Iskandar Muda ( ) were born at the end of the 16th century. The first one fought against the upcoming Dutch colonial powers trying to keep his dominance over Java, and the second one was one of the greatest rulers of Aceh who managed to expand territories of the sultanate and to make it a centre of Islamic learning and trade. Chart 4 Hero s Century They do not have too much in common, but they are both historical characters that Indonesian people (in this case the Javanese and the Acehnese) are proud of, and they are symbols of the local power, intelligence, and the strength in contrast to the foreign invaders. Chart 4 is showing the times when national heroes were living. The majority (70%) are the people who lived and fight their battles in the 20th century. Thus, Indonesia recognized its existence as nation from the 20th century, but also does not want to give away its memory of people in the modern times (from the 17th century). These people are considered as proto-indonesians. Pangeran Diponegoro is one of

135 120 those who light the nation and every local fighter against the Dutch along the Archipelago is marked as Diponegoro of Sumba, Bali, etc. Indonesia is dived in the 34 Provinces, the national heroes comes from all the parts of Indonesia. Their geographical distribution is given in the charts below. It was hard to make a easily readable chart with 34 provinces, so they were group in this manner: Sumatra includes ten official Indonesian provinces which territory is either on Sumatra land (like Jambi in central part or Aceh on north), or small archipelagos that gravitates toward it (Riau Islands); Java and Sulawesi (with both having six Indonesian provinces in its territory); Kalimantan (with five Indonesian provinces), Papua (with two) and other islands and provinces are grouped in BNTNM (Bali, Nusa Tenggara islands, North Maluku and Maluku). The chart 5 shows geographical distribution of the heroes. It was interesting to see and to compare number of the heroes with the number of Chart 5 Geographical Distribution of Heroes inhabitants of these islands. The chart 6 is showing this comparison. We can see that declared heroes are ultimately political correct and the number of declared heroes almost fully support the number of people living in the particular area in Indonesia. Chart 6 Geographical Distribution of Heroes and Population