Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders for the 21st Century

Transcription

1 Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders for the st Century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD Edited by Andreas Schleicher Background Report for the International Summit on the Teaching Profession

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3 Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders for the st Century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

4 This ork is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official vies of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries. This document and any map included herein are ithout prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. Please cite this publication as: Schleicher, A. (), Ed., Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders for the st Century: Lessons from around the World, OECD Publishing. ISBN (print) ISBN -9-6-xxxxx-x (PDF) Photo credit: Stocklib Image Bank HONGQI ZHANG Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at:.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda. OECD You can copy, donload or print OECD content for your on use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications, databases and multimedia products in your on documents, presentations, blogs, ebsites and teaching materials, provided that suitable acknoledgement of OECD as source and copyright oner is given. All requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to Requests for permission to photocopy portions of this material for public or commercial use shall be addressed directly to the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) at or the Centre français d exploitation du droit de copie (CFC) at contact@cfcopies.com.

5 Foreord Nations around the orld are undertaking ide-ranging reforms to better prepare children for the higher educational demands of life and ork in the st century. What are the skills that young people demand in this rapidly changing orld and hat competencies do teachers need to effectively teach those skills? What can teacher preparation and continuing professional development do to prepare graduates to teach ell in a st century classroom? What are the different roles and responsibilities of st century school leaders and ho do countries succeed in developing these leaders? To anser these questions e need to rethink many aspects of our education systems: the quality of recruiting systems; the type of education recruits obtain before they start orking; ho they are monitored and hat education and support they get; ho their compensation is structured; ho to improve performance of struggling teachers and enhance development among the best ones. To help governments effectively address these and other key issues, placing teachers and school leaders at the center of improvement efforts, the U.S. Department of Education, the OECD and Education International are bringing education ministers, union leaders and other teacher leaders together in the second International Summit on the Teaching Profession in March. This publication summarizes the evidence that underpins the Summit, bringing together data analysis and experience for better education policies for better lives. Angel Gurría OECD Secretary-General Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD

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7 Acknoledgements The volume as edited by Andreas Schleicher, in consultation ith the Summit co-sponsors the U.S. Department of Education, Education International, the National Education Association, the American Federation of Teachers, the Council of Chief State School Officers, the Asia Society, the Ne York Public Television station WNET and the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. The volume is mainly based on data and comparative analysis from the OECD. Chapter as drafted by Beatriz Pont in collaboration ith Pauline Musset, Andreas Schleicher, Diana Toledo Figueroa and Juliana Zapata. Chapter as drafted by David Istance and Stephan Vincent-Lancrin in collaboration ith Dirk Van Damme, Andreas Schleicher and Kristen Weatherby. Chapter as drafted by Andreas Schleicher in collaboration ith Dirk van Damme and Pauline Musset. Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD

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9 Table of Contents Introduction... Chapter DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE SCHOOL LEADERS... A changing profile of school leadership... Supporting, evaluating and developing teacher quality... Goal-setting, assessment and accountability... 9 Strategic resource management... Leadership beyond school alls... Distributing leadership... Developing leadership for tomorro s education systems... Selecting suitable candidates... The availability of training... 6 Appraisal of school leaders... 9 Conclusions... 9 Notes... References... Chapter Teacher development, support, employment conditions and careers... Changes in the demand for student skills... A demanding agenda for teachers... Understanding learning to improve teaching practices... 9 Inquiry-based teaching and learning... Incorporating assessment into teaching... Collaborative learning... Advanced technology in the classroom... No single best method... Designing ecosystems for a st-century teaching profession... Research and development... 6 School organization... 7 Designing expert systems for teachers... Conclusions... Notes... References... Chapter Preparing TEACHERS: matching demand and supply... The challenge of teacher shortages... 6 Making teaching an attractive career choice... Compensation schemes to match teacher supply and demand... 6 Establishing effective employment conditions... 6 Ensuring high-quality initial teacher education Providing for attractive careers... 7 Meeting the need for ongoing professional development to address issues of teacher supply... 7 Conclusions Notes... 7 References... Annex A Selected comparative data from OECD sources... Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD 7

10 Table of Contents Boxes Box. Box. Box. Box. Box. Box.6 Box.7 Box. Ontario Improving education through more effective school leaders... Australia s approach to school leadership and its National Professional Standard for Principals... Characteristics of leadership-development exemplary programs... Cultivating school leadership in the United States... Selecting and training school leaders in Singapore... Sampling school leadership in Denmark and the Netherlands... Leadership development in Scotland...7 Leadership-preparation programs in Finland and Noray... Box. ATCS Assessment and Teaching of st Century Skills... Box. Singapore s TE Model of Teacher Education...6 Box. Teacher education in Finland...9 Box. Teach less, learn more... Box. Curriculum-embedded assessments: Scotland and Seden... Box.6 A Learning Community, CEIP Andalucía, Seville, Spain... Box.7 Student Team Learning (STL) group ork methods... Box. Teacher collaboration in cyberspace... Box.9 The L@arning Federation, Australia and Ne Zealand... Box. : Initiatives - one student, one digital device... Box. Courtenay Gardens Primary School, Victoria, Australia... Box. Community Learning Campus, Olds, Alberta Canada... Box. Funding innovation The UK s Sinnott Felloship...6 Box. Best Evidence Synthesis Program, Ne Zealand...7 Box. Preparing teachers to lead improvement in Japan and China... Box.6 The Pedagogy and Content Routine (PCR) a Kernel Routine... Box.7 Open Access College, South Australia... Box. Culture Path, Kuopio Finland... Box.9 Projektschule Impuls, Rorschach, Sitzerland... Box. Box. Box. Box. Box. Box.6 Box.7 Box. Throughout Singapore, teaching talent is identified and nurtured rather than being left to chance...9 Teachers and schools assume responsibility for reform in Finland...6 Multiplies incentives to attract excellent teachers to disadvantaged schools in Korea and in North Carolina...66 Individual pay in Seden...67 Additional support in school for teachers in England...67 Providing greater career diversity in Australia, England and Wales, Ireland and Québec (Canada)...7 Professional development for teaching minority students in Ne Zealand...7 Innovative teacher-preparation programs in the United States...7 Figures Figure.a Figure.b Figure. Figure. Figure. Ho much autonomy individual schools have over curricula and assessments... Ho much autonomy individual schools have over resource allocation...6 School principals vies of their involvement in school matters...7 Ho selected countries have defined school leaders... Leadership development in selected countries...6 Figure. Consequences of teacher performance as reported by teachers...7 Figure. Approaches to teaching... Figure. Student-teacher relationships and student performance...9 OECD Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

11 Table of Contents Figure. Perceived shortage of mathematics and science teachers...6 Figure. Relationship beteen school average socio-economic background and school resources...7 Figure. Teachers salaries relative to those of orkers ith college degrees...6 Figure. Decisions on payments for teachers in public institutions (9)...6 Figure. Comparison of impact and participation by types of development activity...7 Figure.6 Reasons for not taking more professional development...7 Figure.7 Areas of greatest need for teacher professional development...76 Figure A. Figure A. Figure A. Figure A. Figure A. Figure A.6 Comparing countries performance in reading... Comparing countries performance in mathematics... Comparing countries performance in science... Relationship beteen school average socio-economic background and school resources... School principals vies of ho teacher behaviour affects students learning... School principals vies of ho teacher behaviour affects students learning... Figure A.7 Compulsory and intended instruction time in public institutions (9)... Figure A. Average class size, by type of institution and level of education (9)... Figure A.9 Teachers salaries (9)...9 Figure A. Teachers salaries and pre-service teacher training requirements (9)...9 Figure A. Organisation of teachers orking time (9)... Figure A. Number of teaching hours per year (, -9)... Figure A. Participation of teachers in professional development in the previous months (7-)... Figure A. Amount of professional development undertaken by teachers in the previous months (7-) teacher characteristics... Figure A. Amount of professional development undertaken by teachers in the previous months (7-) school characteristics... Figure A.6 Types of professional development undertaken by teachers (7-)... Figure A.7 Teachers ho anted to participate in more development than they did in the previous months (7-)... Figure A. Teachers high professional development needs (7-)... Figure A.9 Support for professional development undertaken by teachers (7-)... Figure A. Frequency of mentoring and induction programmes (7-)... Figure A. Recruitment of principals, 6-7, public schools... Figure A. Reasons for not participating in more professional development (7-)... Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD 9

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13 Introduction Many countries have seen rapidly rising numbers of people ith higher qualifications. But in a fast-changing orld, producing more of the same education ill not suffice to address the challenges of the future. Perhaps the most challenging dilemma for teachers today is that routine cognitive skills, the skills that are easiest to teach and easiest to test, are also the skills that are easiest to digitize, automate and outsource. A generation ago, teachers could expect that hat they taught ould last for a lifetime of their students. Today, here individuals can access content on Google, here routine cognitive skills are being digitized or outsourced, and here jobs are changing rapidly, education systems need to place much greater emphasis on enabling individuals to become lifelong learners, to manage complex ays of thinking and complex ays of orking that computers cannot take over easily. Students need to be capable not only of constantly adapting but also of constantly learning and groing, of positioning themselves and repositioning themselves in a fast changing orld. These changes have profound implications for teachers, teaching and learning as ell as for the leadership of schools and education systems. In the past, the policy focus as on the provision of education, today it is on outcomes, shifting from looking upards in the bureaucracy toards looking outards to the next teacher, the next school. The past as about delivered isdom, the challenge no is to foster user-generated isdom among teachers in the frontline. In the past, teachers ere often left alone in classrooms ith significant prescription on hat to teach. The most advanced education systems no set ambitious goals for students and are clear about hat students should be able to do, and then prepare their teachers and provide them ith the tools to establish hat content and instruction they need to provide to their individual students. In the past, different students ere taught in similar ays, today teachers are expected to embrace diversity ith differentiated pedagogical practices. The goal of the past as standardization and conformity, today it is about being ingenious, about personalizing educational experiences; the past as curriculum-centered, the present is learner centered. Teachers are being asked to personalize learning experiences to ensure that every student has a chance to succeed and to deal ith increasing cultural diversity in their classrooms and differences in learning styles, taking learning to the learner in ays that allo individuals to learn in the ays that are most conducive to their progress. The kind of teaching needed today requires teachers to be high-level knoledge orkers ho constantly advance their on professional knoledge as ell as that of their profession. But people ho see themselves as knoledge orkers are not attracted by schools organized like an assembly line, ith teachers orking as interchangeable idgets in a bureaucratic command-and-control environment. To attract and develop knoledge orkers, education systems need to transform the leadership and ork organization of their schools to an environment in hich professional norms of management complement bureaucratic and administrative forms of control, ith the status, pay, professional autonomy, and the high quality education that go ith professional ork, and ith effective systems of teacher evaluation, ith differentiated career paths and career diversity for teachers. Results from the OECD s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) have shon that the degree to hich education systems succeed in equipping students ith important foundation skills varies significantly (for data see the Annex). Since the quality of teaching is at the heart of student learning outcomes, it is an appealing idea to bring together education leaders from high performing and rapidly improving education systems to explore to hat extent educational success and some of the policies related to success transcend the specific characteristics of cultures and countries. To this end, in March the second International Summit on the Teaching Profession ill be held in Ne York, hosted by the U.S. Department of Education, the OECD and Education International. The Summit brings together education ministers, union leaders and other teacher leaders from high-performing and rapidly improving education systems, as measured by PISA, to revie ho to best improve the quality of teaching, Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD

14 Introduction teachers and school leaders. This publication underpins the Summit ith available research about hat can make educational reforms effective, and highlights examples of reforms that have produced specific results, sho promise or illustrate imaginative ays of implementing change. The Summit is organized around three interconnected themes: Developing Effective School Leaders. As more countries require better achievement from their schools and grant greater autonomy to schools in designing curricula and managing resources, the role of the school leader has gron far beyond that of administrator. Developing school leaders requires clearly defining their responsibilities, providing access to appropriate professional development throughout their careers, and acknoledging their pivotal role in improving school and student performance. What are the different roles and responsibilities of st century school leaders and ho have countries succeeded in developing effective school leaders at scale? Chapter one summarizes findings from OECD s comparative policy revies on these questions. Preparing Teachers: Delivery of st Century Skills. Many nations around the orld have undertaken ide-ranging reforms of curriculum, instruction, and assessments ith the intention of better preparing all children for the higher educational demands of life and ork in the st century. What are the skills that young people need to be successful in this rapidly changing orld and hat competencies do teachers need, in turn, to effectively teach those skills? This leads to the question hat teacher preparation programs are needed to prepare graduates ho are ready to teach ell in a st century classroom. While comparative evidence on this is still scarce, Chapter to highlights a range of promising policies and practices. Preparing Teachers: Matching Demand and Supply. Many education systems face a daunting challenge in recruiting high-quality graduates as teachers, particularly in shortage areas, and retaining them once they are hired. Ho have countries succeeded in matching their supply of high-quality teachers to their needs? Ho have they prepared teachers for priority subjects or locations? The issue of teacher demand and supply is both complex and multi-dimensional, as it reflects several interrelated challenges: ho to expand the pool of qualified teachers, ho to address shortages in specific subjects, ho to recruit teachers to the places here they are most needed, ho distribute teachers in equitable and efficient ays, and ho to retain qualified teachers over time. Chapter three summarizes available data and examines policy response at to levels: The first concerns the nature of the teaching profession itself and teachers ork environment. Such policies seek to improve the profession s general status and competitive position in the job market and are the focus of this paper. The second involves more targeted responses and incentives for particular types of teacher shortage, hich recognizes that that there is not a single labor market for teachers, but a set of them, distinguished by school type and characteristics, such as subject specialization. OECD Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

15 Chapter DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE SCHOOL LEADERS As more countries grant greater autonomy to schools in designing curricula and managing resources to raise achievement, the role of the school leader has gron far beyond that of administrator. Developing school leaders requires clearly defining their responsibilities, providing access to appropriate professional development throughout their careers, and acknoledging their pivotal role in improving school and student performance. What are the different roles and responsibilities of st century school leaders and ho have countries succeeded in developing effective school leaders at scale? This chapter summarizes OECD research on these questions. Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD

16 Chapter Developing Effective School Leaders A changing profile of school leadership PISA shos that a substantial proportion of students in OECD countries no attend schools that have high degrees of autonomy in different areas of decision making. PISA also finds that high-performing and equitable school systems tend to grant greater autonomy to schools in formulating and using curricula and assessments. In some countries, the development and adaptation of educational content has been the main expression of school autonomy (Figure.a). Others have focused on strengthening the management and administration of individual schools through market-oriented governance instruments or collaboration among schools and other stakeholders in local communities even hile, in some cases, moving toards centralized governance of curricula and standards (Figure.b). But effective school autonomy depends on effective leaders, including system leaders, principals, teacher leaders, senior teachers and head teachers, as ell as strong support systems. That, in turn, requires effectively distributed leadership, ne types of training and development for school leaders, and appropriate support and incentives. As a result, it is crucial for the quality of the education provided that school leaders are ell-equipped to meet these demands and that leading a school is regarded as a valued profession. In some countries, focusing on the development of effective school leaders has become a key part of education reform (see Box.). Box. Ontario Improving education through more effective school leaders With the election of a ne government in, the provincial government of Ontario designed and implemented an education-improvement strategy (Energizing Ontario Education) that focused on three main goals: raising the level of student achievement, defined as 7% of students achieving the provincial standard in Grade 6 and achieving an % graduation rate; narroing the gaps in student achievement; and increasing public confidence in publicly funded education. To meet its goals, Ontario developed a coherent leadership strategy, adequate contextual support frameorks and concerted actions to include key actors, such as school boards, teachers unions, academics and practitioners, in the reform process. Within the strategy, a specific leadership frameork defines five domains for effective leaders: setting direction; building relationships and developing people; developing the organization; leading the instructional program; and being accountable. The leadership strategy focuses on attracting good candidates, preparing them for their tasks, and supporting them as they ork to improve the quality of instruction. School boards overtly plan for leadership succession. The process of attracting and preparing the right people begins before there is a vacancy to be filled. Potential candidates for school leader need to have an undergraduate degree; five years of teaching experience; certification by school level; to specialist or additional honor specialist qualifications (areas of teaching expertise) or a master s degree; and completion of a Principal s Qualification Program (PQP), offered by Ontario universities, teachers federations and principals associations, hich consists of a -hour program ith a practicum. Mentoring is available during the first to years of practice for principals, vice-principals, supervisory officers and directors. Principals and vice-principals are required to maintain an annual groth plan, and their performance is appraised every five years, based on student achievement and ell-being. Source: OECD (), Improving Schools: Strategies for Action in Mexico, OECD Publishing. School leaders can define the school s educational goals, ensure that instructional practice is directed toards achieving these goals, observe and evaluate teachers, suggest modifications to improve teaching practices, shape their professional development, help solve problems that may arise ithin the classroom or among teachers and liaise ith the community and parents. They are also in a position to provide incentives and motivate teachers to improve the quality of instruction. PISA asked school leaders to report on their level of involvement in several issues, including making sure that teachers ork and development reflects the educational goals of the school, monitoring student performance and classroom activities, and orking ith teachers to resolve problems (Figure.). OECD Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

17 Developing Effective School Leaders Chapter Figure.a Ho much autonomy individual schools have over curricula and assessments Percentage of students in schools hose principals reported that only principals and/or teachers, only regional and/or national education authority or both principals and/or teachers and regional and/or national education authority have a considerable responsibility for the folloing tasks OECD A Establishing student assessment policies B Choosing hich textbooks are used C Determining course content D Deciding hich courses are offered Only principals and/or teachers Both principals and/or teachers and regional and/or national education authority Only regional and/or national education authority Australia Austria Belgium Canada Chile Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Israel Italy Japan Korea Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Ne Zealand Noray Poland Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Seden Sitzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States OECD average A B C D Range beteen top and bottom quarter Average index Index of school responsibility for curriculum and assessment Variability in the index (Standard Deviation) Partners Albania Argentina Azerbaijan Brazil Bulgaria Colombia Croatia Dubai (UAE) Hong Kong-China Indonesia Jordan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Macao-China Montenegro Panama Peru Qatar Romania Russian Federation Serbia Shanghai-China Singapore Chinese Taipei Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Uruguay Index points Source: OECD, PISA 9 Database, Table IV..6. Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD

18 Chapter Developing Effective School Leaders Figure.b Ho much autonomy individual schools have over resource allocation Percentage of students in schools hose principals reported that only principals and/or teachers, only regional and/or national education authority or both principals and/or teachers and regional and/or national education authority have a considerable responsibility for the folloing tasks OECD A Selecting teachers for hire B Dismissing teachers C Establishing teachers starting salaries D Determining teachers salaries increases E Formulating the school budget F Deciding on budget allocations ithin the school Only principals and/or teachers Both principals and/or teachers and regional and/or national education authority Only regional and/or national education authority Australia Austria Belgium Canada Chile Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Israel Italy Japan Korea Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Ne Zealand Noray Poland Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Seden Sitzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States OECD average A B C D E F Range beteen top and bottom quarter Average index Index of school responsibility for resource allocation Variability in the index (Standard Deviation) Partners Albania Argentina Azerbaijan Brazil Bulgaria Colombia Croatia Dubai (UAE) Hong Kong-China Indonesia Jordan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Macao-China Montenegro Panama Peru Qatar Romania Russian Federation Serbia Shanghai-China Singapore Chinese Taipei Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Uruguay Index points 6 Source: OECD, PISA 9 Database, Table IV... OECD Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

19 Developing Effective School Leaders Chapter Figure. School principals vies of their involvement in school matters Index of school principal s leadership based on school principals reports A I make sure that the professional development activities of teachers are in accordance ith the teaching goals of the school. B I ensure that teachers ork according to the school s educational goals. C I observe instruction in classrooms. D I use student performance results to develop the school s educational goals. E I give teachers suggestions as to ho they can improve their teaching. F I monitor students ork. G When a teacher has problems in his/her classroom, I take the initiative to discuss matters. H I inform teachers about possibilities for updating their knoledge and skills. I I check to see hether classroom activities are in keeping ith our educational goals. J I take exam results into account in decisions regarding curriculum development. K I ensure that there is clarity concerning the responsibility for co-ordinating the curriculum. L When a teacher brings up a classroom problem, e solve the problem together. M I pay attention to disruptive behaviour in classrooms. N I take over lessons from teachers ho are unexpectedly absent. OECD Partners Australia Austria Belgium Canada Chile Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Israel Italy Japan Korea Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Ne Zealand Noray Poland Portugal Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Seden Sitzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States OECD average Albania Argentina Azerbaijan Brazil Bulgaria Colombia Croatia Dubai (UAE) Hong Kong-China Indonesia Jordan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Macao-China Montenegro Panama Peru Qatar Romania Russian Federation Serbia Shanghai-China Singapore Chinese Taipei Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Uruguay Percentage of students in schools hose principals reported that the folloing activities and behaviours occurred quite often or very often during the last school year A B C D E F G H I J K L M N Range beteen top and bottom quarter Average index Variability in the index (Standard Deviation) Index points Note: Higher values on the index indicate greater involvement of school principals in educational issues. Source: OECD, PISA 9 Database, Table IV... Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD 7

20 Chapter Developing Effective School Leaders Among OECD countries, % of students attend schools hose leaders reported that he or she ensures that teachers ork reflects the school s educational goals quite often or very often ; over % of students attend schools hose leader quite often or very often takes the initiative to discuss a problem teachers may have in their classrooms; half of students attend schools hose leader quite often or very often observes classes; 6% of students attend schools hose leader quite often or very often considers exam results hen making decisions regarding curriculum development; and over a quarter of OECD students attend schools hose leaders quite often or very often take over lessons from teachers ho are unexpectedly absent. Variation in the role of school leaders ithin the school system is greatest in Chile, Korea and the United States; the role of school leaders is relatively more homogeneous across schools in Denmark and Noray. Studies in some OECD countries have shon ho school leaders are affected by the groing demands on their time. In England, 6% of head teachers described their ork-life balance as poor or very poor. Some have attributed this to long orking hours or to deficiencies in orking practices, such as school heads not knoing ho to prioritize or delegate their ork. In Ne Zealand, a study found that, eight years after major education reforms ere introduced, school leaders administrative ork had increased substantially and they ere orking ten hours longer per eek, on average, than before the reforms. This and other research finds that administrative demands are taking up % of school leaders time, clearly competing ith educational leadership as their top priority. Supporting, evaluating and developing teacher quality The OECD s comparative revie of school leadership identifies a focus on supporting, evaluating and developing teacher quality as the core of effective leadership. This includes co-coordinating the curriculum and teaching program, monitoring and evaluating teaching practice, promoting teachers professional development, and supporting collaborative ork cultures. In Seden, for example, school leaders often spend much of their time giving feedback to teachers about their ork. They also tend to frequently challenge the assumptions of their staff. By asking questions such as Ho do e kno that?, Could e test another ay of doing it? and What do e kno about ho people in other schools do it? they help to foster a learning atmosphere in the school. The OECD s comparative revie of school leadership finds that teacher monitoring and evaluation are increasingly important responsibilities of school leaders. In general, regular teacher evaluations involve the school leader and other senior school staff; but in countries such as France and Belgium, they also involve a panel ith members from outside the school. While the nature and consequences of teacher evaluation vary idely across countries, there are no formal provisions for teacher evaluation in the majority of the countries studied. The form, rigor, content and consequences of evaluation vary greatly across countries and sometimes ithin them. In most countries here teacher evaluation is carried out, it is conducted as a part of a larger quality revie or school-improvement process. The purposes of evaluation are relatively evenly distributed among formative evaluation, performance appraisal, professional-development planning and support for promotion. The criteria for evaluations differ, sometimes involving an assessment of teaching performance, in-service training and, in some cases, measures of student performance. Classroom observation, intervies and documentation prepared by teachers are the typical methods used in the evaluations in the OECD leadership study, the eight given to the school leaders observations or monitoring varies among participating countries from considerable (Slovenia) to slight (Chile, here the input counts for only % of the total). School leaders can rely almost exclusively on their observations (Slovenia) or on a ide range of other data, such as revieing teaching plans, observing meetings, revieing communications ith parents, pupil performance data, peer revie and teacher self-evaluations, among others (such data is used, for example, in Denmark, England, Korea, Ne Zealand and Scotland). The frequency of observations ranges from as often as three to six times per year in England to once every four years in Chile, ith several countries settling on annual observations. Where teacher evaluation is conducted, it almost alays entails some form of annual formal meeting beteen leader and teacher. PISA shos that, on average across OECD countries, 6% of -year-olds are in schools here the practices of mathematics teachers ere monitored over the preceding year through school leader or senior staff observations. Student achievement on PISA tended to be higher hen teachers ere held accountable through the involvement of school leaders and external inspectors in monitoring lessons. The OECD s comparative revie of school leadership also finds that school leadership plays a vital role in promoting professional learning and development for teachers. There have alays been different types of professional-development activities, but the perception of their relative effectiveness has changed over the years. OECD Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

21 Developing Effective School Leaders Chapter School-based professional development activities involving the entire staff or significant groups of teachers are becoming more common, hile teacher-initiated personal development is becoming less so, at least in terms of programs supported through public funds. Most countries no link professional development to the developmental priorities of the school and co-ordinate in-service training in the school accordingly. School leaders and, in some cases, local school authorities play an important role in planning professional-development activities. Some countries, including England, are also ensuring that teachers identify their on professional-development needs. Last but not least, supporting collaborative ork cultures is an increasingly important and recognized responsibility of school leaders. Some OECD countries, and in particular Denmark, Finland, Noray and Seden, have more of a history of teamork and co-operation among their teaching staff, especially in primary schools. Others, such as Ireland, are shifting to encourage such practice. When surveyed, school leaders in Finland spoke enthusiastically about the benefits of collaboration. Sharing resources and ideas helped them to face the many demands on their time and energy, and mutual support helped them to cope ith difficulties. One of the heads loves data, another hates it and leaned on her colleague for help ith statistics. In exchange, she offered expertise in orkforce development. Goal-setting, assessment and accountability Aligning instruction ith external standards, setting school goals for student performance, measuring progress against those goals and making adjustments in the school program to improve performance ere identified as other important aspects of school leadership. While most countries establish a core curriculum or curriculum frameork at national or state level, it is usually up to school leaders to implement curricula and instruction effectively. PISA shos that, on average across OECD countries, more than half of -year-olds are in schools here school-level stakeholders have the responsibility to decide hich courses are offered, and more than % of students are in schools that determine course content. School leaders generally have a degree of discretion in ho they design curriculum content and sequencing, organize teaching and instructional resources, and monitor quality. As noted before, PISA data suggest that in countries here school leaders reported higher degrees of responsibility, performance tended to be better, even if that relationship can be affected by many other factors. School leaders also played a key role in integrating external and internal accountability systems by supporting their teaching staff in aligning instruction ith agreed learning goals and performance standards. For example, a group of schools revieed in England used data as a vehicle to engage the leadership team and teachers in school improvement, and used student-outcome information to develop strategies for learning for individual students and classrooms. Information as revieed every six eeks. Data as analyzed at the individual and classroom levels, providing an overvie of here problems lay. Intervention teams then stepped in to look into potential underperformance and respond to challenges. Most countries also have a long tradition of school inspections here leaders are held accountable for their use of public funding and for the structures and processes they establish. Most OECD countries report that they have or are developing some form of national goals, objectives, or standards of student performance. To assess these, accountability frameorks tend to rely on both school and student information. To evaluate school performance, to-thirds of OECD countries have regulations that require loer secondary schools to be inspected regularly; a slightly smaller number of countries have regulatory requirements for schools to conduct periodic school self-evaluations. In around three-quarters of OECD countries, these school inspections and school self-evaluations also have a high level of influence on the evaluation of school administration and individual teachers. In more than half of all OECD countries, school inspections are also used to make decisions about hether or not to close schools. In to-thirds of OECD countries, periodic standardized assessments of students in compulsory education are conducted to obtain information on student performance. In slightly feer than half of all OECD countries, national examinations have a real impact on loer secondary school students, such as alloing them to proceed to a higher level of education. Only a fe countries, including Belgium (Flemish Community), Chile and the Czech Republic reported that school inspections influenced decisions about providing financial reards or sanctions. Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD 9

22 Chapter Developing Effective School Leaders Strategic resource management The strategic use of resources and their alignment ith pedagogical purposes can help to focus school activities on the objective of improving teaching and learning. Hoever, here devolution has put greater discretion for maintenance, repair and substantial capital projects in the hands of school leaders, they are often asked to fulfill responsibilities that call for expertise many do not have. Even here such tasks are the responsibility of the governing board, they are often formally or informally delegated to the school leader. PISA shos that, on average across OECD countries, % of -year-old students are enrolled in schools that have full autonomy in deciding ho their budgets are spent, and 7% are in schools that are fully autonomous in formulating their budgets. Hoever, PISA also shos that school leaders only have a modest role in setting teachers salaries or aarding salary increases, hich somehat undercuts the notion that school leaders enjoy great discretion in budgetary matters. Across countries, feer than 6% of students are enrolled in schools that have the authority to hire teachers, and half are in schools ith the authority to dismiss teachers. Moreover, the lack of transparent and accepted procedures for dealing ith ineffective teachers can mean that those teachers may remain in their posts, often ithout being offered any professional development assistance, ith all the adverse consequences this has for student learning, the reputation of schools and the teaching profession. School leaders ho have the responsibility, hether formal or informal, for managing resources should be trained so that they can effectively align resources ith pedagogical purposes. The OECD s comparative revie of school leadership found that the capacity of school leaders to shift financial and human resources strategically is often limited by a lack of training in the field. School leaders often reported having to engage in operational delivery issues and put aside the strategic planning that is necessary to provide an overarching vision and allocate resources. Leadership beyond school alls The OECD s comparative revie of school leadership suggests that an important role for school leaders is that of collaborating ith other schools or communities around them. Schools and their leaders strengthen collaboration, form netorks, share resources, and/or ork together. These engagements enlarge the scope of leadership beyond the school to the elfare of young people in the city, ton or region. They can also nurture a culture here improving school leadership is accomplished across communities, to the benefit of all concerned. For example, in some Finnish municipalities, school leaders also ork as school district leaders, ith one-third of their time devoted to the district and to-thirds to their on schools. Management and supervision are shared, as are evaluation and development of education planning. The aim is to align schools and municipalities to think systemically in order to promote a common vision of schooling and a united school system. At the same time, experience in these municipalities also shos that for school leaders to be able to take on this larger system-level role, leadership at the school level must be better distributed, so that deputy heads and leadership teams can assume some of the school leaders tasks hen he or she is taking on larger roles. Overall, the study suggests that leaders collaboration ith other schools and ith the local community can help to improve problem-solving through intensified processes of interaction, communication and collective learning. It can also help to develop leadership capacity and address succession and stability issues by increasing the density of and opportunities for local leadership in the school and at the local level. Figure. Ho selected countries have defined school leaders Leadership Academy, Austria Ontario School Leadership Frameork National Professional Qualification for Headteachers, England Strategic leadership Instructional leadership Human resource management Organizational development Change management Aspects of lifelong learning Administrative Setting direction Building relationships and developing people Developing the organization Leading the instructional program Securing accountability Shaping the future (strategically) Leading learning and teaching Developing self and others Managing the school Securing accountability Strengthening community OECD Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD

23 Developing Effective School Leaders Chapter Figure. shos ho a fe countries have defined the roles of school leaders and Box. describes one of them, Australia, in more detail. Box. Australia s approach to school leadership and its National Professional Standard for Principals The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership as created in to promote excellence in the teaching and school leadership profession. A public, independent institution supported by the Ministry of Education, its role is to develop and maintain national professional standards for teaching and school leadership, implement an agreed system of national accreditation of teachers based on those standards, and foster high-quality professional development for teachers and school leaders. The National Professional Standard for Principals, introduced in July, is based on three requirements for leadership: vision and values; knoledge and comprehension; and personal qualities and social and communication skills. These are made manifest in five areas of professional practice: leading teachinglearning processes; developing self and others; leading improvement, innovation and change; leading school management; and engaging and orking ith the community. Excellence in school leadership Professional practices The standard for principals : The role in action Leadership requirements Vision and Values Leading teaching and learning Knoledge and understanding Personal qualities, social and interpersonal skills High quality learning, teaching and schooling Successful learners, confident creative individuals and active informed citizens Developing self and others Leading improvement, innovation and change Leading the management of the school Engaging and orking ith the community Context: School, sector, community: socio-economic, geographic: and education systems at local, regional, national and global levels Source: Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (), National Professional Standard for School Leadership, July. Distributing leadership As greater responsibility and accountability is demanded of school leaders, leadership needs to be distributed effectively ithin and across schools. School leaders need to develop a netork and share their tasks ith vice-principals or co-principals, deputy principals, assistant principals, vocational/technical department heads, orkshop managers and/or co-coordinators and teachers ith special duties. Leadership structures or more informal ad hoc groups based on expertise and current needs can be formed to encourage a distribution of poer among these actors. Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the st century LESSONS FROM AROUND THE WORLD OECD