Land Quality Division Life Cycle Assessment of Drinking Water Systems: Bottle Water, Tap Water, and Home/Office Delivery Water

Transcription

1 Land Quality Division Life Cycle Assessment of Drinking Water Systems: Bottle Water, Tap Water, and Home/Office Delivery Water Revised Final Peer-Reviewed LCA Report Prepared for DEQ by A Division of ERG October 22, 2009

2 Life Cycle Assessment of Drinking Water Systems PREFACE The report that follows is a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of three types of drinking water systems water packaged in disposable bottles, tap water consumed from reusable drinking containers, and home/office delivery water consumed from reusable drinking containers. Funding for this project was provided by the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ). At ERG, the project was managed by Beverly J. Sauer, who served as primary life cycle analyst. Greg Schivley and Ann Marie Molen assisted with research tasks and development of the report appendices. Chris Dettore, a graduate student at the University of Michigan, provided assistance with research and contribution analysis tasks, with oversight by Dr. Greg Keoleian of the University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Systems. ERG gratefully acknowledges significant contributions to this project by Abby Boudoris, David Allaway, and Jordan Palmeri of Oregon DEQ, and Todd Jarvis, Associate Director of the Institute for Water and Watersheds at Oregon State University. Their efforts added significantly to the quality of the report. The project was peer reviewed by an expert panel consisting of Beth Quay, an independent consultant with expert knowledge of bottling systems (serving as review chair), Dr. David Allen of the University of Texas, and David Cornell, an independent consultant with expert knowledge of PET container systems. The revisions made in response to the peer review panel s insightful comments added greatly to the quality and credibility of this final report. This study was conducted for DEQ by ERG as an independent contractor. The findings and conclusions presented in this report are strictly those of ERG. ERG makes no statements nor supports any conclusions other than those presented in this report. October 22, 2009 ii CLIENTS\Oregon DEQ\KC092147

3 Life Cycle Assessment of Drinking Water Systems Table of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... ES-1 INTRODUCTION... ES-1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY... ES-1 INTENDED USE... ES-2 SYSTEMS STUDIED... ES-2 FUNCTIONAL UNIT... ES-3 SCOPE AND BOUNDARIES... ES-3 DATA... ES-5 MAIN CONTRIBUTING FACTORS FOR EACH SYSTEM... ES-5 OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS... ES-7 Energy Results... ES-7 Solid Waste Results... ES-7 Impact Categories... ES-8 CHAPTER 1 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW Study Scope and Boundaries LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY METHODOLOGY Material Requirements Energy Requirements Environmental Emissions LCI PRACTITIONER METHODOLOGY VARIATION Co-product Credit Energy of Material Resource Postconsumer Recycling Methodology DATA Process Data Fuel Data Data Quality Goals for This Study Data Accuracy METHODOLOGY ISSUES Precombustion Energy and Emissions Electricity Grid Fuel Profile METHODOLOGICAL DECISIONS Geographic Scope Trip Allocation for Purchases of Bottled Water End of Life Management System Components Not Included CHAPTER 2 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY RESULTS INTRODUCTION STUDY GOAL AND INTENDED USE SYSTEMS STUDIED SCOPE AND BOUNDARIES iii CLIENTS\Oregon DEQ\KC092147

4 Life Cycle Assessment of Drinking Water Systems FUNCTIONAL UNIT DATA SOURCES CONTRIBUTION ANALYSIS FOR LCI RESULTS Energy Results Solid Waste Results SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS Interpreting the Tables Bottled Water System Tap Water System HOD Water System SELECTION OF SUBSCENARIOS SUBSCENARIO ANALYSIS Energy Results Solid Waste Results Atmospheric and Waterborne Emissions CHAPTER 3 LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT INTRODUCTION LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY TRACI Methodology and Impact Categories Impact Assessment Limitations Acidification Potential Carcinogenic Potential Ecotoxicity Potential Eutrophication Potential Global Warming Potential Non-carcinogenic Potential Ozone Depletion Potential Respiratory Effects Potential Smog Potential CHAPTER 4 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS INTRODUCTION LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY RESULTS Energy Results Solid Waste Results LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESULTS Long-Haul Bottled Water Compared to Oregon Bottled Water Long-Haul Bottled Water Compared to Tap Water Oregon Bottled Water Compared to Tap Water Long-Haul Bottled Water Compared to HOD Water Oregon Bottled Water Compared to HOD Water Tap Water compared to HOD Water APPENDIX 1 CONTRIBUTION ANALYSIS FOR ADDITIONAL DRINKING WATER SCENARIOS... A-1 INTRODUCTION... A-1 DRAFT LCI CONTRIBUTION ANALYSIS... A-1 ADDENDUM PEER REVIEW... AD-1 iv CLIENTS\Oregon DEQ\KC092147

5 Life Cycle Assessment of Drinking Water Systems List of Tables Table 2-1 Modeling Parameters for Example Drinking Water Systems Table 2-2 Energy by Category for Example Drinking Water Systems Table 2-3 Energy Profile for Example Drinking Water Systems Table 2-4 Weight of Solid Waste for Drinking Water Scenarios Table 2-5 Volume of Compacted Solid Waste for Drinking Water Scenarios Table 2-6 Sensitivity Analysis Relative to Example Bottled Water System Table 2-7 Sensitivity Analysis Relative to Example Tap Water System Table 2-8 Sensitivity Analysis Relative to Example HOD Water System Table 2-9 Subscenarios Analyzed Table 2-10 Energy by Category for Example Drinking Water Systems Table 2-11 Energy Profile for Example Drinking Water Systems Table 2-12 Weight of Solid Waste for Drinking Water Scenarios Table 2-13 Volume of Solid Waste for Drinking Water Scenarios Table 3-1 Acidification Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-2 Carcinogenic Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-3 Ecotoxicity Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-4 Eutrophication Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-5 Global Warming Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-6 Water Use and Global Warming Potential: Possible Contribution of Carbon Dioxide from Groundwater Table 3-7 Non-carcinogenic Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-8 Ozone Depletion Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-9 Respiratory Effects Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-10 Smog Potential by Life Cycle Stage for Drinking Water System Scenarios Table 3-11 TRACI Characterization Factors for Atmospheric and Waterborne Emissions by Impact Category List of Figures Figure 1-1 General Materials Flow for Cradle-to-grave Analysis of a Product System Figure 1-2 Black Box Concept for Developing LCI Data Figure 1-3 Illustration of the Energy of Material Resource Concept Figure 2-1 Energy Results for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 2-2 Energy Results for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 2-3 Energy Results for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 2-4 Net Energy Results for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 2-5 Net Energy Results for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 2-6 Solid Waste Results for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 2-7 Solid Waste Results for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 2-8 Solid Waste Results for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 2-9 Solid Waste Volume Results for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 2-10 Solid Waste Volume Results for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 2-11 Solid Waste Volume Results for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-1 Acidification Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-2 Acidification Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios v CLIENTS\Oregon DEQ\KC092147

6 Life Cycle Assessment of Drinking Water Systems Figure 3-3 Acidification Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-4 Carcinogenic Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-5 Carcinogenic Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-6 Carcinogenic Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-7 Ecotoxicity Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-8 Ecotoxicity Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-9 Ecotoxicity Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-10 Eutrophication Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-11 Eutrophication Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-12 Eutrophication Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-13 Global Warming Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-14 Global Warming Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-15 Global Warming Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-16 Non-carcinogenic Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-17 Non-carcinogenic Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-18 Non-carcinogenic Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-19 Ozone Depletion Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-20 Ozone Depletion Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-21 Ozone Depletion Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-22 Respiratory Effects Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-23 Respiratory Effects Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-24 Respiratory Effects Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 3-25 Smog Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Figure 3-26 Smog Potential for Bottled Water Subscenarios Excluding Long-distance Transport Scenarios Figure 3-27 Smog Potential for Tap and HOD Water Subscenarios Figure 4-1 Range of Net Energy for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-2 Range of Solid Waste by Weight for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-3 Range of Compacted Solid Waste Volume for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-4 Range in Acidification Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-5 Range in Carcinogenic Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-6 Range in Ecotoxicity Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-7 Range in Eutrophication Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-8 Range in Global Warming Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-9 Range in Non-carcinogenic Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-10 Range in Ozone Depletion Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-11 Range in Respiratory Effects Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated Figure 4-12 Range in Smog Potential for Subscenarios Evaluated vi CLIENTS\Oregon DEQ\KC092147

7 Executive Summary EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION Bottled water offers consumers a clean, portable supply of drinking water for consumption at home or away from home. Some disposable water bottles are recyclable, and lightweighting of bottles and bottled water packaging have reduced the amount of packaging waste associated with bottled water consumption. However, bottled water is frequently consumed at away from home locations where access to container recycling may be limited. In addition, while recycling of postconsumer bottles and packaging reduces consumption of virgin material resources, other resources are used and wastes created when packaging is manufactured and bottled water is transported. Consumers have other drinking water options that do not involve disposable containers. These include consumption of tap water from a container that can be washed and reused many times, or consumption of water from a home/office delivery system with the water dispensed into a reusable drinking container. However, while reusable systems require less use and disposal of material, these systems require washing of containers between uses, and in the case of HOD systems, transportation of the containers to and from the filler. These processes incur environmental burdens that may be higher or lower than the burdens for disposable container systems. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been recognized as a scientific method for making comprehensive, quantified evaluations of the environmental benefits and tradeoffs for the entire life cycle of a product system, beginning with raw material extraction and continuing through disposition at the end of its useful life. This LCA evaluates the environmental burdens for disposable and reusable systems for delivering drinking water. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This LCA was commissioned by the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (OR DEQ) to evaluate the environmental implications of various systems for delivery and consumption of drinking water, including bottled water, tap water consumed from reusable containers, and home/office delivery (HOD) water consumed from reusable containers. The analysis includes water processing, production of containers and packaging materials, filling, transport, and end-of-life management of containers and packaging. The analysis also looks at transportation of bottled water imported from several foreign locations. This study uses container weight and packaging data obtained by weighing purchased samples of various brands of bottled water and reusable drinking containers, 1 1 Supplemented with information from a published article about bottle weight trends: Bauerlein, Valerie. Pepsi to Pare Plastic for Bottled Water. Wall Street Journal. March 25, ES-1

8 Executive Summary and import distances are estimated based on the locations of several countries where popular brands of imported water are bottled. The companies producing these brands of bottled water did not participate directly in this study, and their specific operations may be significantly different from the data sets and modeling assumptions used in this report. The results presented in this report are not intended to be used to represent specific brands of bottled water or reusable containers available in the marketplace. For example, a scenario shown for water imported from Fiji is one of several import scenarios developed using purchased container weights and estimates of transportation distances from bottling location to Oregon; however, the results for this scenario are not intended to be used to represent the specific products or operations of FIJI Water Company LLC, since no data from FIJI were collected for this study. INTENDED USE The primary intended use of the study results is to inform DEQ about the environmental burdens and tradeoffs associated with various options for providing drinking water to consumers and behavioral choices of consumers. DEQ is also interested in better understanding the environmental burdens and tradeoffs of end-of-life management options (recycling, composting, landfilling, etc.). This analysis contains comparative statements about the drinking water subscenarios analyzed. These statements are supported by the data presented in this report and apply to the systems analyzed in this study. Because DEQ will make the results of this study, including comparative statements, publicly available, this report is being peer reviewed in accordance with ISO standards for life cycle assessment. 2 SYSTEMS STUDIED The following types of drinking water systems are analyzed in this study: Bottled water packaged in and consumed from individual disposable bottles: o Virgin polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles (16.9 ounce, 8 ounce, and one liter) o PET bottles with a mix of virgin and recycled content (16.9 ounce) o Bottles made of virgin polylactide (PLA) resin derived from corn (16.9 ounce) o Glass bottles with a mix of virgin and recycled content (12 ounce) Tap water consumed from reusable containers: o Virgin aluminum bottle with plastic closure (20 ounce) o Virgin steel bottle with plastic closure (27 ounce) o Virgin plastic bottle with plastic closure (32 ounce) 2 International Standards Organization. ISO 14040:2006 Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and framework, ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management Life cycle assessment Requirements and guidelines. ES-2

9 Executive Summary o Drinking glass with a mix of virgin and recycled content (16 ounce) Home/office delivery (HOD) water consumed from reusable containers o Virgin polycarbonate bottles o Virgin PET bottles o Same reusable containers listed under the Tap system. Within these three general drinking water scenarios, a number of subscenarios were analyzed to evaluate the results for variations in container sizes, weights, transportation distances, recycled content and recycling rates, and many other variables. Forty-eight subscenarios were evaluated in all: 25 bottled water subscenarios (20 for PET bottles, 4 for PLA, 1 for glass), 12 subscenarios for tap water consumption using a variety of reusable drinking containers, and 11 subscenarios for HOD water consumed from reusable containers. Of the bottled water subscenarios, 5 evaluated long-distance transport of water from another country or the Eastern U.S. to Oregon. FUNCTIONAL UNIT In a life cycle study, systems are evaluated on the basis of providing a defined function (called the functional unit). The function of each system analyzed in this report is to deliver drinking water to consumers. The functional unit selected for this analysis is delivering 1,000 gallons of drinking water to a consumer, including use of a bottle or reusable drinking container, and end-of-life management of the containers and packaging. To provide some perspective, 1,000 gallons is the amount of water a person would consume in about 5.5 years if they drank eight 8-ounce servings of water a day. The functional equivalence is based on delivering drinking water that meets water quality standards set by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), EPA, and state governments. The scope of the analysis does not include evaluating other differences in the quality of the water (e.g., taste, fluoride or mineral content, etc.) or temperature of the water, or any potential health impacts that may be associated with the use of specific water container materials. Each subscenario evaluated clearly indicates whether the results included chilling of the water, and if so, the chilling method used. No carbonated or flavored waters were evaluated. SCOPE AND BOUNDARIES This study is a complete life cycle assessment (LCA) as defined in the ISO standards and As such, the study includes definition of goal and scope, life cycle inventory (LCI), life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), and interpretation of results. The analysis includes all steps in the production of each drinking water container system, from extraction of raw materials through production of the materials used in the containers, fabrication of finished containers and closures, and transport to filling locations. Treatment of municipal drinking water and additional processing steps used to purify bottled municipal water and natural water such as spring water are included in the ES-3

10 Executive Summary analysis. Bottle filling and washing operations are included, as is production of secondary packaging used for shipment of filled containers, distribution of filled containers, washing of reusable containers, and end-of-life management of containers and associated packaging components. Various options for chilling water are also included in the model, including home refrigeration, use of ice, and HOD chiller units. All washing of reusable personal drinking containers in this study is modeled based on use of a residential dishwasher, which is expected to be the most common method used by consumers for washing of these containers. Containers may also be handwashed; however, water and detergent use for hand washing can vary widely based on the practices of individual consumers. As a result, hand washing of containers can be either more or less burdensome than machine washing. The scope of the study did not include analysis of scenarios for HOD and tap water consumed from disposable cups, nor did the study include any scenarios in which disposable drinking water bottles sold filled with water were refilled by consumers and used as a reusable drinking container. Additional at-home purification of tap water, such as use of tap water filters, was not included in the scope of the analysis. The scope of the analysis did not include greenhouse gas effects of direct and indirect land use changes that may be associated with corn growing for PLA production. In Oregon, municipal solid waste (MSW) that is not recovered for recycling or composting is managed 93 percent by weight to landfill (LF), 6 percent by weight to waste-to-energy (WTE) combustion, and 1 percent by combustion without energy recovery, as documented in Appendix J. An energy credit is given for material that is managed by WTE combustion, based on the amount of each material burned, its heating value, and the efficiency of converting the gross heat of combustion to useful energy. The end-of-life emissions results take into account the effects of combustion, decomposition, and energy recovery, including estimates of release of carbon dioxide from combustion of materials and methane from decomposition of degradable landfilled material, emission credits for avoided grid electricity displaced by electricity generated from WTE operation and from landfill gas combustion, and carbon sequestration in landfilled biomass-derived material that does not decompose. The end-of-life modeling and recycling methodologies are described in Chapter 1. The LCI results are presented in Chapter 2. In the scoping phase of this study, the U.S. EPA s TRACI methodology was selected as the impact assessment methodology to be used, since it was developed to represent U.S. conditions (e.g., for fate and transport of chemical releases). Details of the LCIA are presented in Chapter 3. ES-4

11 Executive Summary DATA Detailed descriptions of the data and assumptions used in the life cycle assessment are provided in the Appendices, a separate document. Wherever possible the study used Oregon-specific data and assumptions, including the following: Mix of fuels to produce electricity used for processes that occur in Oregon, including processing and filling operations for bottled water processed in Oregon; operation of pumps to deliver municipal tap water to Oregon homes or to pump well water; molding of plastic water bottles produced in Oregon; operation of home dishwashers used to clean reusable containers between uses, electricity use in washing operations for HOD bottles that are filled and circulated in Oregon; Transportation distances for bottled water; Mix of residential water from wells and municipal water supplies; Recycling rates for PET bottles, glass bottles, and corrugated packaging; Percentages of landfilling, waste-to-energy combustion, and combustion without energy recovery for municipal solid waste management of containers that are not recycled; Modes and distances for transport of postconsumer solid waste to landfill and combustion facilities; Management of landfill gas. MAIN CONTRIBUTING FACTORS FOR EACH SYSTEM The primary factors contributing to the results for the bottled water system include the following: Production of bottles accounts for the majority of energy consumption for all subscenarios except those involving long-distance transport. Scenarios for trucking water cross-country showed higher energy requirements than scenarios where water was transported longer distances by ocean and a shorter distance by truck. The energy requirements for bottled water delivered in the 8-ounce bottle (scenario 5) are higher than the energy to deliver water in larger bottles because the smaller bottle has a higher ratio of bottle weight to weight of water in the bottle. In addition to the bottles themselves, the bottle lids and secondary packaging make significant contributions to the energy results. On average across all subscenarios, production of caps and secondary packaging each accounted for 12 percent of total energy. The choice of recycling allocation methodology for LCI analysis also can have a significant effect on the results. Use of an open-loop recycling allocation divides the burdens for material production and disposal between the product uses of the material, while alternative cut-off recycling allocations assign material production and disposal burdens to ES-5

12 Executive Summary either the system first using the virgin material or to the system using the recycled material. For tap water consumed from reusable containers, results are driven by washing of the container (including energy use for heating the water) and variations in the use of the container that affect the frequency of washing. The number of drinking container washings per thousand gallons of water consumed varies inversely with the size of the containers, the number of times the container is filled before washing, and the number of days the container is used before washing. The drinking glass system (scenario 18) has the lowest energy use for container manufacture but has the highest washing requirements because it is smaller than the other reusable containers so that the container must be filled (and washed) more times per 1,000 gallons consumed. Doubling the number of container fills between washings or washing the container every other day instead of daily reduces the washing requirements by half. Efficient use of the dishwasher is also important. The highest results for the tap water system are for the scenario in which containers are washed daily in a dishwasher with a high water consumption rate that is run when it is half full. For HOD water consumed from reusable containers, the three life cycle stages that consistently making the largest contributions to overall energy use are transportation of HOD containers (delivery of filled HOD containers and backhauling of empty containers to be washed and refilled), home washing of the reusable drinking containers, and chilling of the HOD water using a chilling base unit. Distribution of HOD containers includes transportation of filled containers from bottler to HOD distributor, dropping off filled bottles and picking up empties on delivery route, and backhauling empties to filling location for refilling. Distribution accounts for about 25 percent of total energy requirements for the subscenarios evaluated. Observations for washing of the reusable drinking container are the same as described above for the tap water system. Industrial washing of the HOD bottles makes a much smaller contribution to the overall results than does home washing of the individual drinking container. Chilling of drinking water is not required in order to maintain the quality of drinking water. While chilling of bottled water and tap water is done at the discretion of the consumer, HOD water is most commonly dispensed from a base unit that chills the water, so chilling energy use was included in all the HOD scenarios. This is a difference from the modeling of the bottled water and tap water scenarios, where most of the subscenarios did not include chilling. Energy for chilling of HOD water ranges from 20 to 40 percent of total energy for HOD systems and accounts for around 30 ES-6

13 Executive Summary percent of total energy for most HOD subscenarios. Chilling results are shown separately in the results tables so that results for HOD systems without chilling can be compared to results for unchilled bottled and tap water. OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Some general observations and conclusions can be made based on the results for the full range of subscenarios evaluated, which include combinations of parameters selected to represent best and worst cases for each system. It should be noted that the best and worst case subscenarios include future lightweighting and increased recycling scenarios. The full range of results also includes some subscenarios that account for a small percentage of total Oregon bottled water consumption (e.g., imported water packaged in glass bottles). The reader is encouraged to refer to the figures in Chapters 2 and 3 for results for individual scenarios for each system and the figures in Chapter 4 for the ranges of results for individual impacts across all subscenarios evaluated. Energy Results Energy comparisons between the different drinking water systems can be summarized as follows: All tap and HOD scenarios show lower energy than all long-haul water scenarios. The best case results for Oregon bottled water (excluding long-haul water) are for a future lightweighted bottle not currently in the marketplace, combined with 100% bottle recycling. When existing Oregon bottled water subscenarios are compared to tap subscenarios, the energy for tap subscenarios is lower in all cases. When existing Oregon bottled water subscenarios are compared to HOD subscenarios, there is overlap in many cases so that neither system can generally be considered to have lower energy results. Assuming a consumer s container washing practices are not influenced by the type of water served in the container, tap water systems have lower energy requirements than HOD water systems. Solid Waste Results As would be expected, the HOD and tap water systems do not produce much solid waste compared to the majority of the bottled water scenarios, since the tap and HOD systems utilize drinking water containers that are used many times over their useful life. The HOD bottles are also refilled and reused multiple times before they are retired from service and recycled; however, the solid waste results for the HOD systems do include the weight of disposed HOD plastic caps that are assumed to be replaced after each use cycle of an HOD bottle. ES-7

14 Executive Summary The choice of recycling allocation method has a significant influence on the solid waste weight and solid waste volume comparisons. The majority of subscenarios used an open-loop recycling methodology (designated method 1), in which half of the disposal burdens for the recycled bottles are allocated to the bottle system and half to the next system using the recycled material. The other recycling methods evaluated (designated methods 2 and 3) allocate all disposal burdens for recycled material to the next system using the recycled material, so the subscenarios using methods 2 and 3 show lower solid waste results than the subscenarios using method 1. A detailed description of the recycling methodologies can be found in the Postconsumer Recycling Methodology section of Chapter 1. The following solid waste observations can be made: In nearly all solid waste comparisons, both the tap and HOD systems have lower solid waste than the bottled water systems (long-haul and Oregon bottled water), although there are a few exceptions. The HOD worst case scenario overlaps with several Oregon bottled water solid waste subscenarios. Excluding the HOD worst case, the only other comparisons where bottled water solid wastes are lower than tap and HOD solid wastes are for the PLA bottle at 100% composting and the future lightweighted PET bottle at 100% recycling. Assuming a consumer s container washing practices are not influenced by the type of water served in the container, tap water systems have lower solid waste requirements than all HOD subscenarios except when compared to the HOD best case scenario. Impact Categories Rather than describing each impact category individually, this section describes general trends observed in the impact figures in Chapter 4. The reader is encouraged to refer to Chapter 4 to view results for individual impact categories. Environmental impact results can be summarized as follows: Comparison of Long-haul Bottled Water and Oregon Bottled Water Systems. Within the bottled water subscenarios evaluated, the ranges of impact results for longhaul bottled water and Oregon bottled water overlap or show small gaps for most impact categories. It should be noted that differences in impacts for long-haul and Oregon bottled water are due not only to differences in transportation but also to differences in the types and weights of bottles used for domestic and imported water. Comparison of Tap and Bottled Water Systems. For the subscenarios evaluated in this study, all tap subscenario results are lower in all impact categories compared to all long-haul bottle subscenarios. When comparing tap system results to Oregon bottled water results, the tap system subscenarios evaluated all have lower impacts than existing Oregon bottled water scenarios. The future lightweighted PET ES-8

15 Executive Summary bottle combined with very high bottle recycling rates has the potential to compare favorably with tap scenarios with inefficient container washing practices. Comparison of HOD and Bottled Water Systems. For the subscenarios evaluated in this study, all HOD subscenario results are lower in all impact categories compared to the long-haul bottle subscenarios. When comparing HOD subscenario results and the Oregon bottled water subscenario results, there are many subscenarios where there is overlap between HOD and Oregon bottled water results, even when the best and worst case scenarios are excluded for each system. Therefore, no general statements can be made about which of these systems has lower environmental impacts. ES-9

16 Chapter 1 Life Cycle Inventory Methodology CHAPTER 1 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW This life cycle inventory (LCI) quantifies the total energy requirements, energy sources, atmospheric pollutants, waterborne pollutants, and solid waste resulting from the life cycle of several types of drinking water systems, including bottled water, tap water, and home office delivery (HOD) water. The bottled water is assumed to be consumed directly from the bottle, while the tap and HOD water is assumed to be dispensed into reusable containers from which the water is consumed. The tap and HOD system analyses include the life cycle of the reusable containers. The purpose of this chapter is to define the life cycle methodology used to develop the results presented in Chapter 2. A life cycle inventory quantifies the energy consumption and environmental emissions (i.e., atmospheric emissions, waterborne emissions, and solid wastes) for a given product based upon the study boundaries established. Figure 1-1 illustrates the general approach used in a full LCI analysis. Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Raw Materials Acquisition Materials Manufacture Product Manufacture Product Use or Consumption Final Disposition Landfill, Combustion, Recycle, or Reuse Wastes Wastes Wastes Wastes Reuse Product Recycling Figure 1-1. General materials flow for "cradle-to-grave" analysis of a product system. Study Scope and Boundaries This LCI encompasses the following steps in the life cycle of each drinking water system studied: Raw material extraction (e.g., extraction of petroleum and natural gas as feedstocks for plastic resins; growing corn used as a feedstock for polylactide resin, commonly referred to as PLA) Processing and fabrication steps to transform raw materials into containers and closures (water bottles, HOD bottles, reusable containers) 1-1

17 Chapter 1 Life Cycle Inventory Methodology Manufacture of materials used to package containers for retail shipment (corrugated trays, plastic film) Water treatment processes Container filling and washing operations (including industrial washing of HOD bottles and home washing of reusable drinking vessels) Distribution of filled containers Optional processes for chilling water End-of-life management of containers and packaging. The LCI quantifies energy and resource use, solid wastes, and individual atmospheric and waterborne emissions for the life cycle stages listed above. Because of large uncertainties about the emissions resulting from waste to energy (WTE) combustion of containers and packaging and from decomposition of these materials in landfills, estimated end-of-life results are shown separately in the tables and figures. For WTE combustion of system components and for combustion of landfill gas with energy recovery, an emission credit is given for the equivalent amount of grid electricity displaced by the recovered energy. More details on the approach used for estimating end of life emissions and credits are provided at the end of this chapter in the section Methodological Decisions. LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY METHODOLOGY Key elements of the LCI methodology include the study boundaries, resource inventory (raw materials and energy), emissions inventory (atmospheric, waterborne, and solid waste), and disposal practices. In the early 1970s, Franklin Associates developed a methodology for performing comprehensive environmental inventories called Resource and Environmental Profile Analyses, or REPA studies. This type of analysis later became widely known under the name Life Cycle Inventory. The life cycle inventory methodology has been documented for the United States Environmental Protection Agency and is incorporated in the EPA report Product Life-Cycle Assessment Inventory Guidelines and Principles. The data presented in this report were developed using this methodology, which has been in use for over 30 years and is consistent with ISO standards for life cycle assessment published in ISO and Figure 1-2 illustrates the basic approach to data development for each major process in an LCI analysis. This approach provides the essential building blocks of data used to construct a complete resource and environmental emissions inventory profile for the entire life cycle of a product. Using this approach, each individual process included in the study is examined as a closed system, or black box, by fully accounting for all resource inputs and process outputs associated with that particular process. Resource inputs accounted for in the LCI include raw materials and energy use, while process outputs accounted for include products manufactured and environmental emissions to land, air, and water. 1-2

18 Chapter 1 Life Cycle Inventory Methodology Energy Requirements Raw Material A Raw Material B Raw Material C Manufacturing Process Product Useful By-product A Useful By-product B Air Emissions Solid Wastes Waterborne Emissions Figure 1-2. "Black box" concept for developing LCI data. For each process included in the study, resource requirements and environmental emissions are determined and expressed in terms of a standard unit of output. A standard unit of output is used as the basis for determining the total life cycle resource requirements and environmental emissions of a product. Material Requirements Once the LCI study boundaries have been defined and the individual processes identified, a material balance is performed for each individual process. This analysis identifies and quantifies the input raw materials required per standard unit of output, such as 1,000 pounds, for each individual process included in the LCI. The purpose of the material balance is to determine the appropriate weight factors used in calculating the total energy requirements and environmental emissions associated with each process studied. Energy requirements and environmental emissions are determined for each process and expressed in terms of the standard unit of output. Once the detailed material balance has been established for a standard unit of output for each process included in the LCI, a comprehensive material balance for the entire life cycle of each product system is constructed. This analysis determines the quantity of materials required from each process to produce and dispose of the required quantity of each system component and is typically illustrated as a flow chart. Data must be gathered for each process shown in the flow diagram, and the weight relationships of inputs and outputs for the various processes must be developed. 1-3

19 Chapter 1 Life Cycle Inventory Methodology Energy Requirements The average energy requirements for each process identified in the LCI are first quantified in terms of fuel or electricity units, such as cubic feet of natural gas, gallons of diesel fuel, or kilowatt-hours (kwh) of electricity. The fuel used to transport raw materials to each process is included as a part of the LCI energy requirements. Transportation energy requirements for each step in the life cycle are developed in the conventional units of ton-miles by each transport mode (e.g. truck, rail, barge, etc.). Government statistical data for the average efficiency of each transportation mode are used to convert from ton-miles to fuel consumption. Once the fuel consumption for each industrial process and transportation step is quantified, the fuel units are converted from their original units to an equivalent Btu value based on standard conversion factors. The conversion factors have been developed to account for the energy required to extract, transport, and process the fuels and to account for the energy content of the fuels. The energy to extract, transport, and process fuels into a usable form is labeled precombustion energy. For electricity, precombustion energy calculations include adjustments for the average efficiency of conversion of fuel to electricity and for transmission losses in power lines based on national averages. The LCI methodology assigns a fuel-energy equivalent to raw materials that are derived from fossil fuels. Therefore, the total energy requirement for coal, natural gas, or petroleum based materials includes the fuel-energy of the raw material (called energy of material resource or inherent energy). In this study, this applies to the crude oil and natural gas used to produce the plastic resins. No fuel-energy equivalent is assigned to combustible materials, such as wood, that are not major fuel sources in North America. The Btu values for fuels and electricity consumed in each industrial process are summed and categorized into an energy profile according to the six basic energy sources listed below: Natural gas Petroleum Coal Nuclear Hydropower Other The other category includes sources such as solar, biomass and geothermal energy. Also included in the LCI energy profile are the Btu values for all transportation steps and all fossil fuel-derived raw materials. Energy results for the drinking water systems studied in this analysis are provided in Chapter

20 Chapter 1 Life Cycle Inventory Methodology Environmental Emissions Environmental emissions are categorized as atmospheric emissions, waterborne emissions, and solid wastes and represent discharges into the environment after the effluents pass through existing emission control devices. Similar to energy, environmental emissions associated with processing fuels into usable forms are also included in the inventory. When it is not possible to obtain actual industry emissions data, published emissions standards are used as the basis for determining environmental emissions. The different categories of atmospheric and waterborne emissions are not totaled in this LCI because it is widely recognized that various substances emitted to the air and water differ greatly in their effect on the environment. Atmospheric Emissions. These emissions include substances classified by regulatory agencies as pollutants, as well as selected non-regulated emissions such as carbon dioxide. For each process, atmospheric emissions associated with the combustion of fuel for process or transportation energy, as well as any emissions released from the process itself, are included in this LCI. The amounts reported represent actual discharges into the atmosphere after the effluents pass through existing emission control devices. Some of the more commonly reported atmospheric emissions are: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, non-methane hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and sulfur oxides. The emissions results discussion in Chapter 2 focuses on greenhouse gas emissions, expressed in pounds of carbon dioxide equivalents. Waterborne Emissions. As with atmospheric emissions, waterborne emissions include all substances classified as pollutants. The values reported are the average quantity of pollutants still present in the wastewater stream after wastewater treatment and represent discharges into receiving waters. This includes both process-related and fuelrelated waterborne emissions. Some of the most commonly reported waterborne emissions are: acid, ammonia, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), chromium, dissolved solids, iron, and suspended solids. Solid Wastes. This category includes solid wastes generated from all sources that are landfilled or disposed of in some other way, such as incineration with or without energy recovery. These include industrial process- and fuel-related wastes, as well as the packaging components that are disposed when a container of product is emptied. Examples of industrial process wastes are residuals from chemical processes and manufacturing scrap that is not recycled or sold. Examples of fuel-related solid wastes are ash generated by burning coal to produce electricity, or particulates from fuel combustion that are collected in air pollution control devices. 1-5

21 Chapter 1 Life Cycle Inventory Methodology LCI PRACTITIONER METHODOLOGY VARIATION There is general consensus among life cycle practitioners on the fundamental methodology for performing LCIs. 3 However, for some specific aspects of life cycle inventory, there can be variations in the methodology used by experienced practitioners. These areas include the method used to allocate energy requirements and environmental releases among more than one useful product produced by a process, the method used to account for the energy contained in material feedstocks, and the methodology used to allocate environmental burdens for postconsumer recycled content and end-of-life recovery of materials for recycling. LCI practitioners vary to some extent in their approaches to these issues. The following sections describe the approach to each issue used in this study. Co-product Credit One unique feature of life cycle inventories is that the quantification of inputs and outputs are related to a specific amount of product from a process. However, it is sometimes difficult or impossible to identify which inputs and outputs are associated with individual products of interest resulting from a single process (or process sequence) that produces multiple useful products. The practice of allocating inputs and outputs among multiple products from a process is often referred to as co-product credit 4 or partitioning 5. Co-product credit is done out of necessity when raw materials and emissions cannot be directly attributed to one of several product outputs from a system. It has long been recognized that the practice of giving co-product credit is less desirable than being able to identify which inputs lead to particular outputs. In this study, co-product allocations are necessary because of multiple useful outputs from some of the upstream chemical processes involved in producing the resins used to manufacture plastic packaging components. Franklin Associates follows the guidelines for allocating co-product credit shown in the ISO 14044:2006 standard on life cycle assessment requirements and guidelines. In this standard, the preferred hierarchy for handling allocation is (1) avoid allocation where possible, (2) allocate flows based on direct physical relationships to product outputs, (3) use some other relationship between elementary flows and product output. No single allocation method is suitable for every scenario. How product allocation is made will vary from one system to another but the choice of parameter is not arbitrary. ISO International Standards Organization. ISO 14040:2006 Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and framework, ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management Life cycle assessment Requirements and guidelines. 4 Hunt, Robert G., Sellers, Jere D., and Franklin, William E. Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis: A Life Cycle Environmental Assessment for Products and Procedures. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 1992; 12: Boustead, Ian. Eco-balance Methodology for Commodity Thermoplastics. A report for The Centre for Plastics in the Environment (PWMI). Brussels, Belgium. December,

22 Chapter 1 Life Cycle Inventory Methodology section states The inventory is based on material balances between input and output. Allocation procedures should therefore approximate as much as possible such fundamental input/output relationships and characteristics. Some processes lend themselves to physical allocation because they have physical parameters that provide a good representation of the environmental burdens of each coproduct. Examples of various allocation methods are mass, stoichiometric, elemental, reaction enthalpy, and economic allocation. Simple mass and enthalpy allocation have been chosen as the common forms of allocation in this analysis. However, these allocation methods were not chosen as a default choice, but made on a case by case basis after due consideration of the chemistry and basis for production. In the sequence of processes used to produce resins that are used in the plastic containers and closures, some processes produce material or energy co-products. When the co-product is heat or steam or a co-product sold for use as a fuel, the energy content of the exported heat, steam, or fuel is shown as an energy credit for that process. When the co-product is a material, the process inputs and emissions are allocated to the primary product and co-product material(s) on a mass basis. (Allocation based on economic value can also be used to partition process burdens among useful co-products; however, this approach is less preferred under ISO life cycle standards, as it depends on the economic market, which can change dramatically over time depending on many factors unrelated to the chemical and physical relationships between process inputs and outputs.) In this study, corn grain is modeled as an input to production of PLA bottles. When corn grain is produced, corn stover (stalks and leaves) is coproduced. There are several ways in which corn stover can be managed. It may be left in the field to decompose, used for animal feed, or burned. In addition, there are some efforts to utilize corn stover as a source of biomass-derived energy. In this analysis, all of the corn growing burdens are allocated to the corn grain. The study used as the source of the corn growing data did not explicitly discuss the quantity of stover and whether it was treated as a co-product or as a waste 6 ; the implicit assumption is that the stover was neither allocated any co-product benefits nor assigned any waste management burdens, which would correspond with a scenario in which the stover is simply left in the field to decompose. In the sequence of process steps used to convert corn into starch at a wet mill, coproducts corn gluten and corn oil are also produced. For each process step at the mill, the energy and emissions are allocated to corn starch and other coproducts on a weight basis. 6 Shapouri et al