other s ideas or information? There must be a common basis on which people can

Transcription

1 Chapter 6 Semantics Language plays a key role in our daily communication. What is the basis on which people coming from different regions, places, or countries can exchange each other s ideas or information? There must be a common basis on which people can mutually understand. Semantics is the field in search of rules for what is behind our mutual understanding. According to the previous chapters, language is in general composed of utterances, sentences, and words. It will not be surprising that the study of semantics is of two tracks: lexical meaning and compositional meaning. In terms of lexicon, each word means independently. However, some words are connected in sounds, forms, or meanings. For instance, lay [ley] may be the past tense for lie (He lay asleep under the tree.) or it can be meant to put something somewhere. (He lays a book on the table.) In this case, the two lay s are identical in phonetic sound but different in meaning, which constitutes homonyms. Words may be contrasted in meaning, e.g. wide vs. narrow, like vs. dislike, resulting in antonym. In addition, words may form synonymy, e.g. bench and sofa. Most words do not mean one thing only. Instead, they are polysemy, one word means differently, e.g. bat (a bat for baseball, or a bat flying at night). Therefore, the studies of semantics begin with lexical meaning. Only lexical meaning is clearly defined can we investigate more about compositional meanings. Semantic theories are also the focus of this chapter. What are to be explored are: mental image theory, definition and prototype theory, theory of semantics and references, and theory of semantic features. Each theory has its merits and disadvantages. Nevertheless, each theory has certain contribution to our understanding of what semantics is.

2 Finally, we discuss three types of expressions related to semantic understanding: anomaly structure, metaphoric structure, and idiomatic chunks. All these three can only be decoded from either historical or cultural perspectives. 1. Lexical meaning Speech communication works on the basis of common knowledge of what words and morphemes mean. Words are usually considered to be a basic unit for expressions. For instance, water, juice, coffee, and liquor refer to different objects. However, it is acknowledged that water, juice, coffee, and liquor share some common semantic properties. They are liquid in nature. They cannot be counted one by one, e.g. *a coffee or *two coffees, but a cup of coffee, two cups of coffee. The semantic properties help group words into a category or a group. For instance, animals and human beings are animate, while stones, wood, and desks etc. are in-animate. In the same way, semantic properties distinguish verbs for animate from those for in-animate. For instance, John was killed is a good sentence, but sentences like The desk was killed are not good, because kill is a verb for animate only. Apart from words, a morpheme has its own meaning, e.g. s in cups indicate a plural form, while s in dances (She dances pretty well.) denotes a verb of the third person, singular, and present. Now how can lexical meaning be captured? For this, there are different theories proposed: (a) mental image, (b) definition and prototype, (c) semantics and references, and (d) the theory of semantic features. 1.1 Theories of semantics The theory of mental image is of the position that the meaning of a word comes from the image rising from our mind. For instance, when we hear a banana

3 [b n n ] spoken to us, in our brain or mind there rises an image of,which makes us relate the image to a banana, as indicated in (1). This theory explicitly points out what a concrete noun means in the beginning. Unfortunately, not all nouns or actions can be represented in a concrete image or picture. Nouns denoting something abstract like concept, honor, superiority, idea, etc. would be great challenges to this theory. What is the image of a concept? Even if there is such an image, it might be pictured differently by individuals. Words like hurt are subject to degrees in terms of feelings. When a boy betrays a girl in love, it hurts. When one kicks a stone, it hurts. Are there two images for the different hurts? Questions like those can hardly find good answers from the theory of immage. (1) [b n n ] The second theory for semantic studies is definition and stereotype. From the experience of first language acquisition, children begin with What is this? Accordingly, the definition of lexicon is to be stored or accumulated in mind. This is the basis of one s mental lexicon. It is the mental lexicon that helps us speak out. A mental lexicon is edited very much like a general dictionary, in which every entry is followed by a fixed definition, e.g. marriage: the relationship between husband and wife. Given that every word is well defined, it becomes the prototyped meaning. When we meet with words like hurt or concept, they are not problems at all, for they get a prototyped definition, respectively. The main problem for the theory of definition and prototype is the cyclic reasoning in rationale: which goes first, definition, or lexicon? Apparently, lexicon

4 is formed before the definition. In addition, there are many words whose meaning is arbitrarily given. For instance, there is no apple or pine in pineapple. It can be imaged that people first meet with a pineapple, they think that it looks like a pine, but it tastes like an apple. The combination of pine and apple is then used for the reference to pineapples. In addition, a word is usually defined depending on different contexts. However, in our daily communication we hardly stop to think which definition is the right one. Therefore, the theory of definition fails to account for meanings relying on contexts. 1.2 Connotation vs. denotation Another well debated approach is the theory of referents, which aims to show that the meaning of a word gets a direct referent or denotation. to (denotes) a set inclusive of tea cups, mug, coffee cups, etc. The word cup refers However, the meaning of a word can be decoded both in denotation and in connotation. The denotation meaning refers to the lexical semantics of a word, while connotation might be extended to meanings in a broader sense. The denotation of dove is, for example, a specific kind of birds, no more and no less. However, in Henry James s The Wings of the Dove, it is the connotation of dove that is focused. In this case, the dove is meant to be innocent love. Usually, connotation comes out of historical, cultural, or literary backgrounds, which might be foreign to those without equal knowledge. We have to know there was a wall between the US and the USSR in the 1960s so that we can follow what the wall was meant in Robert Frost s Mending Wall. In contrast, denotation can be directly decoded in linguistic words. In John was asked to paint the wall, the wall is simply referred to a wall in the back yard or in the garden.

5 Reference is further divided to intension and extension. Extension refers to the referent (the object that is referred to), while intension is sense or the semantic nature of that word. To illustrate the difference, consider: (2) a. John wants to keep a dog. b. He did not kill Mary s dog. The intension of dog refers to a specific dog, while the extension of dog is a whole set of dogs, which include Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, or Yorkshire. Therefore, the dog in (2a) is normally the extension of dog, because what John wants to keep is not specified. But Mary s dog in (2b) is usually confined. At least you know what kind of dog that Mary keeps. However, in normal cases, most words are meant by a combination of intension and extension. For instance, when cup is used it refers to the cup in its form and in its usage. The best example for the distinction between intension and extension in reference is a piece of cake. In the sense of intension, it is a cake that we can eat. It might be just a left-over piece or a new cut piece of cake. What matters is that there is a substantial cake in front of us. However, its extension meaning is something easy to be done. When it is said to write that sort of essay is just a piece of cake, it does not mean that there is a substantial cake in front of us. It means, as is used in idiomatic chunks, it is not difficult to write that sort of essay. Some proper names do not have intension meaning. For instance, a fashion store might be named Woodhouse. In its intension meaning, there must be some kind of wood, craft, furniture, home decoration, etc. However, usually it is not the case. The store merely sells stylish dresses or clothes. In Taiwan, the name of stores is even more flexible. There is a hot pot store named Grasshopper. What is sold in the store has nothing to do with grasshoppers.

6 On the contrary, there are some terms without extension meaning: (3) The king of the US is a bald. (4) A Hobbit is running for the president of Taiwan. As is known, there is no king in the US. Therefore, the king of the US in (3) has no extension meaning. Likewise, Hobbit is a people created by J.R.R. Tolkien. In the real world, there is no Hobbit. Therefore, there is no extension reference for Hobbit in reality. Sometimes, different words may refer the same referent. Consider: (5) a. John was put into jail last week. b. My neibhbor was put into jail last week. c. The one who visited us was put into jail last week. The subjects of (5a), (5b), and (5c) might refer to the same person. In such cases, it is co-referential. On a lot of occasions, co-referential might be used for different talkers at the same time, which might give rise to misunderstanding. The theory of reference runs into difficulties when function words like preposition or article are mentioned. In English, the difference between (6) and (7) lies in the use of in or at. If in is used, it seems Taipei is a big city, while (7) means that Taipei is just like some places else. It is entirely subjective, which can hardly be distinct in the theory of reference. (6) He lives in Taipei. (7) He lives at Taipei. 1.3 The theory of semantic features Following the theory of distinctive features in phonology, some semantic scholars try to adapt it and have it named the theory of semantic distinctive features.

7 To make a distinction among girl, boy, woman, man, for instance, the following features are used. (8) Semantic features girl boy woman man [human] [male] + + [female] + + [adult] + + The features indicate that girl, boy, woman, man are all human beings. differs from woman in the feature [adult]. Now what is meant to be adult? Girl What age would be the criterion for adulthood? This might be a great challenge for this theory. There are two points differentiating phonology from semantics. First, the features of phonology depend on places and manners of articulation. Given that places and manners are finite, the features are clear and the amount is not too huge. In contrast, semantic features are not clear in terms of the correspondence between features and referents. For example, there is no clear point for adulthood. In some countries, a girl aged 18 is legitimate to be married, while in other countries, it is not until 20. Some girls look like women, while some women look like girls. It is obvious that adulthood is hard to get defined. The most difficult part for the theory of semantic features is involved with color naming. What makes black different from red? Remind that the black tea in English is red tea (hongtsa) in Chinese. In the last stage, the feature [black] or [red] should be used. If that is the case, the function of semantic features disappears. Secondly, semantic features fail to distinguish category from individual. For instance, larks, sparrows, cuckoos are all [+bird]. The next would be size, or

8 features, or color. No matter which aspect, the features are far from satisfactory, because features like [+lark], [+sparrow], [+cuckoo] has to be adopted. This would run into the same difficulties as [+red] or [+black] do. In this section, we reviewed four theories in the field of semantic studies. Each has its own merits and disadvantages. What reveals is that there is much room for future studies. Review 1. Imagine that you have a friend studying abroad. If he mailed you a letter describing his room. He might use a lot of modifiers to describe what his room looked like. Then you asked him to mail you a picture. Now just ponder the questions: a. Do you think a picture works better than a lot of words? b. If this is the case, it seems that the theory of mental image works. Do you think so? 2. Please point out the advantages and disadvantages of the theory of definition. Your answer is expected to be based on some examples. 3. Consider the following sentences, and point out the difference between semantic intension and extension of house. a. John has become the owner of this house. b. John wants to buy a house. 5. What are semantic features? What problems does the theory of semantic features run into? 2. Word connection in semantics Lexical meaning can be investigated on the basis of semantic relations. In this respect, we are going to address the -nym family in English. 2.1 Homonym Homonym refers to words that share the same pronunciation but mean differently. There are in general two types of homonyms: (a) words with the same

9 spelling and pronunciation, but they are different in sematic meaning, (b) words with identical pronunciation but different in spelling and meaning. In English, some words share the same spelling and pronunciation, but they mean differently. Those words are frequently used in puns and wit expressions. People without proper knowledge might run into difficulties in communication. (9) Spelling and pronunciation identical, but meaning different spelling pronunciation meanings a. bank [ ] (i) river bank (ii) bank for saving money b. bat [b t] (i) bat for (ii) bat flying in the baseball evening c. pen [p n] (i) pen for writing (ii) pen for circling pets Other words sharing the same pronunciation while different in spelling and meaning are also grouped in homonym. (10) spelling pronunciation a. too [tu] b. to [tu] c. two [tu] Homonym brings a lot of fun or satire in humor plays, talk shows, and/or political speeches. Some frequently quoted phrases are seen in Lewis Caroll s Alice s Adventures in Wonderland. (11) a. How is bread made? b. I know that! Alice cried eagerly. You take some flour c. Where do you pick the flower? the White Queen asked. In a garden, or in the hedges?

10 d. Well, it isn t picked at all. Alice explained, It s ground e. How many acres of ground? said the White Queen. In the dialogues of (11), conflicts bring about in the use of homonym. First of all, the flour (11b) and flower (11c) are identically pronounced [flaur]. When Alice tries to show her knowledge, the Queen stops her by misunderstanding on purpose the flour for flower. The second conflict happens in the use of ground, which can mean the earth or the past participle of grind. In both conflicts, the author attempts to make fun or jokes on the basis of homonym. In addition, the dialogue in (11) indicates that homonym might give rise to communication problems. Examining carefully, we find that there are basically two types of homonyms: those sharing the same spelling as in (9), which is also called homographs, and those with different spellings as in (10). Mind that not all homographs are homonyms. For instance, the pronunciation of bow [bo] in (12a) differs from that of bow [bau] in (12b): (12) a. He has prepared bow and arrows for the general. b. They bow their heads without speaking a word. When two words are spelled identically but they are different in pronunciation and meanings, they are heteronyms: wind [w nd] vs. wind [waind], lead [lid] vs. lead [l d]. In brief, homonyms refer to words with same pronunciation. Those words can be identical or different in spelling. They can be homographs or homophones. 2.2 Synonym Synonym refers to words with different spelling and pronunciation, but they are nearly identical in meanings so that they may be used as a substitute in expressions.

11 For instance, words such as silly/stupid, wise/clever, big/large, to have/to own are good examples. However, it has to keep in mind that there are no two words with exact meanings just like there are no two leaves with the exact identical shape. For this reason, we have to notice that by words with identical meanings we mean that the pair of words is sometimes interchangeable. Consider: (13) a. He has bought two copies of that book. b. He has purchased two copies of that book. The two sentences in (13) almost mean the same, so buy and purchase are synonym. 2.3 Polysemy Almost all the words are polysemy, because few words are confined to one single meaning. For instance, iron can be a metal or an instrument for clothing. Bank can refer to either side of a river or a place for money saving. If we think with care, we are likely to find that most words in English are polysemy. Some words are different in meaning because they are of different categories. The word bear, if used as a verb, means to tolerate, while it is kind of animal if it is a noun. Both read [b r]. 2.4 Antonym Words with the opposite meanings are antonym, e.g. wide/narrow, stop/continue, dead/live, etc. However, antonym can be further divided into two types. One is complementary to each other in terms of semantic meanings. only one pole staying, e.g. live vs. dead, present vs. absent. In this type, there is People are either live or dead, nothing between. Even those staying in ICU (intensive care unit) are live from the medical point of view. The other type is gradable antonym, e.g. long/short, sad/happy. There is no

12 absolute criterion for the distinction between long and short. An inch might be too long on some occasions, while on others two feet might be too short, entirely depending on the situations. In the same way, when someone feels cold, someone else might feel warm. In gradable antonym, there is one pole called marked, while the other unmarked. Normally, the positive one is unmarked, e.g. long, wide, tall, old, etc. This can be reflected in the following dialogues. (12) A: John needed a string for the package. B: How long? (13) A: John needed a short string for the gift package. B: Short? How short? In the dialogues of (12), the dialogue of (12B) is an unmarked response. Unmarked means that it is used intuitionally, but marked means that only when it is marked or labeled. In this case, (13B) was told what John needed was a short string, so his response was how short. This is the difference between marked and unmarked meaning in antonym. In this section, we discussed lexical semantics on the basis of word connections, including homonym, synonym, polysemy, and antonym. Through a short outline of word connections, we find that the meaning of a word has to be examined by way of comparison. Review 1. What is a homonym? Please explain the term with proper examples. 2. Please illustrate a homograph and a homophone on the basis of proper examples. 3. What is a synonym? Please explain the term with proper examples. 4. What is an antonym? Please explain the term with proper examples. 5. In the contrast high/low, wide/narrow, which is unmarked? Which is marked?

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