DETECTION, ANALYSIS AND RISK ASSESSMENT OF COAL FIRES IN NORTHERN CHINA (ID 5345)

Transcription

1 DETECTION, ANALYSIS AND RISK ASSESSMENT OF COAL FIRES IN NORTHERN CHINA (ID 5345) Chriian Ficher (1), Jing Li (2), Jianjun Wu (3), Chrioph Erhler (1), Weiguo Jiang (3), Shan Guo (4), Bo Yang (5) (1) German Aeropace Cener, German Remoe Sening Daa Cener, Dep. Land Surface, Germany, (2) Sae Key Laboraory of Earh Surface Procee and Reource Ecology, Beijing Normal Univeriy, Beijing ,P.R. China, (3) Academy of Diaer Reducion & Emergency Managemen, Beijing Normal Univeriy, Beijing , P.R. China, (4) Chinee Academy of Science, Iniue for Remoe Sening Applicaion, P.O. Box 9718, Beijing P.R. China, (5) College of Reource and Environmen Science, Hunan Normal Univeriy, Changha , P.R. China, ABSTRACT Unconrolled combuion of coal i a eriou problem on a global cale. Since coal can eaily be oxidied and ofen ha a prominen elf-heaing capaciy, many coal ype have a endency o combu ponaneouly once ufficien oxygen i available and naural cooling i prevened. The rapid expanion of unconrolled mall-cale coal mining aciviie during he la year and he increaing amoun of no adequae cloed down and now abandoned coal mine ie are uppoed o have led o an increae of human-induced coal fire. Thu, coalfield fire need o be no only invenoried a regional cale hrough rapid and co effecive mehod, bu alo aeed, moniored and ecured, wherever appropriae. Thi lead o major reearch and echnological developmen objecive: Eay-o-ue, rouine remoe and in-iu monioring echnique, baed on airborne and pace borne imagery, o become par in an inegraed long-erm monioring framework. 1. INTRODUCTION Comprehenive udie have focued on wo differen region locaed in he Ningxia Hui Auonomou Region and in he Xinjiang Uyghur Auonomou Region. Boh area under inveigaion are heavily affeced by evere coal fire ince year on differen place wihin he coalfield. Beide uburface coal fire, urface coal fire occur direcly on oucropping eam and on place where mall-cale mining ook place. The deerminaion of he fire radiaive energy (FRE) ha been inroduced a a remoe ening echnique o quanify fore and graland fire. Variou mehod for fire deecion and FRE quanificaion have been developed, which can be caegoried ino ingle-band algorihm and muli-band algorihm. The nowaday commonly ued bi-pecral algorihm for hermal imagery wa inroduced by [1]. I ake advanage of he non-linear naure of he Planck funcion o calculae fire emperaure and fire ie on a ub-pixel bai. Thi bi-pecral fire emperaure and fire area can be ued o eimae FRE [2]. In conra [3] ue a ingle band algorihm o direcly derive FRE of a ub-pixel fire componen. In oppoie o burning vegeaion fire, he coal fire radiaive energy (CFRE) i comparably mall a mo fire are covered by bedrock. Reference [4] conduced a eniiviy udy on he ASTER, ETM+ and BIRD TIR aellie enor yem and found ASTER and ETM+ uiable for energy releae quanificaion uing a ingle band mehod. Single band mehod rely on he robu demarcaion of background pixel and fire influenced anomalou pixel. Algorihm for an auomaic exracion of local coal fire relaed anomalie, applicable on LANDSAT, ASTER and MODIS ha been developed by [5] and [6], allowing he exracion of hermally anomalou pixel wih regard o heir urrounding background emperaure. A long-erm monioring and CFRE quanificaion analyi on muliple emporal eparaed TIR cene i feaible only when a reliable fire pixel idenificaion independen from environmenal facor can be guaraneed. However, all coal fire anomaly deecion algorihm have problem in diinguihing beween coal fire induced hermal anomalie and anomalie induced by ambien condiion like inhomogeneou urface heaing by he irradiaion of he un. Limied repeaabiliy of he anomaly deecion due o amopheric and climaic influence i a furher challenge. Finally a aellie TIR daa e i no deermined excluively by he iuaion a recording ime bu alo by he hiory of environmenal facor which may lead o energy accumulaion. Baed on comprehenive field work aciviie, he following apec have been conidered in deail: (i) differen emiiviy value of ypical rock covering he Proc. Dragon 2 Final Reul & Dragon 3 KickOff Sympoium Beijing, P.R. China (ESA SP-704, January 2013)

2 fire one, (ii) olar radiaion budge ha influence he emperaure of he opographic urface and correponding emiion, epecially a nigh ime and (iii) he energy balance of he urface ielf, a a reul of weaher condiion and local urface parameer. Simulaneou grid baed urface and uburface. 2. SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE Uually coal fire burn in he underground reuling in a urface hermal anomaly, which i highly dependen on modificaion due o hea conducion and hea capaciy of he covering bedrock. Alo weaher condiion and unligh expoure how a rong impac. To improve he underanding of hi complex amophere-urface-uburface yem, an energy balance model for he opographic urface wa implemened. The model coni of hree linked par, which are (i) aenuaion of olar irradiaion in he amophere, (ii) energy converion a he urface and (iii) dieminaion of emperaure in he uburface. Thi approach eem uiable for he moly arid region of he Norhern Chinee coal bel. Aenuaion of olar irradiaion in he amophere A implified clear-ky amophere model i ued in par (i). Baed on [7] ome change are made primarily o enhance he accuracy and numerical robune. A e of wavelengh independen amopheric ranmiion coefficien i calculaed from laiude, eaon and local ime of he modelled area encompaing Rayleigh caering, aerool caering and aborpion a well a aborpion due o waer vapour, oone and amopheric gae. Thee coefficien are ued in he amopheric correcion algorihm o pli op-of-he-amophere olar irradiance ino aenuaed direc and diffue componen. Thi model i baed on andard amopheric condiion and empirical correlaion. I can be eaily enhanced if addiional daa are available, e.g. oal waer vapour column, cloud coverage and unhine hour, meaured a regular ime uing MODIS or MERIS daa e, or even beer by poible acce o more deailed and coninuouly recorded weaher informaion. Energy converion a he urface Variou energy balance erm are modelled in par (ii) including horwave and longwave balance, enible hea flux deniy E enible and ground hea flux deniy E ground. The ne radiaion flux deniy E ne i he um of all incoming and ougoing radian flux deniie horwave and longwave. Effec of elevaion, orienaion and lope on E ne are conidered, which include elf hadowing, ground refleced irradiaion and inciden angle. Focu ha been e on arid deerlike environmen hu he laen hea flux deniy E laen i no modelled. Senible hea flux deniy E enible i calculaed uing he bulk aerodynamic mehod (3) wih he conan air deniy pa (kg m-³) and pecific hea of air a conan preure Ca (J kg-1 K-1). The driving force of he hea exchange i he emperaure gradien beween urface and air T - Ta (K). The aerodynamic reiance ra ( m-1) i dependen on wind peed and urface roughne. E enible T T p a C a a (3) r a In cae he wind peed approache ero he urbulen hea ranfer proce ceae and aerodynamic reiance ra approache infiniy. Thi virually op any energy lo of he urface due o enible hea flux. E ne E enible E laen E ground 0 (4) The oal energy balance a he opographic urface for bare oil i given by equaion (4). In heory he balance i cloed, real meauremen aemp however how a gap E gap which encompae no only error in meauremen bu alo in mehodology (e.g. urface energy orage, cale effec, ec.). In he model hi deviaion E gap from he energy equilibrium i ued o compue a correcion offe ΔT for he emperaure eimae of he urface layer. E gap ~ T (5) Formula (6) relae urface layer emperaure change ΔT (K) over a ime inerval d () o he energy equilibrium deviaion E gap (W m -2 ). The hea capaciy C (J m -3 K -1 ) inroduce rock pecific warming behaviour ino he formula. dt E gap d *C T T -1 *C E gap (6) Here he layer hickne (m) characerie a hypoheical affeced oil volume which gain or loe an energy amoun E gap leading o a change in emperaure). However difficulie aroe in calibraing o a cerain value uing field daa. Reference [8] preen anoher calculaion approach uing fracional inegraion propoing ha he ground hea flux deniy i compleely deermined by he hiory of urface oil emperaure. In revere, when given he oil hea flux deniy E, he oil emperaure

3 T g can be calculaed. For he urface i lead o formula (7). Auming ha only he deviaion E gap from he energy equilibrium can caue a change in urface emperaure and ha i ac like an addiional flux deniy in he upper layer hen olving he inegral for he dicree ime ep [0 ] give expreion (8). and T () T g T T k C 2 k C 0 E E d gap (7) (8) Thi formula i in analogy o formula (6) bu bypae he need of inroducing a new variable o be deermined empirically. Anoher advanage i he reduced eniiviy o error in he eimae of he rock pecific parameer volumeric hea conduciviy k (J m -1-1 K -1 ) and hea capaciy C (J m -3 K -1 ) due o he quare roo dependence Dieminaion of emperaure in he uburface Par (iii) uilie he mehod of implici Euler finie difference (9) for modelling he hea conducion in verical direcion hrough he uburface layer [9]. Dicree ep in ime Δ and pace Δ pan up a imepace grid. Saring from an iniial condiion (a given emperaure profile a ime =0) and boundary condiion (emperaure a urface =0 and boom =N) for each ime-pace node in he grid a emperaure i calculaed. The lower boundary condiion i e o a conan emperaure auming no diurnal or annual variaion a ha deph. For imulaing he hea ource of a uburface coal fire hi lower boundary condiion i e o a higher value. The value of he upper boundary condiion i adaped every ime ep and mimic he diurnal emperaure wave. Boh boundary condiion and rock pecific parameer volumeric hea conduciviy k (J m -1-1 K -1 ) and hea capaciy C (J m -3 K -1 ) deermine he emperaure profile. varying. Compared o meauremen a oher fire locaion in Rujiqou and Shuixi Gou marix emiion in Wuda (all area are locaed in Ningxia Hui Auonomou Region, P.R. China) wa order of magniude lower owing o he fac of he uburface being olid andone. Bu he field meauremen howed a ignifican par of he energy o be ranpored by exhau gae and correponding hea convecion if a yem of fiure and crack doe exi. Thi non-radiaive par a well a all laeral energy fluxe canno be oberved by remoe ening. Modelling reul Baed on he clear-ky irradiance, opography, climae facor and a uburface hea ource he model calculae he urface emperaure conidering all major energy balance erm for an arid environmen. Aenuaion and lag of he diurnal urface emperaure wave on i way ino deeper oil/rock layer i modelled by incorporaing he ground hea flux and hu a link beween urface emperaure and uburface emperaure a arbirary deph i eablihed, cp. Figure 1. T C 2 T k 2 (9) 1 T T C Δ 2k T Δ 1 1 T T Δ 1 Δ Δ Δ 1 1 T Δ Lacking repreenaive field meauremen and deerminaion mehod hea convecion wa no implemened ye. Ga flux meauremen have hown ha he role of convecion can only be decribed in a limied way up o now, bu i i o be conidered highly Figure 1: Two example of modelled oil emperaure for one day. (a) how he developmen of oil emperaure a 1cm, 5cm, 20cm and 80cm deph, (b) how emperaure profile for variou ime. Damping and phae hif of he diurnal urface emperaure wave are clearly viible.

4 Comparing modelled wih meaured uburface emperaure i became obviou ha precipiaion rongly affec he energy balance by promoing hea conducion and laen hea flux. 3. CFRE SIMULATION The oal emied energy flux E (W m -2 ) over all wavelengh of a grey body wih emiiviy ε (-) and a emperaure T (K) can be calculaed according o Formula 8, where σ (W m -2 K -4 ) i he Sefan- Bolmann conan. E T 4 (8) Uing Formula 9 he CFRE can be calculaed from he difference in oal emied energy flux E of a grey body a coal fire induced urface emperaure T fire and a grey body a background/ambien emperaure T bg muliplied by he anomaly area A (m 2 ). CFRE E( T ) E( T ) A (9) fire Feeding he model wih he appropriae daa a imulaion of he urface emperaure above a coal fire a well a he ie and eaon pecific naural background urface emperaure no influenced by he coal fire for any deired ime i poible. Wih he help of Formula (9) a imulaed CFRE can be calculaed or ummed up over a longer period. 4. Poenial of variou aellie yem for coal fire monioring Seniiviy of a pecific aellie yem o coal fire depend on i pecral band and reoluion a well a on he noie level. A nigh, which i he mo favourable ime for coal fire deecion, he coal fire radiance can be approximaed by he radiance of a black body. Figure 2 illurae he pecral diribuion of he black body radiance a a funcion of i emperaure a ypical coal fire urface emperaure from 20 K above he background o 600 K a well a ypical pecral band of aellie enor in he amopheric ranparency window in he hor-wave infrared (SWIR1: µm and SWIR2: µm), mid-infrared (MIR: 3-5 µm) and hermal infrared (TIR1: µm and TIR2: µm) pecral range. bg Figure 2: Black body radiance a a funcion of wavelengh and emperaure. Shaded are ypical pecral band of aellie imaging yem: SWIR1: μm (ASTER channel 4), SWIR2: μm (ASTER channel 7), MIR: μm (BIRD MIR channel), TIR1: μm (ASTER channel 12), TIR2: μm (ASTER channel 13); he doed line how he minimal deecable ignal of he ASTER SWIR channel in he high-gain mode; he dahed line repreen he radiance of a background wih an aumed emperaure of 300 K The eniiviy of variou enor o coal fire are characeried by he fire area A F,min and he coal fire radiaive energy ha reul in he fire/background conra of e.g. 1.3 (i.e. he ignal of he fire pixel i 30% larger han he ignal of a background pixel). For he SWIR channel, i i aumed ha he fire pixel ignal exceed e.g. by a facor of 3 he minimal deecable ignal. Thee parameer are evidenly proporional o he enor pixel area: A q F, min min A pix and (10) CFRE 4 4 min ( TF Tbg ) q min A pix k min A Where q min i he minimal deecable fire proporion in a pixel, σ i he Sefan-Bolmann conan, T F i he fire urface emperaure, T bg i he background emperaure ha i aumed o be equal o 300 K, 4 4 kmin ( TF Tbg ) * qmin.i he minimal deecable SFRP relaed o he uni pixel area pix Here he parameer q min and k min depend only on he enor band and on he fire emperaure bu no on he enor reoluion and hu characerie he eniiviy of variou pecral band regardle of he enor reoluion.

5 The channel of ome aellie enor, which can be ued for coal fire monioring, are compared in he order of prioriy in Table 1. The following channel have been analyed: SWIR2 ( μm), TIR1 ( μm) and TIR2 ( μm) channel of he Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emiion and Reflecion Radiomeer (ASTER) on he Terra aellie, SWIR2 ( μm) and TIR2 ( μm) channel of he Infrared Mulipecral Scanner (IRMSS) on he CBERS2 aellie, MIR ( μm) and TIR1 ( μm) channel of he Bi-pecral Infrared Deecion (BIRD) aellie (hough he BIRD aellie ha opped funcioning, imilar camera will be inalled on he TET-1 aellie launched in July 2012), SWIR2 ( μm), MIR ( ), TIR1 ( μm) and TIR2 ( μm) channel of he Moderae Reoluion Imaging Specroradiomeer (MODIS) on he Terra and Aqua aellie. In pie of he fac ha he MIR pecral range i mo eniive o fire, he BIRD MIR channel wih a paial reoluion of 370 m i only he hird mo eniive channel a all emperaure. A low emperaure cloe o he background emperaure, he mo eniive are he higher-reoluion TIR channel of he ASTER and IRMSS enor, while a a emperaure of 400 K or more he mo eniive i he ASTER SWIR2 channel. The IRMSS SWIR2 channel i he econd mo eniive channel a a emperaure of 500 K or more. The eniiviy of he low-reoluion channel of MODIS o coal fire i ignificanly wore. Table 1: Minimal deecable fire area and SFRP by aellie enor [10]] 5. CFRE eimaion Baed on he inveigaion decribed wihin he previou chaper, a coal fire region nex o ciy of Wuda, Ningxia Hui Auonomou Region, wa applied o nine ASTER nigh ime image, which cover all he eaon of year The muli-emporal ASTER image were co-regiered uing heir geo-referencing informaion. Figure 3:Muli-emporal CFRE analyi of he Wuda coal fire area (calculaed CFRE 0-1 MW pixel) The obained reul how he poibiliy o deec and monior coal fire wih a high degree of plauibiliy. The informaion from he modelled urface energy balance cheme decreae he number of pixel wih high uncerainy and pixel howing poible fale alarm. 6. RISK ASSESSMENT AT A REGIONAL SCALE Rik analyi and aemen of underground coal fire a a regional cale play a crucial role in coal fire deecion, fighing, and monioring, and achievemen in coal fire miigaion. Reul can provide a reaonable cienific guide for fire fighing engineering, and even for reource allocaion, ulimaely improving he efficiency of fire exinguihing a a whole. They may alo be ued a inpu parameer for underground coal fire monioring and early warning yem. Rik for hi and all oher purpoe decribe he poibiliy of damage or lo. I conain hree diinc apec: (i) he probabiliy of a haard o occur, (ii) he vulnerabiliy and (iii) he ulimae expoure o he haard [11] hi i all baic ock of claical rik

6 heory and ha been widely applied in many reearch field, epecially in hoe relaed o diaer [12]. Coal fire, however, are differen from oher diaer and o coal fire rik or underground coal fire rik have been newly developed a academic erm for hi reearch field. Their meaning, in fac, may refer o wo differen ype of rik, baed on reearch emphai: (i) he probabiliy of occurrence of underground coal fire, and (ii) he expeced loe of naural reource and environmenal a well a human damage brough on by he fire [13] and [14]. Index yem Thu, i ha been focued on he fir ype of rik aiming in quanifying he probabiliy of coal combuion in paial exen and burning ineniy. From he impac facor on regional underground coal fire developmen, ga conen; poroiy; coal rank; brilene; moiure, ah, and ulfur/pyrie conen; coal meamorphim; a well a geological age, hickne, and angle of coal eam were eleced a evaluaion indice for ponaneou combuion endency. Coal eam deph, faul, anicline, lope/apec, and fracure were eleced a evaluaion indice for coal expoure o oxygen. Precipiaion and emperaure, finally, a well a wind, populaion deniy, and mining ype and diribuion were reained a poenial coal fire caue or rigger. Baed upon hee hree index group, a regional rik aemen index yem of underground coal fire developmen wa eablihed. Mehodological Aemen The mehod for regional rik aemen of underground coal fire developmen applied here re upon hree baic operaion: daa inegraion and proceing, coal fire rik evaluaion modelling, and validaion. One main pillar of he mehod i he aemen of ponaneou combuion endency, coal expoure o oxygen, and analyi of poenial fire caue or rigger (ee Formulae 11-14). The dicree mechanim of underground coal fire developmen, however, are ill being reearched, and he echnologie in ue canno a ye fully idenify and diinguih beween he conribuion of each of hee facor. In our udy, herefore, we proceeded from he aumpion ha he impac of each group of indice on coal fire developmen i of equal value. In order o quanify underground coal fire rik more accuraely, paial overlay wa applied o he um of all indice on a 1km 1km grid, o ha rik value for each ingle grid quare could be obained.: R =V combuion +V conac +V caue (11) V combuion = a + a + a +L+ a (12) V conac = b + b + b +L+ b (13) V caue = c + c + c +L+ c (14) In he formulae above, R i he rik of underground coal fire developmen a a regional cale. V combuion ignifie ponaneou combuion endency, V conac coal expoure o oxygen, and caue coal fire caue or rigger. a 1 ~ an are n indice of coal ponaneou combuion endency, b 1 ~ b m are m indice of coal expoure o oxygen; c 1 ~ c k are k indice of poenial coal fire rigger. The applicaion of he naural break mehod, a mehod now exenively ued for claificaion of uch daa cluer, depended in hi cae on he diribuion of daa; reul, indeed, mainained heir aiical characeriic (ArcGIS 9.0). A applied here, he mehod worked wih five level of regional underground coal fire rik: no rik, low rik, medium rik, high rik, and exremely high rik. Given ha if here i no coal, here i no coal fire rik ; value for he grid quare ouide he coalfield were aumed o be 0. Figure 4 decribe he Mehodology for rik aemen of underground coal fire developmen a a regional cale. Figure 4: Rik aemen of underground coal fire developmen a a regional cale Validaion of he mehod The paial diribuion of he differen underground coal fire rik level a per under our aemen i hown in Figure 5. No-rik area are mainly found ouide coalfield region. Exremely high-rik area are concenraed in norhern Xinjiang, from Wuu, Urumchi, and Turfan Bain o Hami; ome maller po are in he cenre, from Baicheng and Lunai o Kuerle and Yangxia, forming a coal fire rik bel.

7 High rik area are predominan in Balikun in he eaern par of Xinjiang, a well a in a line from Wuqia, Yecheng, and Minfeng o Qiemo. In norhern Xinjiang, ha i, around Tacheng, Kelamayi, and Yili, he rik of underground coal fire developmen i very low. 20 coal fire one in Xinjiang have already been exinguihed, ye unil 2008, anoher 22 fire were newly dicovered [15]. The coninued occurrence of coal fire, ogeher wih he re-igniion of ancien and (parly) exinguihed one, i a eriou challenge o fire fighing aciviie. Figure 5: Spaial diribuion of underground coal fire rik level in he province of Xinjiang For he paial diribuion of underground coal fire rik level in Xinjiang, he general paern how ha exremely high coal fire rik are in middle and ouh par, while low rik diribue in norhwe according o he reul, fire one falling ino exreme high and high coal fire rik area can occupy up o 61.54%. There are fewer fire one falling ino low rik coal fire area. Six fire one fall ino no coal fire rik area, and wo of hem are falling ino he daa miing area. The phenomenon i caue of he difference formaion ime of he fire one daa and coal field boundary daa. 7. Concluion and Recommendaion The preened model bridge he gap o far exiing beween coal fire modelling in he uburface uing finie elemen, e.g. a propoed by [16] mehod and urface emperaure meauremen from pace. Focuing on remoe ening, he model can ai in validaing land urface emperaure derived from remoe ening daa and can erve a background for coal fire radiaive energy (CFRE) quanificaion. Wih he abiliy o imulae ho po emperaure baed on in-iu meauremen, verificaion daa can be creaed o criically review CFRE releae compued from aellie daa. The energy balance model a hand give a coheren decripion of he amophere-urfaceuburface yem. However ome apec are miing, namely laen hea flux and hea ranpor by convecion, limiing he model o arid e ie wih compac bedrock. Epecially climae daa wih a high emporal reoluion are required o model he variable environmenal condiion and heir influence adequaely. If uch daa i available in fuure, implemenaion of hee apec i raighforward. The analyi of he muliemporal ASTER TIR daa over he Wuda e ie how ha muli-emporal proceing allow o decreae he TIR hrehold for deecion of coal eam fire and hu o increae he deecable CFRE. Thi approach can be ued when a ufficienly large obervaion record covering variou eaon i available. Addiional e of he mulipecral approach and opimiaion of i parameer for pecific coal fire area are clearly required and can hopefully be done wihin upcoming TIR paceborne miion. One opporuniy for furher inveigaion i he BIRD-like experimenal mall aellie TET-1 carrying an advanced IR yem on board. The aellie ha been launched by German Aeropace Cener in July 2012 and will provide fir daae in The Reul for regional rik aemen of underground coal fire developmen in Xinjiang are conidered a very aifying; hey may provide very well inpu for planning and implemening fire fighing campaign on a macrocopic level in he region. There are ill ome deail abou he mehod ha need furher dicuion and refinemen: fir, a regard coal fire caue or rigger, local lieracy rae, economic performance and land ue ype hould be included in order o refine human impac analyi and complemen he enire index yem. Second, hough he mehod i baed upon he hypohei ha he conribuion of each coal fire rik index i equal, hi may no alway be he cae in realiy for example, human aciviie may acually have a much larger impac. The weighed value of each index, hence, will be a poin of cruiny in furher reearch. In order o avoid he furher lo of valuable energy reource in he fuure, long erm monioring, obervaion and ecuring echnique needed o be developed, eed and implemened. Thi include monioring and conrol meaure for acive mining area aociaed wih a cerain rik of ponaneou coal fire igniion due o he geological depoi rucure, naural boundary condiion and human aciviie, e.g. unconrolled mall cale mining, a monioring of unouched and unmined coal field wih a noable rik of ponaneou igniion and an effecive and appropriae conrol of uccefully exinguihed fire area/one o preven re-igniion dynamic.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The auhor graefully acknowledge he ouanding uppor from ESA/MOST during he DRAGON2 programme. DRAGON2 formed an excellen plaform for cienific reearch wihin an inernaional framework. The uppor from Leon Maldonado and he ASTER projec cience eam a Je Propulion Laboraory, Paadena, for providing he ASTER cene i graefully acknowledged. The auhor alo like o hank Mr. Jia Yaorong from Wuhai Energy Co. Ld and Mr. Cai from he Fire Fighing Bureau in Xinjiang and heir eam for he comprehenive uppor during he field campaign. REFERENCES 1. Doier, J. (1981). A mehod of aellie idenificaion of urface emperaure field of ubpixel reoluion. Remoe Sening of Environmen, vol. 11, Wooer, M.J., Zhukov, B. & Oerel, D. (2003). Fire radiaive energy for quaniaive udy of bioma burning: derivaion from he BIRD experimenal aellie and comparion o MODIS fire produc. Remoe Sening of Environmen, vol. 86, Kaufman, Y.J., Juice, C.O., Flynn, L.P., Kendall, J.D., Prin, E.M., Giglio, L., Ward, D.E., Menel, W.P., & Seer, A.W. (1998). Poenial global fire monioring from EOS-MODIS. Journal of Geophyical Reearch, vol. 103, Telaff, A. (2004). Coal fire quanificaion uing ASTER, ETM and BIRD aellie inrumen daa. Dieraion, Faculy of Geocience, Ludwig- Maximilian-Univeriy, Munich. 5. Zhukov, B., Loren, E., Oerel, D., Wooer, M. & Rober, G. (2005): Experience of deecion and quaniaive characeriaion of fire during he experimenal mall aellie miion BIRD. Forchungberich , DLR. 6. Küner, C., Zhang, J., Li, J., Voig, S., Mehl, H. & Wagner, W. (2007). Deecing unknown coal fire: Synergy of auomaed coal fire rik area delineaion and improved hermal anomaly exracion. Inernaional Journal of Remoe Sening, vol. 28(20), Wang, J., & Bra, R.L. (1999). Ground hea flux eimaed from urface oil emperaure. Journal of Hydrology, vol. 216: Roema, A., Guan, H. & Veld, H. (2000). Simulaion of ponaneou combuion, o udy he caue of coal fire in he Rujigou Bain. Fuel, vol, 80, Zhukov, B. (2009). Senor poenial evaluaion and algorihm developmen for deecion and radiaive power evaluaion of coal eam fire. Inernal DLR- Repor. 11. Huang, C.F. (2004). Rik aemen of naural diaer: Theory & Pracice. Beijing: Science Pre. 12. Timohy, W.C., Sara, E.G., Maria de Lourde & Romo Aguilar. (2009). Vulnerabiliy o environmenal haard in he Ciudad Juare (Mexico)-EL Pao (USA) meropoli: A model for paial rik aemen in rannaional conex. Applied Geography, vol, 2, Prakah, A. & Vekerdy, Z. (2004). Deign and implemenaion of a dedicaed prooype GIS for coal fire inveigaion in norh China. Inernaional Journal of Coal Geology, vol, 59, Peng, G.X., Li J. & Chen, Y.H. (2007). NORIZAN Abdul-paah3 A fore fire rik aemen uing ASTER image in peninular Malayia. Journal of China Univeriy of Mining & Technology, vol. 17(2), Cai, Z.Y. (2008). Repor of inveigaion of Quergou fire one in Xinjiang., Xinjiang Coal Fire Fighing and Engineering Bureau. Inernal Repor. 16. Weßling, S. (2007). The inveigaion of underground coal fire oward a numerical approach for hermally, hydraulically and chemically coupled procee. Dieraion, Deparmen of Elecrical Engineering, Informaion Technology, Phyic, Braunchweig Univeriy of Technology. 7. Iqbal, M. (1983). An inroducion o olar radiaion. New York, Academic Pre.