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1 REFERATe GENERALe / GENERAL STUDIES Relația dintre neurotransmițători, comportament și abuz: O privire retrospectivă/ O analiză Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review Adrian V. Rus 1, Sheri R. Parris 2 REZUMAT Această retrospectivă examinează următorii opt Neurotransmițători: dopamina, norepinefrina, epinefrina, serotonina, histamina, feniletilamina (FEA), glutamatul și acidul gama aminobutiric (GABA). Mai precis, lucrarea examinează relația dintre acești neurotransmițători și comportamente psihopatologice care indică problemele psihologice latente sau antecedente de abuz. Cunoașterea acestor legături poate oferi o înțelegere profundă a acestor comportamente și îi poate ajuta pe specialiști în luarea unor decizii de tratament bine documentate. Cuvinte cheie : neurotransmițători, comportamente, abuz ABSTRACT This review paper examined the following eight neurotransmitters: dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, histamine, phenylethylamine (PEA), glutamate, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Specifically, we examined the relationship between these neurotransmitters and psychopathological behaviors that indicate underlying psychological problems or histories of maltreatment. Awareness of these links can provide a deeper understanding of these behaviors as well as assist practitioners in making more informed treatment decisions. Keywords : neurotransmitters, behavior, maltreatment Introducere Această lucrare retrospectivă examinează următorii opt neurotransmițători: dopamina, norepinefrina, epinefrina, serotonina, histamina, feniletilamina (FEA), glutamatul și acidul gama-aminobutiric (GABA). În continuare se va discuta relaţia dintre comportament şi aceşti neurotransmiţători. Unii dintre compuşii neuro chimici enumeraţi mai sus nu sunt definiţi în mod consecvent ca neurotransmiţători în literatura de specialitate datorită ambiguităţii modului în care acţionează, dacă afectează sistemul nervos central sau pe cel periferic. Dar, pentru a ușura lectura îi vom considera pe toți neurotransmițători. 1 Universitatea Creștină Sudvest, Statul Texas, SUA 2 Universitatea Creștină Texas, Statul Texas, SUA aadrianrus@gmail.com adrian.rus@swcu.edu 1 Southwestern Christian University, TX, USA 2 Texas Christian University, TX, USA aadrianrus@gmail.com adrian.rus@swcu.edu Revista de Neurologie şi Psihiatrie a Copilului şi Adolescentului din România Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2 7

2 Adrian V. Rus Relația dintre neurotransmițători, comportament și abuz: O privire retrospectivă/ O analiză REFERATe GENERALe Neurotransmițătorii, definiți drept mesageri chimici ai sistemului nervos, susțin transmiterea semnalelor de la un neuron la altul și în cele din urmă permit ca semnalul să fie purtat prin toate organele din corp. Neurotransmițătorii sunt prezenți în toate fluidele corpului, cum ar fi limfa, lichidul cefalorahidian (LCR), saliva și urina (Ailts, Ailts, & Bull, 2007). Deși sunt prezenți în tot corpul, Neurotransmițătorii sunt în primul rând sintetizați, depozitați și secretați de către sistemul nervos central (SNC). Cei mai mulți dintre Neurotransmițători sunt sintetizați din aminoacizii obținuți din hrană și de aceea precursorii neurotransmițătorilor pot trece de bariera sânge creier (Ailts, Ailts, & Bull, 2007). Neurotransmițătorii catecolaminergici - dopamina, epinefrina și norepinefrina Principalele catecolamine din sistemul nervos sunt amine biogene și includ dopamina, norepinefrina și epinefrina (Smeets & González, 2000). Catecolaminele sunt prezente în mai multe comportamente care includ, reglarea proceselor afective, comportamentul de căutare de compensații și modularea funcției cardiovasculare, precum și comportamentele de auto-reglare, funcțiile cognitive și consolidarea memoriei. În continuare vom discuta despre aceste catecolamine și relația lor cu comportamentele normale și psihopatologice. Dopamina Dopamina, care are atât efecte excitatorii cât și inhibitorii (Carlson, 2007), este implicată în reglarea proceselor afective, și joacă un rol central în comportamentul căutării de compensații cum ar fi abordarea, consumul și dependența; activarea comportamentală; și comportamentul orientat spre scop (Başar & Güntekin, 2008; Pessiglione et al., 2006; Wise, 2004). În special, transmisia dopaminei din substantia nigra și tegmental ventral către structurile cortexului frontal cum sunt nucleus accumbens și neostriatum joacă un rol important în medierea valorii de recompensă a hranei, băuturii, sexului, recunoașterii sociale, abuzului de droguri și stimulării creierului (Berridge & Robinson, 1998). Mai mult, în poziția de catecolamină principală din creierul mamiferelor, dopamina contribuie, de asemenea, la modularea funcției cardiovasculare, la secreția catecolaminelor și hormonilor, la tonusul vascular, la funcția renală și la motilitatea gastrointestinală (Missale, Nash, Robinson, Jaber, & Caron, 1998). Dopamina are un rol și în funcțiile cognitive, în memoria de lucru (memoria de scurtă durată) și în procesele intenționale și atenționale (Herschkowitz, 2000). Tulburări în dezvoltarea sistemului dopaminergic pot duce la numeroase dereglări și anomalii cum ar fi diskinezia, distonia, ticurile, tulburări obsesiv-compulsive și mișcări anormale ale ochilor (Herlenius & Lagererantz, 2001). Împreună cu serotonina, GABA, glutamatul, opioidele și oxitocina, dopamina a fost de asemenea legată de autism (Penn, 2006). Beard și Conner (2003) sugerează că deficitul de fier timpuriu în cursul vieții are ca rezultat modificări în metabolismul dopaminei, fapt care poate cauza probleme de percepție și motivație; și de aceea probleme cu dezvoltarea cognitivă și comportamentală. Georgieff (2007) a notat că deficitul de fier în perioada fetală și neonatală poate duce la niveluri scăzute ale dopaminei. Aceste niveluri scăzute ale dopaminei au fost corelate cu probleme de atenție și ADHD (Volkow et al., 2009; Konrad, Gauggel, & Scurek, 2003). Nivelurile ridicate au fost corelate cu probleme cognitive, de atenție(herschkowitz, 2000), și cu simptomele tulburării stresului posttraumatic la femeile adulte (Glover et al., 2003). Mai mult, De Bellis et al. (1999a) au descoperit niveluri ridicate ale dopaminei în urină la copiii abuzați aflați în perioada de prepubertate cu tulburări de stres posttraumatic (TSPT). În mod specific, acest studiu a comparat 18 copii maltratați, suferind de TSPT cu 24 de copii neabuzați într-un grup de control. În grupul TSPT au fost descoperite niveluri semnificativ mai mari de catecolamide (inclusiv dopamina) decât în grupul de control al copiilor neabuzați. În plus, nivelul catecolaminelor din urină și cel al cortisolului s-au corelat pozitiv cu gândurile supărătoare, evitarea și hiperexcitabilitatea. Într-un alt studiu, De Bellis et al. (1999b) a descoperit că 44 de copii și adolescenți abuzați cu TSPT, care au fost evaluați prin scanarea creierului prin rezonanță magnetică aveau un volum intracranian și cerebral cu 7% și 8% mai mic decât cei din grupul de control (61 de copii care se potriveau în ceea ce privește vârsta, sexul, îndemânarea, poziția pe scala Tanner, rasa, înălțimea și greutatea). În plus, copiii abuzați din grupul TSPT, prezentau în proporții crescute tulburări de internalizare și externalizare în concordanță cu rezultatele descoperite în alte studii 8 Revista de Neurologie şi Psihiatrie a Copilului şi Adolescentului din România Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2

3 REFERATe GENERALe Adrian V. Rus Relația dintre neurotransmițători, comportament și abuz: O privire retrospectivă/ O analiză asupra copiilor abuzați. În general, aceste rezultate pot fi explicate, conform autorilor acelui studiu, ca un efect al abuzului cronic asupra copiilor cu TSPT, care le-a alterat sistemele majore ale stresului biologic (inclusiv neurotransmițătorii catecolaminergici dopamina, epinefrina și norepinefrina) și a avut efecte adverse asupra dezvoltării creierului. Mai mult, Yehuda, Southwick, Giller, Ma, și Mason (1992) au descoperit de asemenea niveluri înalte ale dopaminei la veteranii războiului din Vietnam cu tulburări de stres posttraumatic (TSPT). În acest studiu, autorii au explicat nivelurile mari ale dopaminei ca fiind rezultatul activității crescute a sistemului nervos simpatic la persoanele cu TSPT, legând severitatea grupurilor de simptome ale TSPT de nivelul excitației sistemului nervos simpatic. Norepinefrina Norepinefrina are atât efecte excitatorii cât și inhibitorii, totuși efectele comportamentale ale norepinefrinei sunt excitatorii (Carlson, 2007). Sistemul norepinefrinei este destinat funcțiilor autoregulatorii cum ar fi medierea răspunsului de orientare, atenția selectivă și posibil a vigilenței (Solanto, 1998). Norepinefrina (noradrenalina) este implicată de asemenea în somn, visare și învățare; deoarece este eliberată în vasele sanguine, ea cauzează contracția vaselor sanguine și astfel ritmul bătăilor inimii crește. (Başar & Güntekin, 2008). Beane and Marrocco (2004) au sugerat ideea că o eliberare insuficientă de norepinefrină poate explica problemele care afectează atenția reflexă și pe cea voluntară. Viggiano (2008) nota că o descreștere în sinteza norepinefrinei are, de obicei, ca rezultat, un comportament hipoactiv. Cu toate acestea, și o creștere cronică poate avea ca rezultat hipoactivitatea. Norepinefrina este asociată, de asemenea, cu tulburări afective cum ar fi depresia maniacală, cunoscută și sub numele de tulburare bipolară (Başar & Güntekin, 2008); modularea stării de excitare (arousal); și cu manifestarea unei sensibilități a organismului față de factorii de mediu, care poate avea ca rezultat reacții negative la stimuli noi sau ostili din mediul înconjurător (Berman & Coccaro, 1998). Rogeness (1991) a descoperit că acei copii care aveau un precedent de neglijare prezentau niveluri scăzute de norepinefrină în urină. Mai mult, Yehuda, Southwick, Giller, Ma, și Mason (1992) au arătat faptul că veterani ai războiului din Vietnam cu TSPT aveau niveluri de norepinefrină mai ridicate decât pacienții externi și decât membrii normali ai grupului de control. Ca și în cazul nivelurilor de dopamină semnificativ mai ridicate, nivelurile ridicate de norepinefrină erau corelate cu o activare mărită a sistemului nervos simpatic la persoanele cu TSPT. Modelele animale arată că stresul traumatic activează locus coeruleus (acel nucleu din creier care conține catecolamine în special norepinefrina) precum și faptul că sistemul nervos simpatic conduce spre un răspuns de tip luptă sau fugi. În consecință, acest mecanism influențează creșterea cantității de catecolamine din creier, din sistemul nervos simpatic și din miezul glandei suprarenale fapt care influențează creșterea bătăilor inimii, a tensiunii arteriale, a stării de alertă și a circulației epinefrinei, norepinefrinei și dopaminei. Totuși, în timpul stresului sever, locus coeruleus stimulează axa hipotalamo-hipofizo-corticosuprarenală (HPA) și se elimină hormonul de eliberare a corticotropinei (CHR) stimulând secreția hormonului adrenocorticotrop (ACTH) și a cortisolului. Această cascadă de modificări chimice stimulează activarea biologică și stimularea intensă fapt care se exprimă în anxietate și hipervigilență (De Bellis, 2002). Echilibrul norepinefrinei este afectat nu doar de stresul traumatic ci și și de niveluri înalte ale stresului fiziologic cronic așa cum au arătat Babisch, Fromme, Beyer, și Ising (2001) în cercetările efectuate pe subiecți expuși la zgomot. Mai precis, ei au aflat că volumul traficului, ca indicator al expunerii la zgomot, era asociat cu o concentrație mai mare a noradrenalinei în urină. Epinefrina Epinefrina (adrenalina) este un neurotransmițător cu acțiune excitatorie (Feldman, Meyer, & Quenzer, 1997) și se consideră că are un efect în consolidarea memoriei umane (Cahill, Gorski, & Le, 2003) și în stres (Charmandari, Kino, Souvatzoglou, & Chrousos, 2003). Delahanty, Nugent, Christopher, și Walsh (2005) au raportat că niveluri ridicate ale epinefrinei în urină se corelau în mod pozitiv cu nivelurile tulburărilor de stres posttraumatic la copii de șase săptămâni, care suferiseră un eveniment traumatic. Krantz, Forsman, și Lundberg (2004) au găsit de asemenea că stresul crește nivelurile de epinefrină. Ei au legat epinefrina de activitatea cardiovasculară și de tensi- Revista de Neurologie şi Psihiatrie a Copilului şi Adolescentului din România Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2 9

4 Adrian V. Rus Relația dintre neurotransmițători, comportament și abuz: O privire retrospectivă/ O analiză REFERATe GENERALe unea musculară. Garde, Hansen, Persson, Ohlsson, și Ørbæk (2003) au descoperit că stimularea (arousal) atât cea pozitivă cît și cea negativă, se asociază cu concentrații crescute de adrenalină în urină; astfel, atât emoțiile pozitive cât și cele negative se asociază cu concentrații mărite ale epinefrinei. Epinefrina, ca și dopamina și norepinefrina a fost corelată și cu ADHD (Konrad, Gauggel, & Schurek, 2003). Mai mult, Yehuda, Southwick, Giller, Ma, și Mason (1992) au demonstrat niveluri mai crescute ale epinefrinei la veteranii războiului din Vietnam care sufereau de TSPT decât la pacienții externi și la persoanele din grupul de control. Catecolamine Concluzii Niveluri ridicate ale epinefrinei, norepinefrinei și cortisolului în urină pot indica prezența unei stări de stres acut și cronic (Babisch, Fromme, Beyer, & Ising, 2001). În plus, studii asupra animalelor au arătat norepinefrină și efedrină alterate în plasmă ca rezultat al unui stresor intermitent cronic (Marby, Gold, & McCarty, 1994). Eliberarea de norepinefrină și dopamină în cortexul prefrontal se corelează cu o stare de stimulare (arousal) (Arnsten & Pliszka, 2011). În condiții de stres, nivelurile mari de catecolamine (dopamina și norepinefrina) sunt eliberate în cortex-ul prefrontal (Finlay, Zigmond, & Abercrombie, 1995). În plus, niveluri scăzute ale stimulării (arousal) se corelează cu niveluri scăzute ale norepinefrinei (Foote, Aston-Jones, & Bloom, 1980). Efectele norepinefrinei și dopaminei asupra stării emoționale, stimulării, și comportamentului sunt mediate prin receptori localizați în cortexul prefrontal care este sensibil la mediul neurochimic (Arnsten & Pliszka, 2011). În consecință, eliberarea de catecolamine, care este fie insuficientă, fie în exces, va conduce la deteriorarea funcției cortexului prefrontal. Mai precis, atât norepinefrina cât și dopamina sunt prezente în cantități scăzute în timpul oboselii și plictiselii și în cantități moderate când o stare de alertă este provocată de stimuli relevanți sau în timpul mersului fără stres. Niveluri insuficiente de dopamină sunt corelate cu atenția/reacția nedirijată, cu confuzia și un control slab al impulsurilor (ADHD netratat). Niveluri moderate de norepinefrină sunt corelate cu atenție și reacție dirijate și cu comportamente flexibile, organizate și canalizate (ADHD tratat în mod optim). Norepinefrina în cantități mari este corelată cu atenția sau reacția direcționate greșit, cu inflexibilitate mentală, doze excesive de stimulente și deteriorarea funcționării cortexului prefrontal (Arnsten & Pliszka, 2011). În timp ce cauza specifică a ADHD nu a fost identificată, există dovezi că această tulburare implică modularea disfuncțională a circuitului cortico-limbicstriat de către catecolamine (în special dopamina și noradrenalina) precum și de serotonină (Dalley, Mar, Economidou, & Robbins, 2008). Serotonina Serotonin (5-hidroxitriptamina 5-HT), are atât efecte excitatorii cât și inhibitorii (Carlson, 2007) și poate fi implicată într-o serie largă de comportamente cum sunt pofta de mâncare, emoțiile, funcțiile cognitive și motorii, modularea funcției neuroendocrine, și ritmul circadian (Hensler, 2006). Anomalii serotoninergice au fost depistate atât în autism cât și în epilepsie(chugani, 2004); în depresie și tulburări de anxietate(ressler & Nemeroff, 2000) și în ADHD (Hawi et al., 2002). Alți cercetători au corelat activitatea redusă a serotoninei cu comportamentul agresiv față de alți oameni, față de proprietățile altor oameni și față de propria persoană (Meyer et al., 2008; Berman & Coccaro, 1998; Meyer et al., 2008; Mitsis et al., 2000; Oades et al., 2008; Tuinier, Verhoeven, & Van Praag, 1996). Niveluri sub valorile optime indică posibilitatea depresiei (Booij, Van der Does, & Riedel, 2003) și o slabă reglare a impulsurilor (Kent et al., 2002). Kaufman et al. (1998) a descoperit că abuzul la copil poate duce la un sistem al serotoninei care operează ineficient provocând probleme la nivel cognitiv și comportamental. O cauză a acestei situații se poate datora monoaminoxidazei A (MAO-A), o enzimă care catalizează degradarea dopaminei, serotoninei și norepinefrinei. Studiile au arătat că expresia MAO-A este influențată de factorii de mediu, cum ar fi abuzul în copilărie (Caspi et al., 2002; Foley et al., 2004; Nilsson, 2006; Nilsson, Sjoberg, Wargelius, & Leppert, 2006). Când activitatea MAO-A este declanșată de abuz, nivelurile de dopamină, serotonină și norepinefrină sunt și ele afectate (Oreland, Nilsson, Damberg, & Hallman 2007; Shih & Thompson, 1999). Histamina Histamina are atât efecte excitatorii cât și inhibitorii (Feldman, Meyer, & Quenzer, 1997) și este im- 10 Revista de Neurologie şi Psihiatrie a Copilului şi Adolescentului din România Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2

5 REFERATe GENERALe Adrian V. Rus Relația dintre neurotransmițători, comportament și abuz: O privire retrospectivă/ O analiză plicată în diferite funcții ale sistemului nervos central cum ar fi stimularea (arousal), anxietatea, activarea sistemului nervos simpatic, reglarea ciclului somnveghe, retenția de apă, și suprimarea alimentației (Brown et al., 2001). Unii cercetători consideră că histamina joacă un rol important în reglarea energiei și a homeostazei endocrine precum și în plasticitatea sinaptică și în învățare (Haas & Panula, 2003). Histamina a fost descrisă, de asemenea, ca având un rol modulator în răspunsul imun (Hough & Leurs, 2006; Tanaka & Ichikawa, 2006). O concentrație mare a histaminei se găsește în multe alimente, în special în produsele obținute prin fermentație microbiologică cum ar fi brânza maturată, varza acră, vinul, carnea prelucrată și alimentele citrice (Bodmer, Imark & Kneubühl, 1999; Mainz & Novak, 2007; Ruiz-Capillas, & Jiménez-Colmenero, 2004). Cantitatea de histamine găsită în anumite alimente poate fi un factor care contribuie la nivelurile înalte ale histaminelor la copii. Legislația europeană permite niveluri ale histaminelor de două ori mai mari decât cele permise de către Food and Drug Administration în Statele Unite ale Americii. Unii cercetători atrag atenția față de toxicitatea histaminelor din alimente și băuturi; astfel, este necesar ca autoritățile sanitare să stabilească limite legale de siguranță asupra aminelor biogene așa cum este histamina (Ruiz-Capillas & Jiménez-Colmenero, 2004). Alergiile, mastocitoza, bacteriile sau hemoragiile gastrointestinale pot de asemenea să producă un exces de histamine(mainz & Novak, 2007). Mainz și Novak (2007) au raportat că histaminele produc contracția celulelor musculare netede, vasodilatare, permeabilitate vasculară crescută, secreția de mucus, tahicardie, modificări ale tensiunii arteriale și aritmii. Sistemul histaminic, propus ca un sistem de răspuns la pericole, eliberează mai multă histamină în condiții extreme ca deshidratare, hipoglicemie sau stres (Brown, Stevens, & Haas, 2001). În studiile pe animale, histamina a fost corelată cu provocarea anxietății experimentale, ceea ce sugerează faptul că histamina poate juca un rol important în reglarea anxietății (Ikarashi & Yuzurihara, 2002). Histamina a fost legată, de asemenea, de boala Alzheimer și de schizofrenie (Fernández-Novoa & Cacabelos, 2001) precum și de sindromul Down și de boala Parkinson (Haas & Panula, 2003). Conform unor cercetători, histamina are și un efect asupra proceselor memoriei (Blandina, Efoudebe, Cenni, Manaioni, & Passani, 2004; Philippu & Prast, 2001). Histamina a mai fost asociată cu anxietata și cu problemele de somn (Brown et al., 2001; Hough & Leurs, 2006; Tanaka & Ichikawa, 2006). Stimulări psihologice adverse, cum ar fi stresul imobilizării sau izolarea socială au ca rezultat eliberarea substanței P în creier (Ebner, Rupniak, Saria, & Singewald, 2004). Substanța P, o neuropeptidă, provoacă eliberarea de histamină ceea ce duce la inflamări și la stări emoționale negative, teamă și anxietate (Rosenkranz, 2007). HCL Beta-feniletilamina (HCL) este un neurotransmițător excitator care funcționează ca o amfetamină (Kahane, 2009). Niveluri scăzute ale HCL au fost asociate cu depresia (Nakagawara, 1992;) și cu ADHD (Kusaga et al., 2002). Niveluri crescute au fost observate la indivizi cu anxietate și schizofrenie (vezi Burchett & Hicks, 2006). Există o asociere foarte puternică între monoamioxidaza B (MAO-B), o enzimă care catalizează degradarea HCL, și mediile psiho-sociale adverse (de exemplu, abuzul) și comportamentul criminal (Oreland, 2007). În plus, MAO-B este asociată cu susceptibilitatea față de multe tulburări psihiatrice (pentru o trecere în revistă, vezi Volavka, 1999), și joacă un rol în reglarea stărilor afective (Bortolato, Godar, Davarian, Chen, & Shih, 2009); a reacțiilor emoționale, inclusiv activitatea exploratorie, stimularea (arousal), și întărirea comportamentului (Sabelli & Javaid, 1995); criminalitate violentă (Asberg, 1997; Belfrage, Lindberg, & Oreland, 1992; Longato-Stadler, af Klinteberg, Garpenstrand, Oreland, & Hallman, 2002); și suicid (Verkes et al., 1998). În concluzie, studiile au arătat că mediul psiho-social al unui individ influențează atât activitatea MAO (care are un efect direct asupra nivelurilor HCL) cât și expresia comportamentală a individului respectiv. Glutamatul Glutamatul este un neurotransmițător excitator (Carlson, 2007) și este considerat principalul mediator al informației senzoriale, coordonării motorii, emoțiilor și cunoașterii, inclusiv formarea memoriei și regăsire a informațiilor memo- Revista de Neurologie şi Psihiatrie a Copilului şi Adolescentului din România Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2 11

6 Adrian V. Rus Relația dintre neurotransmițători, comportament și abuz: O privire retrospectivă/ O analiză REFERATe GENERALe rate (Hassel & Dingledine, 2006). Glutamatul joacă de asemenea un rol în alinarea efectelor neuronale ale stresului, anxietății și modulează activitatea neuronală de-a lungul sistemului nervos central ( Johnson et al., 2005; Niswender, Jones, & Conn, 2005). El a fost implicat în inițierea și propagarea atacurilor (Holmes, 1995) precum și în patofiziologia tulburărilor afective (Sanacora, Zarate, Krystal, & Manji, 2008). Glutamatul a fost implicat și în tulburarea de depersonalizare, care a fost asociată cu abuzul emoțional și trauma în copilărie (Simeon, 2004). Mai mult, un exces de glutamat a fost asociat cu tulburarea obsesiv complusivă (Carlsson, 2000), în timp ce un deficit a fost asociat cu ADHD (Moore et al., 2006) și cu simptomele depresive (Tordera et al., 2011). Disfuncția glutamatului a fost asociată cu autismul (Page et al., 2006; Shinohe et al., 2006) și schizofrenia (Coyle, 2006). Stresul acut modifică eliberarea de glutamat în creier (Musazzi et al., 2010), iar mediile în care copiii sunt crescuți și care sunt marcate de neglijență și izolare sunt asociate cu o expresie redusă a glutamatului în creier, fapt care duce la deficit cognitiv și tulburări psihiatrice. Se suspectează că disfuncția glutamatului produsă de stres ar juca un rol în schizofrenie și dependență (Melendez, Gregory, Bardo, & Kalivas, 2004). Niveluri ale glutamatului exterm de ridicate, care conduc spre degradarea celulelor/moarte au fost descoperite la copii cu leziuni traumatice ale creierului care au fost de asemenea victime ale abuzului (Ruppel, 2001). GABA Acidul gama-amino-butiric (GABA), neurotransmițătorul inhibitor cel mai important al Sistemului Nervos Central (SNC), joacă un rol trofic în timpul dezvoltării timpurii a creierului, incluzând ramificațiile neuronale, plasticitatea rețelei neuronale și organizarea neuronală (Herlenius & Lagercrantz, 2001). Sinteza GABA atinge o activitate de vârf în al doilea an de viață; astfel, la vârsta de doi ani, copiii ar trebui să prezinte îmbunătățiri în integrarea informației (Herschkowitz, 2000). Olsen și Betz (2006) au raportat o legătură între funcția GABA-ergică defectuoasă și tulburările neurologice și psihiatrice, legate în primul rând de hiperexcitabilitate, inclusiv deficiențe în dezvoltare; retard mintal și epilepsie, tulburări de somn; dependență de droguri, procesare senzori-motorie, și coordonare motorie. Brambila, Perez, Barale, Schettini, și Soares (2003) au raportat niveluri scăzute atât la pacienți deprimați cât și la pacienți maniacali. Johnston și Singer (2001) au raportat niveluri scăzute ale GABA în lichidul cerbero-spinal la indivizii cu convulsii. Mai mult, au fost găsite niveluri ridicate de GABA în plasmă la tineri cu tulburări autiste și unii cercetători consideră că GABA este un marker biochimic al autismului (Dhossche et al., 2002) precum și al ADHD cu tulburări de conduită (Prosser et al., 1997). Concluzii În concluzie, abuzul poate afecta nivelurile neurotransmițătorilor prezentați mai sus. Specialiștii care lucrează în domeniul sănătății și ocrotirii copilului ar trebui să fie conștienți că acei copii cu un istoric de traume, neglijare și alte forme de abuz, prezintă adesea un comportament care este determinat de niveluri neregulate ale neurotransmițătorilor care sunt generate de abuz (Purvis, McKenzie, Cross, Kellermann, & Huisman, 2011). Probe de urină pentru măsurarea nivelurilor specifice corespunzătoare fiecărui neurotransmițător cu scopul de a determina dacă el se găsește în parametri optimi, pot fi utile în planificarea terapiilor și intervențiilor adecvate (de exemplu, intervenții psihologice și comportamentale, suplimente, sau medicații) dar și în evaluarea eficienței intervențiilor. Într-un studiu recent, s-a observat o reducere substanțială a comportamentului inadaptabil la copiii cu risc atunci când nivelurile de serotonină și de GABA au fost mărite cu ajutorul suplimentelor naturale (Cross, Kellermann, McKenzie, Purvis, Hill, & Huisman, 2011). Mai mult, s-a utilizat screening-ul translucenței nucale pentru a detecta abuzul asupra copiilor. Într-un studiu de caz, o mamă urmărea să restabilească custodia totală asupra copilului ei care se afla în 12 Revista de Neurologie şi Psihiatrie a Copilului şi Adolescentului din România Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2

7 GENERAL STUDIES Adrian V. Rus Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review adopție temporară de un an. Cu toate acestea, copilul avea reacții extreme în prezența mamei în timpul vizitelor. Copilul a fost testat pentru a urmări activitatea neurotransmițătorilor la bază și imediat după ce a fost vizitat de către mamă. O creștere bruscă a nivelului mai multor neurotransmțători după vizită a indicat un răspuns de stres dramatic asociat cu vizita. Atunci când mamei i s-a prezentat rezultatul acestor analize precum și rezultatele pe care le-a obținut ea în urma parcurgerii Interviului de Atașament al Adultului (AAI), femeia a mărturisit că utiliza practici parentale abuzive cu copilul (Purvis, McKenzie, Kellermann, & Cross, 2010). * * * INTRODUCTION This review paper examined the following eight neurotransmitters: dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, histamine, phenylethylamine (PEA), glutamate, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The relationship between behavior and these neurotransmitters is discussed below. Some of the neurochemicals listed above are not consistently defined as neurotransmitters in the literature due to ambiguity as to whether they affect the central or peripheral nervous system. However, to facilitate reading of this article we will address them all as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters, described as chemical messengers of the nervous system, support the transmission of signals from one neuron to another and ultimately allow the signal to be carried throughout all organs within the body. Neurotransmitters are present in body fluids such as serum, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), saliva, and urine (Ailts, Ailts, & Bull, 2007). Though present throughout the body, neurotransmitters are primarily synthesized, stored, and released by specialized neurons within the central nervous system (CNS). Most of the essential neurotransmitters are synthesized from amino acids obtained from dietary intake and therefore neurotransmitter precursors may pass through the blood-brain barrier (Ailts, Ailts, & Bull, 2007). Catecholaminergic neurotransmitters - dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine The major catecholamines in the nervous system are biogenic amines and include dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (Smeets & González, 2000). Catecholamines are involved in many behaviors including mood regulation, reward-seeking behavior, and modulation of cardiovascular function, as well as self-regulatory behaviors, cognitive functions, and memory consolidation. These catecholamines and their relationship with normal and psychopathological behaviors are discussed below. Dopamine Dopamine, which has both excitatory and inhibitory effects (Carlson, 2007), is involved in mood regulation and plays a central role in rewardseeking behavior, such as approach, consumption, and addiction; behavioral activation; and goal-directed behavior (Başar & Güntekin, 2008; Pessiglione et al., 2006; Wise, 2004). In particular, dopamine transmission from the sustantia nigra and ventral tegmentum to the forebrain structures such as the nucleus accumbens and neostriatum plays an important role in mediating the reward value of food, drink, sex, social reinforcement, drugs of abuse, and brain stimulation (Berridge & Robinson, 1998). Furthermore, as a principal catecholamine in the mammalian brain, dopamine also aids in the modulation of cardiovascular function, catecholamine release, hormone secretion, vascular tone, renal function, and gastrointestinal motility (Missale, Nash, Robinson, Jaber, & Caron, 1998). Dopamine is involved also in cognitive functions, in working memory, and intentional and attentional processes (Herschkowitz, 2000). Disturbances in the development of the dopaminergic system may lead to several disorders or abnormalities, including dyskinesia, dystonia, tics, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and abnormal eye movements (Herlenius & Lagererantz, 2001). Dopamine, along with serotonin, Journal of Romanian Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2 13

8 Adrian V. Rus Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review GENERAL STUDIES GABA, glutamate, opioids, and oxytocin, has also been linked to autism (Penn, 2006). Beard and Conner (2003) suggested that iron deficiency in early life relates to alterations in dopamine metabolism, which may cause problems with perception and motivation; and therefore, problems with cognitive and behavioral development as well. Georgieff (2007) noted that fetal and neonatal iron deficiency can result in low levels of dopamine. Low levels of dopamine have also been correlated with attention problems and ADHD (Volkow et al., 2009; Konrad, Gauggel, & Scurek, 2003). Elevated levels have been linked to cognitive, attention problems (Herschkowitz, 2000), and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adult females (Glover et al., 2003). Moreover, De Bellis et al. (1999a) found higher levels of urinary dopamine in prepubertal maltreated children with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Specifically, this study compared 18 maltreated children with PTSD with 24 non-abused children in a control group. Significantly higher levels of catecholamines (including dopamine) were found in the PTSD group than were found in the non-abused control group. In addition, the levels of urinary catecolamines and cortisol correlated positively with intrusive thoughts, avoidance, and hyperarousal. In another study, De Bellis et al. (1999b) found that 44 maltreated children and adolescents with PTSD who were assessed with anatomical magnetic resonance imaging brain scans had 7% and 8% smaller intracranial and cerebral volume than the control group (61 matched controls on age, gender, handedness, Tanner Stage, race, height, and weight). In addition, the maltreated, PTSD group showed increased rates of internalizing and externalizing disorders consistent with results found in studies of abused children. Overall, these results may be explained, according to the authors of that study, as an effect of chronic maltreatment in children with PTSD that altered major biological stress systems (including catecholaminergic neurotransmitters - dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine), and had adverse effects on brain development. Furthermore, Yehuda, Southwick, Giller, Ma, and Mason (1992) also found higher levels of dopamine in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In this study, authors explained high levels of dopamine as being a result of increased sympathetic nervous system activation in people with PTSD, and linking severity of PTSD symptom clusters with the level of sympathetic nervous system arousal. Norepinephrine Norepinephrine has both excitatory and inhibitory effects, however, the behavioral effects of norepinephrine are excitatory (Carlson, 2007). The norepinephrine system is dedicated to self-regulatory functions such as mediation of the orienting response, selective attention, and possibly vigilance (Solanto, 1998). Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is also involved in sleeping, dreaming, and learning; and because it is released in the blood vessels, it causes blood vessels to contract and the heart rate to increase (Başar & Güntekin, 2008). Beane and Marrocco (2004) proposed that insufficient norepinephrine release may explain problems in reflexive and voluntary attention. Viggiano (2008) noted that a decrease in norepinephrine synthesis usually results in hypoactive behavior; however, a chronic increase may result in hypoactivity as well. Norepinephrine is also associated with mood disorders such as manic depression, also known as bipolar disorder (Başar & Güntekin, 2008); arousal modulation; and an organism s display of sensitivity toward the environment, which may result in aggressive responses to novel or threatening environmental stimuli (Berman & Coccaro, 1998). Rogeness (1991) found that children with a history of neglect displayed low levels of urinary norepinephrine. Furthermore, Yehuda, Southwick, Giller, Ma, and Mason (1992) showed higher levels of norepinephrine in Vietnam combat veterans with PTSD than in outpatients and a normal control group. As in the case of significantly higher dopamine levels, high levels of norepinephrine were correlated with increased sympathetic nervous system activation in people with PTSD. Animal models show that traumatic stress activates the locus coeruleus (the nucleus in the brain that contains catecholamines specifically norepinephrine) as well as the sympathetic nervous system leading to the fight-or-flight response. Consequently, this influences the increase of catecholamines within the brain, sympathetic nervous system, and adrenal medulla that affect the increase in heart rate, blood pressure, alertness and circulation of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. However, during severe stress the locus coeruleus stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis 14 Journal of Romanian Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2

9 GENERAL STUDIES Adrian V. Rus Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review (HPA) and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is released stimulating adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and cortisol release. This cascade of chemical changes stimulates behavioral activation and intense arousal expressed in anxiety and hypervigilance (De Bellis, 2002) The norepinephrine balance is affected not just by traumatic stress but also by high levels of chronic physiological stress as shown by Babisch, Fromme, Beyer, and Ising (2001) on noise exposed subjects. Specifically, they found that traffic volume as an indicator of noise exposure was associated with a higher concentration of noradrenaline in urine. Epinephrine Epinephrine (adrenaline) is an excitatory neurotransmitter (Feldman, Meyer, & Quenzer, 1997) and is considered to have an effect on human memory consolidation (Cahill, Gorski, & Le, 2003) and stress (Charmandari, Kino, Souvatzoglou, & Chrousos, 2003). Delahanty, Nugent, Christopher, and Walsh (2005) reported that elevated levels of urinary epinephrine were positively correlated to levels of post-traumatic stress disorder in children six weeks after a traumatic event. Krantz, Forsman, and Lundberg (2004) also found that stress increases epinephrine levels. They linked epinephrine to cardiovascular activity and muscle tension. Garde, Hansen, Persson, Ohlsson, and Ørbæk (2003) found that arousal, both positive and negative, was associated with increased concentrations of urinary adrenaline; thus, both positive and negative emotions are associated with increased concentrations of epinephrine. Epinephrine, like dopamine and norepinephrine, has been linked to ADHD as well (Konrad, Gauggel, & Schurek, 2003). Furthermore, Yehuda, Southwick, Giller, Ma, and Mason (1992) showed higher levels of epinephrine in Vietnam combat veterans with PTSD than outpatients and a normal control group. Catecholamines Conclusion Higher levels of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol in urine may indicate the presence of a state of acute and chronic stress (Babisch, Fromme, Beyer, & Ising, 2001). In addition, animal studies showed altered norepinephrine and epinephrine in plasma as the result of a chronic intermittent stressor (Marby, Gold, & McCarty, 1994). Norepinephrine and dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex is correlated with a state of arousal (Arnsten & Pliszka, 2011). Under stress conditions, high levels of catecholamines (dopamine and norepinephrine) are released in the prefrontal cortex (Finlay, Zigmond, & Abercrombie, 1995). In addition, low levels of arousal are correlated with low levels of norepinephrine (Foote, Aston-Jones, & Bloom, 1980). The effects of norepinephrine and dopamine on mood, arousal, and behavior are mediated by receptors located within the prefrontal cortex that are sensitive to the neurochemical environment (Arnsten & Pliszka, 2011). Consequently, release of catecholamines that is either insufficient or excessive will lead to impairment of prefrontal cortex function. Specifically, both norepinephrine and dopamine are present in low levels during fatigue and boredom and at moderate levels when an alert state is caused by relevant stimuli or during non-stressed walking. Insufficient levels of dopamine are correlated with unguided attention/responses, distraction, and poor impulse control (untreated ADHD). Moderate norepinephrine levels are correlated with guided attention and responses, and focused, organized and flexible behaviors (optimally treated ADHD). Norepinephrine in high levels is correlated with misguided attention or responses, mental inflexibility or stimulus bond (excessive dose of stimulants) and, impairment of prefrontal cortex functioning (Arnsten & Pliszka, 2011). While the specific cause of ADHD is unidentified, there is evidence that this disorder involves dysfunctional modulation of the corticolimbic-striatal circuitry by the catecholamines (in particular dopamine, and noradrenaline), as well as serotonin (Dalley, Mar, Economidou, & Robbins, 2008). Serotonin Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) has both excitatory and inhibitory effects (Carlson, 2007) and may be involved in a wide variety of behaviors such as appetite; emotion; motor and cognitive functions; modulation of neuroendocrine function; and circadian rhythm (Hensler, 2006). Serotonergic abnormalities have been reported in both autism and epilepsy (Chugani, 2004); depression and anxiety disorders (Ressler & Nemeroff, 2000), and ADHD Journal of Romanian Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2 15

10 Adrian V. Rus Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review GENERAL STUDIES (Hawi et al., 2002). Other researchers have linked reduced serotonin activity to aggressive behavior toward others, other people s property, and towards oneself (Meyer et al., 2008; Berman & Coccaro, 1998; Meyer et al., 2008; Mitsis et al., 2000; Oades et al., 2008; Tuinier, Verhoeven, & Van Praag, 1996). Levels below the optimal range indicate a possibility of depression (Booij, Van der Does, & Riedel, 2003) and poor impulse regulation (Kent et al., 2002). Kaufman et al. (1998) found that childhood abuse can lead to a serotonin system that operates inefficiently, leading to cognitive and behavioral problems. One reason for this may be due to Monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. Studies have shown that MAO-A expression is impacted by environmental factors, such as childhood maltreatment (Caspi et al., 2002; Foley et al., 2004; Nilsson, 2006; Nilsson, Sjoberg, Wargelius, & Leppert, 2006). When MAO-A activity is activated by maltreatment, levels of dopamine, serotonin, and norephinephrine are also affected (Oreland, Nilsson, Damberg, & Hallman 2007; Shih & Thompson, 1999). Histamine Histamine has both excitatory and inhibitory effects (Feldman, Meyer, & Quenzer, 1997) and is involved in various central nervous system functions such as arousal, anxiety, activation of the sympathetic nervous system, regulation of sleep-wake cycle, water retention, and suppression of eating (Brown et al., 2001). Some researchers consider histamine to play an important role in regulating energy and endocrine homeostasis, and synaptic plasticity and learning as well (Haas & Panula, 2003). Histamine has also been described as having a modulator role in immune responses (Hough & Leurs, 2006; Tanaka & Ichikawa, 2006). A high concentration of histamine is found in many foods especially in products of microbiological fermentation such as aged cheese, sauerkraut, wine, processed meat, and citrus foods (Bodmer, Imark & Kneubühl, 1999; Mainz & Novak, 2007; Ruiz-Capillas, & Jiménez-Colmenero, 2004). The amount of histamine found in certain foods may be a contributing factor for high levels of histamine in children. European legislation permits histamine levels twice as high as what the U. S. Food and Drug Administration allows. Some researchers warn against histamine toxicity from foods and beverages; thus, there is a need for health authorities to set safe, legal limits on biogenic amines such as histamine (Ruiz- Capillas & Jiménez-Colmenero, 2004). Allergies, mastocytosis, bacterias, or gastrointestinal bleeding may also cause an excess of histamine (Mainz & Novak, 2007). Mainz and Novak (2007) reported that histamine causes smooth muscle cell contraction, vasodilatation, increased vascular permeability, mucus secretion, tachycardia, alterations of blood pressure, and arrhythmias. The histamine system, proposed as a danger response system, releases more histamine during extreme conditions such as dehydration, hypoglycemia, or stress (Brown, Stevens, & Haas, 2001). In animal studies, histamine has been linked to inducing experimental anxiety, which suggests that histamine may play an important role in the regulation of anxiety (Ikarashi & Yuzurihara, 2002). Histamine has also been linked to Alzheimer s disease and schizophrenia (Fernández-Novoa & Cacabelos, 2001) as well as Down s syndrome and Parkinson s disease (Haas & Panula, 2003). According to some researchers, histamine also has an effect on memory processes (Blandina, Efoudebe, Cenni, Manaioni, & Passani, 2004; Philippu & Prast, 2001). Histamine has also been associated with anxiety and sleep problems (Brown et al., 2001; Hough & Leurs, 2006; Tanaka & Ichikawa, 2006). Adverse psychological stimulation, such as immobilization stress or social isolation, results in release of Substance P in the brain (Ebner, Rupniak, Saria, & Singewald, 2004). Substance P, a neuropeptide, induces histamine release resulting in inflammation as well as negative moods, fear, and anxiety (Rosenkranz, 2007). PEA Beta-phenylethylamine (PEA) is an excitatory neurotransmitter that functions like an amphetamine (Kahane, 2009). Decreased PEA levels have been associated with depression (Nakagawara, 1992;) and ADHD (Kusaga et al., 2002). Increased levels have been observed in individuals with anxiety and schizophrenia (see Burchett & Hicks, 2006). There is a very strong association between Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B), an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of PEA, and adverse psycho-social environments (e.g., maltreatment) and criminal behavior (Oreland, 16 Journal of Romanian Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2

11 GENERAL STUDIES Adrian V. Rus Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review 2007). In addition, MAO-B is associated with susceptibility to many psychiatric disorders (for a review, see Volavka, 1999), and plays a role in mood regulation (Bortolato, Godar, Davarian, Chen, & Shih, 2009); emotional responses, including exploratory activity, arousal, and behavioral reinforcement (Sabelli & Javaid, 1995); violent criminality (Asberg, 1997; Belfrage, Lindberg, & Oreland, 1992; Longato-Stadler, af Klinteberg, Garpenstrand, Oreland, & Hallman, 2002); and suicide (Verkes et al., 1998). In sum, studies have shown that an individual s psycho-social environment influences both MAO activity (which has a direct effect on PEA levels) and behavioral expression in individuals. Glutamate Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter (Carlson, 2007) and is considered to be the principal mediator of sensory information, motor coordination, emotions, and cognition, including memory formation and memory retrieval (Hassel & Dingledine, 2006). Glutamate also plays a role in alleviating the neuronal effects of stress, anxiety, and modulates neuronal activity throughout the central nervous system ( Johnson et al., 2005; Niswender, Jones, & Conn, 2005). It has been implicated in initiation and propagation of seizures (Holmes, 1995) as well as in the pathophysiology of mood disorders (Sanacora, Zarate, Krystal, & Manji, 2008). Glutamate has also been implicated in depersonalization disorder, which has been associated with childhood emotional maltreatment and trauma (Simeon, 2004). Furthermore, an excess of glutamate has been associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder (Carlsson, 2000), while a shortage has been associated with ADHD (Moore et al., 2006) and depressive symptoms (Tordera et al., 2011). Glutamate dysfunction has also been associated with autism (Page et al., 2006; Shinohe et al., 2006) and schizophrenia (Coyle, 2006). Acute stress alters the release of glutamate in the brain (Musazzi et al., 2010) and rearing environments marked by neglect and isolation are associated with reduced expression of glutamate in the brain, leading to cognitive deficits and psychiatric disorders. Glutamate dysfunction caused by stress is also suspected to play a role in schizophrenia and addiction (Melendez, Gregory, Bardo, & Kalivas, 2004). Extremely high glutamate levels, which lead to cell damage/death, have been found in children with traumatic brain injury who have also been victims of child abuse (Ruppel, 2001). GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, plays a trophic role during early brain development, including neuronal wiring, plasticity of neuronal network, and neural organization (Herlenius & Lagercrantz, 2001). GABA synthesis reaches peak activity during the second year of life; thus, at age two, children should show improvement in integrating information (Herschkowitz, 2000). Olsen and Betz (2006) reported a link between altered GABAergic function and neurological and psychiatric disorders, primarily related to hyperexcitability, including developmental malfunctions; mental retardation and epilepsy, sleep disorders; drug dependence, sensorimotor processing, and motor coordination. Brambila, Perez, Barale, Schettini, and Soares (2003) reported low levels in both depressed and manic patients. Johnston and Singer (2001) reported low levels of GABA in cerebral spinal fluid in individuals with seizures. Moreover, elevated plasma GABA levels have been found in youngsters with Autistic Disorder, and some researchers consider GABA to be a biochemical marker of Autism (Dhossche et al., 2002) as well of ADHD with conduct disorder (Prosser et al., 1997). Summary In summary, maltreatment can affect levels of the neurotransmitters discussed above. Health and childcare practitioners should be aware that children with histories of trauma, neglect, and other forms of maltreatment often exhibit behavior that is driven by irregular levels of neurotransmitters that stem from maltreatment (Purvis, McKenzie, Cross, Kellermann, & Huisman, 2011). Urinary assays to assess specific levels of each neurotransmitter to determine whether they are within optimal ranges may be helpful in planning appropriate therapies and interventions (e.g., behavioral or psychological interventions, supplements, or medication) and also in assessing the efficacy of interventions. In a recent study, significant reduction in maladaptive behaviors was observed for at-risk children when serotonin and Gaba were increased Journal of Romanian Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2 17

12 Adrian V. Rus Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review GENERAL STUDIES with natural supplements (Cross, Kellermann, McKenzie, Purvis, Hill, & Huisman, 2011). Furthermore, NT testing has been used to detect child abuse. In one case study, a mother was seeking reinstatement of full custody of her child who had been in foster care for one year. However, the child demonstrated extreme reactions to her mother s presence during visitation sessions. The child was tested for neurotransmitter activity at baseline and immediately after visitation by the mother. A spike in the levels of several neurotransmitters after visitation indicated a dramatic stress response associated with the visitation. When the mother was presented with these neurotransmitter results as well as her results on the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), she confessed to using abusive parenting practices with the child (Purvis, McKenzie, Kellermann, & Cross, 2010). BIBLIOGRAFIE/BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Ailts, J., Ailts, D., & Bull, D. (2007). Urinary Neurotransmitter Testing: Myths and Misconceptions. Retrieved January 20, 2013, from documents/neurotest%20article.pdf 2. Arnsten, A. F. T., & Pliszka, S. R. (2011). Catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical function: Relevance to treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and related disorders. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 99(2), Asberg, M. (1997). Neurotransmitters and suicidal behavior: The evidence from cerebrospinal fluid studies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 836, Babisch, W., Fromme, H., Beyer, A., & Ising (2001). Increased catecholamine levels in urine in subjects exposed to road traffic noise: The role of stress hormones in noise research. Environment International, 26, Başar, E., & Güntekin, B. (2008). A review of brain oscillations in cognitive disorders and the role of neurotransmitters. Brain Research, 1235, Beane, M., & Marrocco, R. T. (2004). Norepinephrine and acetylcholine mediation of the components of reflexive attention: implications for attention deficit disorders. Progress in Neurobiology, 74, Beard, J. L., & Connor, J. R. (2003). Iron status and neural functioning. Annual Review of Nutrition, 23, Belfrage, H., Lidberg, L., & Oreland, L. (1992). Platelet monoamine oxidase activity in mentally disordered violent offenders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 85, Berman, M. E., & Coccaro, E. F. (1998). Neurobiologic Correlates of Violence: Relevance to Criminal Responsibility. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 16, Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Research Review, 28, Blandina, P., Efoudebe, M., Cenni, G., Mannaioni, P., & Passani, M. B. (2004). Acetylcholine, Histamine, and Cognition: The Sides of the Same Coin. Learning & Memory, 11, Bodmer, S., Imark, C., & Kneubühl, M. (1999). Biogenic amines in foods: Histamine and food processing. Inflammation Research, 48, Booij, L., Van der Does, A. J. W., & Riedel, W. J. (2003). Monoamine depletion in psychiatry and healthy population: Review. Molecular Psychiatry, 8, Bortolato, M., Godar, S. C., Davarian, S., Chen, K., & Shih, J. (2009). Behavioral disinhibition and reduced anxiety-like behaviors in monoamine oxidase B-deficient mice. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34, Brambila, P., Perez, J., Barale, F., Schettini, G., & Soares, J. C. (2003). GABAergic dysfunction in mood disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 8, Brown, R. E., Stevens, D.R., & Haas, H. L. (2001). The physiology of brain histamine. Progress in Neurobiology, 63(6), Burchett, S. A., & Hicks, T. P. (2006). The mysterious trace amines: Protean neuromodulators of synaptic transmission in mammalian brain. Progress in Neurobiology, 79(5-6), Cahill, L., Gorski, L., & Le, K. (2003). Enhanced Human Memory Consolidation with Post- Learning Stress: Interaction with the Degree of Arousal at Encoding. Learning & Memory, 10(4), Journal of Romanian Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2

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16 Adrian V. Rus Relationship between neurotransmitters, behavior, and maltreatment: A review GENERAL STUDIES 84. Rosenkranz, M. A. (2007). Substance P at the nexus of mind and body in chronic inflammation and affective disorders, Psychological Bulletin, 133(6), Ruiz-Capillas, C., & Jiménez-Colmenero, F. (2004). Biogenic Amines in Meat and Meat Products. Clinical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 44, Ruppel, R. A., Kochanek, P. M., Adelson, P. D., Rose, M. E., Wisniewski, S. R., Bell, M. J., Clark, R. S., Marion, D. W., & Graham, S. H. (2001). Excitatory amino acid concentrations in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid after severe traumatic brain injury in infants and children: The role of child abuse. The Journal of Pediatrics, 138(1), Sabelli, H. C., & Javaid, J. I. (1995). Phenylethylamine modulation of affect: Therapeutic and diagnostic implications. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 7, Sanacora, G., Zarate, C. A., Krystal, J. H., & Manji, H. K. (2008). Targeting the glutamatergic system to develop novel, improved therapeutics for mood disorders. Nature Review, 7, Shih, J. C., & Thompson, R. F. (1999). Monoamine oxidase in neuropsychiatry and behavior. American Journal of Human Genetics, 65, Shinohe, A., Hashimoto, K., Nakamura, K., Tsujii, M., Iwata, Y., et al. (2006). Increased serum levels of glutamate in adult persons with autism. Progress in Neuro- Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 30, Simeon, D. (2004). Depersonalisation disorder: A contemporary overview. CNS Drugs, 18(6), Smeets, W. J. A. J., & González, A. (2000). Catecholamine system in the brain of vertebrates: New perspectives through a comparative approach. Brain Research Reviews, 33, Solanto, M. V. (1998). Neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of stimulant drug action in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A review and integration. Behavioural Brain Research, 94, Tanaka, S., & Ichikawa, A. (2006). Recent advances in molecular pharmacology of the histamine systems: Immune regulatory role of histamine produced by leukocytes. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences, 101(1), Tordera, R. M., Garcia-Garcia, A. L., Elizade, N., Segura, V., Aso, E., Venzala, E., et al. (2011). Chronic stress and impaired glutamate function elicit a depressive-like phenotype and common changes in gene expression in the mouse frontal cortex. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(1), Tuinier, S., Verhoeven, W. M. A., & Van Praag, H. M. (1996). Serotonin and disruptive behavior: A critical evaluation of the clinical data. Human Psychopharmacology, 11, Verkes, R. J., Van der Mast, R. C., Kerkhof, A. J., Fekkes, D., Hengeveld, M. W., Tuyl, J. P., et al. (1998). Platelet serotonin, monoamine oxidase activity, and [3H]paroxetine binding related to impulsive suicide attempts and borderline personality disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 43, Viggiano, D. (2008). The hyperactive syndrome: Metanalysis of genetic alterations, pharmacological treatments and brain lesions which increase locomotor activity. Behavioural Brain Research, 194, Volavka, J. (1999). The neurobiology of violence: An update. Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences, 11, Volkow, N. D., Wang G. J., Kollins, S. H., Wigal, T. L., Newcorn, J. H., Telang, F., et al. (2009). Evaluating dopamine reward pathway in ADHD: Clinical implications. JAMA, 302(10), Wise, R. A. (2004). Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, Yehuda, R., Southwick, S. M., Giller, E. L., Ma, X., & Mason, J. W. (1992). Urinary catecholamine excretion and severity of PTSD symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180(5), Journal of Romanian Child and Adolescent Neurology and Psychiatry Iunie 2013 vol. 16 nr. 2

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