POLITICAL SCIENCE IN FINLAND. A discipline in troubled waters 1

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1 POLITICAL SCIENCE IN FINLAND. A discipline in troubled waters 1 Erkki Berndtson Department of Political Science P.O.Box 54 (Unioninkatu 37) University of Helsinki, Finland erkki.berndtson@helsinki.fi Prepared for the IPSA Conference on International Political Science: New Theoretical and Regional Perspectives, April 30 May 2, 2008, Montreal, Canada. The Development of Finnish Political Science Compared to many other European countries, political science in Finland has a relatively long history as an academic discipline. The first chair in political science was established at the University of Helsinki in One of the main reasons was a need to educate civil servants for a new republic after the independence in 1917 (Palonen 1983). An interest in political science existed also elsewhere. A new Swedish-language University, Åbo Academy, was established in Turku (Åbo in Swedish) in A chair of political science was founded also there. Unfortunately a professor chosen for the post died before taking up his duties and the Academy did not fill the post until However, the Swedish-language School of Economics and Business Administration in Helsinki established a chair in political science (and history) in As the University of Helsinki was slow to develop social sciences ( a chair in political science had been placed into the Faculty of History and Philology), a private Civic 1 A more detailed account of the Finnish political science can be found in my article, The Current State of Political Science in Finland (Berndtson 2007). As there have been some new important developments in the Finnish academia since I wrote the article (just two years ago!), some interpretations in this paper differ from the ones of the previous article. I have also updated some figures as well as added new material, as I have not wanted just to repeat myself. 1

2 College was established in Helsinki in It was partly modelled along the London School of Economics and Political Science (Rasila 1973). Teaching in political science and history was in the program from the beginning. In 1930 the name of the College was changed into the School of Social Sciences. Intellectual influences of this early Finnish political science came mainly from Germany and Sweden. Even the Helsinki Chair was named Yleinen valtio-oppi, which is a direct translation of the German Allgemeine Staatslehre (General Theory of the State) 2. A German scholar Georg Jellinek and his book Allgemeine Staatslehre played an important role as a model for a new chair. This Neo-Kantian approach represented a juridical and sociological study of the state. On the other hand, Swedish political science added an historical element to the intellectual scope of the early Finnish political science in the form of historically oriented Staatskunskap (Knowledge on the State) (Palonen and Berndtson 1982: 3-4). These early political science chairs were enough to found the Finnish Political Science Association already in 1935, making it the first such an association in Europe and the fourth oldest (still existing) national political science association in the world (Anckar and Berndtson 1988). The main force behind the new association was Docent Yrjö Ruutu, who was educated according to German and Swedish traditions, but who was also aware of the developments in the Anglo-American political science (Paakkunainen 1985). He was even a member of the American Political Science Association, which probably gave him an idea to establish the Finnish Association. The new association was not, however, strictly a scholarly association, but its main task was to spread scientific ideas on politics in society. As the number of political scientists was small at the time, the majority of the members were scholars from other disciplines (law, history), politicians, civil servants, educators and journalists. After the Second World War the intellectual contents of the discipline began to change. American political science was introduced in Helsinki by a new Professor Jussi Teljo. Although Teljo himself was more interested in the Continental sociological tradition of Mosca, Pareto and Michels (Teljo s favorite book was James 2 The official name of the Helsinki Department is even today in Finnish Yleinen valtio-oppi. 2

3 Burnham s The Machiavellians ), he guided his students to study works of American political science. Many students were eager to adopt a new perspective, as Pertti Pesonen, soon to become a professor in political science, wrote in his dissertation, Few studies have developed political science as much as Paul Lazarsfeld s Bernard Berelson s and Hazel Gaudet s survey-research The People s Choice I am grateful that students of professor Jussi Teljo already quite early had to become acquainted with this research (Pesonen 1958: 5). After the War there were only five political scientists in Finland with a permanent academic position (one professor in Helsinki, two in the College of Social Sciences, one in Åbo and one in the Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration). This situation helps to understand the importance of individual scholars, such as Teljo, for the development of the discipline in Finland. The number of political scientists began to grow, however, in the 1950s. The University of Helsinki had founded a new Faculty of the Social Sciences in 1945, where a chair in political science was moved. This helped to add new posts in Helsinki. New departments came into existence also in other universities (Turku in 1961, the old College of Social Sciences moved to Tampere in 1960 and became the University of Tampere in 1966). An important growth period of the Finnish political science occurred between 1965 and 1974, when the number of teaching positions increased from fifteen to forty. The development coincided with a general interest in the social sciences at the time of the rise of the Finnish welfare state. Although some new departments have been added since the 1960s (University of Jyväskylä 1973; University of Lapland in Rovaniemi with international relations 1979 and political science 2003; Åbo Academy s independent unit in Vasa 1984; and a Swedish-language Swedish School of Social Science 1982), the number of teaching positions during the last thirty years has increased only by some fifteen new ones. Besides, political science as a discipline has been abolished in the Swedish College of Economics and Business Administration (in 2005). The Swedish School of Social Science (SSSS) was also made part of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Helsinki in

4 American political science became influential in Finland after the War, above all in the form of survey and electoral research. At the same time, theoretical frameworks, such as, David Easton s Systems Analysis and Gabriel Almond s structuralistfunctionalism, helped to form a new identity for Finnish political scientists. The new behavioralist study of politics did not, however, completely surpass the old traditions. Especially the historical and institutionalist approaches co-existed with new currents. A new intellectual break in the discipline came in the late 1960s. As in other Western countries, the number of social science students increased tremendously in the 1960s. A new generation was eager to adopt new approaches in the study of politics and young Finnish political scientists were soon following the call for post-behavioral revolution. At the beginning a German critical theory (Habermas) was keenly studied, but it was replaced in the early 1970s by the rise of the Marxist theory of the state (although this was not as prominent in political science as it was in sociology). At the same time, some older, more mainstream oriented scholars became interested in policy analysis to correct the shortcomings of the survey-based behavioralism. The 1960s post-behavioral revolution opened up the Finnish political science at the time when the number of political scientists in universities was inceasing. It made the Finnish political science more conscious on methodological problems and introduced new research areas in the discipline. A problematical consequence was that it also started the discipline s fragmentation into small enclaves. When a small number of scholars were divided into old and new institutionalists, behavioralists, Marxists and political philosophers, this already made the field fragmented. This development has continued during the last thirty years. An increasing interest in qualitative research (different forms of discourse analysis) and in the conceptual study of language, as well as a focus on the French sociology and philosophy (Foucault, Bourdieu) have in many ways changed the methodological orientation of the discipline. Although quantitative political science is still strong in the Finnish political science (relying very much on middle-range theories), it is interesting that most students (from BA students to doctoral students) want to use qualitative methods instead of quantitative ones in their research. 4

5 As a result, Finnish political science has no single theoretical or methodological core today. On the positive side is the fact that the discipline does not imitate any single intellectual Center any more, as was the case between the two World Wars (Germany and Sweden) and after the Second World War (the United States). From the early 1970s on, the Finnish political science has become Europeanized (the influence of the European Consortium for Political Research) and globalized (one can find increasingly references to Asian, Latin American and African scholars in the works of Finnish political scientists). The fragmentation has been furthered by the internal division of the discipline into political science proper, international relations and the study of administration. Political science as a discipline was still in the early 1970s considered to be a single discipline. The Helsinki political science department founded an associate professorship in public administration in 1963 and a professorship in international politics in Similar chairs came into existence also in Tampere at the same time. This development has now led to the situation when especially public administration has cut itself off from political science and become a separate discipline with its own departments. There are same kinds of pressures also concerning international relations, although political science and IR are still in most cases together. The breakaway tendencies of international relations and administrative studies have been strengthened by the establishment of their own scientific associations and journals. Finnish Political Science: Departments, Research Institutes and Scientific Associations The overall situation of the Finnish political science departments can be described using the following table: 5

6 Table. Finnish Political Science Departments (2008) 3 Teaching Political Science International Politics Administrative Staff Studies Helsinki Sub-program Sub-program Sub-program Politics World politics Administration and Organizations A set of joint studies behind sub-programs 15 (6) (4) (5) Helsinki/ SSSS Political Science and Administration (only BA-degree) together 3 (2) (1) Tampere Own program Own program Own program Political Science International relations 11 (5) (6) Turku Political Science and International Relations together/ but specialization with one 7 (4) (3) Åbo Political Science and International Politics Own program together 5 (5) Åbo/Vasa Political Science International Politics Administration all together 4 (2) (1) (1) Jyväskylä Political Science and World politics together 6 (5) (1) Lapland Own Program Own Program Own program Political Science International Relations but close cooperation between the two as Political Studies with a set of joint studies behind the programs 6 (1) (5) 57 (30) (20) (7) 3 Source: The websites of the departments. 6

7 As one can see, the Finnish departments are relatively small. It is important, however, to point out four things, when interpreting the figures of the table. First, of the 57 positions, only 39 are tenured positions. These include 22 full professors (out of 24). Tenured political scientists are also mostly men, as out of the 22 tenured full professors, only one professorship is held by a woman. This makes a Finnish political science very much a male dominated discipline. Secondly, the total number of Finnish political scientists is much higher than these 57 university teachers. The Finnish academia has developed towards a market-based research culture in the sense that there are funds available for research projects for limited time periods. Most of this funding is allocated by the Academy of Finland (some money coming also from private foundations and from ministries) There are also some temporary research positions in universities. The allocation of external funds and positions is based on open competition, which means that there is a high number of scholars trying to compete for funds a year after year. This was recently also noted by an international panel evaluating social science research at the University of Helsinki: The impermanence of most of the academic positions in the Finnish university system seriously retards the research process. Scholars from the post-doctoral level to professors have to spend an inordinate amount of time searching for and applying for their next position and the Finnish research policy seems to know everything about competition and nothing about continuity. As a result of this the status of postdocs is becoming intolerable (Research Assessment Exercise 2005: 2). There are today over one hundred Finnish political scientists doing research with temporary funding. As permanent academic posts do not seem to increase, the situation of many scholars does not look very promising. It may even get worse in the coming years, as the Finnish government is currently privatizing the country s higher education system and expects universities to find more funds for their overall functioning from the private sector. Thirdly, although the table may give an impression that the study of public administration is undeveloped in Finland that is not the case. In the table teachers in administrative studies are counted only when they are members of political science departments. There are own departments for administrative studies in Tampere, Åbo, 7

8 Vaasa, Lapland and Kuopio, which together have a teaching staff of some forty persons. The separate development of this old subfield of political science has been strengthened by the managerial orientation of many scholars giving birth to Management studies instead of Public Administration. This has increasingly separated administrative studies from the rest of political science. Fourthly, the position of IR scholars is somewhat brighter than the figures show, as the only Finnish research institutes in the field of political science are IR institutes. The first one is the Tampere Peace Research Institute which was founded in 1970 as an independent research institute under the Ministry of Education. In 1994, the Institute became, however, part of the University of Tampere s Research Institute for Social Sciences. Today, it employs seven permanent researchers. The Finnish Institute of International Affairs, on the other hand, is a foreign policy think tank under the supervision of the Finnish Parliament with some twenty researchers (only some of whom have a permanent position, however). The Institute was launched at the beginning of 2007 and it is yet to be seen how its role will develop. The first signs have not been very promising, as politics (and difficult personal relations) have affected the work of the Institute thus far. As was already mentioned, the Finnish Political Science Association dates from the year Today the Association has some 400 members. The membership increased until the 1980s (when the Association had over 600 members), but has since then steadily declined. There are at least two reasons for this. The first factor is the professionalization of the Association. As the number of political scientists has increased, the activities of the Association have begun to concentrate mainly on problems of scientific research and on professional interests. This has led many members from other disciplines and from outside academia to leave the Association. In this vein, the main activities of the Association today consist of core scientific functions: publishing a quarterly Politiikka (since 1959) and occasionally books (beginning in 1983, the Association has published an English-language book series, Books from the Finnish Political Science Association), arranging an Annual meeting (since 1968) and participating in the activities of international political science associations. 8

9 The Finnish Association has always been relatively active in its foreign relations. It joined the International Political Science Association (IPSA) already in It has also participated in the Nordic cooperation from the 1960s on, as the Nordic Associations began to publish a joint English-language Yearbook, Scandinavian Political Studies in 1966 (which was changed into a quarterly in 1978). The Nordic Associations have also organized Nordic political science conferences every three years since A joint Yearbook and regular conferences led to the formalization of the Nordic cooperation in 1975, when the Nordic Political Science Association (NOPSA) was established. In recent years the Finnish Association has also been active in the work of the European Political Science Network (epsnet) and it is also currently taking part in the founding of the new European Confederation of Political Science Associations. The second factor for the decrease in the membership of the Finnish Association has been the emergence of new associations in the fields of international relations and administrative studies. The Finnish Peace Research Association was founded in Today it publishes its own quarterly journal Kosmopolis and has over 200 members. There is also the Finnish International Studies Association, which was founded in 1993 and has a membership of some 150. The Finnish Association for Administrative Studies, on the other hand, was founded in It has some 450 members and publishes a quarterly journal Hallinnon tutkimus. As these new associations have their own publications, arrange their own conferences and participate in international cooperation with similar associations in other countries, it is no wonder that scholars in these fields have increasingly seen their work to lie outside political science proper. This has been the case above all with scholars in administrative studies. Teaching in Political Science The Finnish higher education system was restructured in 2005 to follow the principles of the Bologna process, which was initiated by European ministries of education in 1999 to harmonize the European Higher Education Area (Reinalda and Kulesza 2006). The Bologna promotes a common European degree structure with an 9

10 establishment of easily readable credit system (with a number of other goals, such as, quality assurance and mobility of students and teachers), changes were required also in Finland. As all Finnish universities are (still) state universities, the adoption of the key Bologna principles required the amendment of the Universities Act by the Parliament, because the Act defines the degree structure of the Finnish universities, their languages of teaching, composition and election of governing bodies as well as general guidelines for the selection of students 4. The changes have not been very dramatic, however. The Finnish degree system consisted before 2005 of four different degrees: BA, MA, Licentiate and Doctorate, and this structure has been kept in place, although a Licentiate does not fit well with the Bologna recommendations. The Finnish postgraduate system has been a two-tier system with a Licentiate consisting of the course work for a doctorate and a thesis which needs not to be published. On the other hand, a doctoral degree has required a published dissertation. In a sense the Finnish system has been similar to the German one with the Licentiate as a first doctorate and a published doctoral dissertation as the Habilitation. However, nowadays, a Licentiate has become a rarity, as it is not a compulsory degree any more. What the new Act and Decree changed was mainly: - In the old system a Bachelor s degree was not compulsory. The Master s degree was considered to be a basic degree. In the new system every student has to take the BAdegree first. Students are accepted, however, as MA-students from the very beginning (that is, they don t have to apply to study for the Master s degree after the BA-degree, but can directly continue their studies, if they so wish) - The credit system changed from the system based on study weeks to that of study points. In the old system the BA-degree was 120 study weeks and the MA-degree additional 40 study weeks. A new system was made compatible with the ECTS system, the BA-degree now consisting of 180 points and the MA-degree of More detailed instructions are still given in the Government Decree on University Degrees. 10

11 points. In principle the emphasis of studies shifted slightly from BA-level to MAlevel, but in reality this seems not to have been the case - Finnish social science degrees have always been multi-disciplinary programs consisting of one major subjects, two or more minors as well as some general studies (languages, statistics, single courses on philosophy, law, etc.). The system has remained very much the same, but has become more standardized as a share of one s major now has to be credits at the Bachelor s level. In addition one has to take one minor subject (60 credits) or two minor subjects (25 credits each) as well as a set of compulsory general studies. A Bachelor s degree must also include a thesis worth of 6-10 credits. Minor subjects can usually be chosen freely. The Master s degree may then consist of full 120 credits in one s major (although this is not always the case). The Master s thesis is worth of 40 credits. The post-graduate system, however, has remained very much the same as in the old system - In the old system it took over six years on average for students to take their MAdegree, as many of them worked while studying (many even full time). The new system tries to get students to graduate faster. A Bachelor s degree is expected to be taken in three years, after which students are expected to complete a Master s degree in two years. A PhD degree is then expected to take four years. It remains to be seen, however, if the new system will change anything, as there are no formal rules for forcing students to keep up with the expected length of studies. This general framework regulates also studies in political science. In general, all Finnish departments try to offer a broad program covering all the core areas of the discipline. Common to all departments is to teach an introductory course in political science, basics of the Finnish political system and of the European Union, history of political thought as well as research methods, although credits allocated to these topics may vary. It is natural, however, that departments emphasize theoretical traditions and subject areas close to the expertise of their teaching staff. For instance, Turku is strong in theories of rational choice, formal modelling and the study of political institutions, while Jyväskylä s program focuses on political thought (including also the original works from Plato to Marx) as well as on conceptual history in general (language and politics, rhetoric, discourse analysis). Other 11

12 departments have also their own specialties. Åbo is strong in comparative politics and Tampere in the study of political movements and new politics. A detail in the Lapland teaching programme is a study unit Northern politics. Helsinki is more eclectic than other departments due to its size, but emphasizes the methodology of social sciences and the study of power as integrative frameworks for understanding politics. A problem is that all departments are severely understaffed. There are currently some 2000 students studying for the MA in political science in the Finnish universities. In addition there are some 100 serious doctoral students. Each year some new students are accepted to study in the programs. The figures could be even higher, as political science has always been a popular subject among high school graduates. Because of that all universities use entrance examinations, which are highly competitive. For instance, each year the Helsinki department accepts only some 10 per cent of the applicants to study in its programs. Current Research As was pointed out in the brief sketch on the historical development of political science in Finland, there is no single core approach in the discipline today. I have previously (Berndtson 2007) characterized the Finnish political science research as haphazard. One of the problems of a small science community is that there are not enough scholars to study all the relevant areas of the discipline continuously and extensively. In regard to the Finnish case this means that individual political scientists change their research interests from time to time. Major theoretical and methodological traditions of political science have usually been introduced in the Finnish political science, but there has been no real continuity and growth of knowledge. At the moment there are a number of big projects going on, which give a good picture of current research interests of Finnish political scientists. These projects involve a large part of the members of the political science community, especially those who work in temporary positions. In fact, projects are usually led by one or two established scholars and the majority of researchers are young post-docs or Ph.D. students. 12

13 The biggest projects are those funded by the Academy of Finland as Centers of Excellence. These research groups are selected on a highly competitive basis. At the moment there are three Centers, in which political science has a major role 5 : 1) Kari Palonen in Jyväskylä is leading the project on Political Thought and Conceptual Change ( ). It consists of three research teams: Political Thought and Conceptual History, Politics of Philosophy and Gender and Politics and the Arts. The first team focuses on political theories as polemical speech acts from the perspective that the history of concepts has replaced the classical study of the history of ideas. Gender team bases its research on feminist theory and lesbian and queer studies. The arts team has its starting point in reading the arts politically. 2) Jan Klabbers in Helsinki is leading the project on Global Governance Research ( ). This is a joint project of the departments of International Law, Political Science and Social Anthropology. It focuses on globalization and questions of global governance from the perspectives of these different disciplines in order to have a more integrated picture of the problem. 3) Hannu Nurmi in Turku is leading the project on Public Choice Research ( ). The project is multi-disciplinary as departments of political science, philosophy and economics work together (with the Economics department of the Turku School of Economics and Business Administration and the Institute of Social Economics at the University of Hamburg). The Center utilizes the methods microeconomics to the study of politics. There are two main research groups, one studying the design of decision-making institutions (with an emphasis on EU institutions), the other studying problems of democratic governance (possibilities for deliberative democracy, referenda, consensus reaching procedures). In addition to the Centers of Excellence, the Academy of Finland is funding also various research programs. One of these at the moment is Power in Finland ( ). Under the program there are 24 independent research projects, four of them are 5 See, 13

14 led by political scientists ( Political Institutions and the Finnish Market Regime, Citizen Power in Representative Democracy, Governance of Finnish Energy Policy-Making: From Governmental Control and Regulation to Market-Based Domination? and The EU as an International Actor ). In addition, three other projects have political scientists working in them ( Media, Citizenship and Circuits of Power, The Paradoxes of Finnish Gender Power Order: Law, Politics and Multilevel Governance and Pension Power in Finland ). 6 An additional big project worth mentioning is led by Lauri Karvonen in Åbo on Democracy: A Citizen Perspective ( ). 7 Combining the forces of political scientists in Åbo and Vasa with those of developmental psychologists the project examines conditions of modern democracy. Using quantitative and systematic content analyses and comparative studies as well as experimental Virtual Polities to simulate real-life politics, the project analyzes how the class- and party based politics has been changing into an audience democracy. As these projects cover issues, such as, the study of political thought and concepts, gender studies, public choice, decision-making systems, EU studies, globalization and global governance, new forms of democracy, elections, market regimes as well as media and politics, they are illustrative of the broad range of areas studied. They are also good in illustrating the division into mainstream and non-mainstream research in Finnish political science. Empirically oriented scholars (as well as those favoring formal modelling) have not always considered philosophically oriented scholars, feminist political theorists or those advocating models of participatory democracy as real political scientists. On the other hand, empirically oriented political scientists have been accused of dull, conservative and pseudo-scientific research. Although the division between mainstream and non-mainstream political science exists in most countries, in Finland this division may be more noticeable than in many other countries, due to somewhat equal strength of both sides. As there is a fierce competition for resources, this situation produces harsh criticism against the other side from time to time. 6 See, 7 See, 14

15 The Future of Political Science in Finland Although political science became an academic discipline in Finland already in the 1920s and although it was considered to be one of the core social science disciplines after the Second World War (one of the big three with economics and sociology), today there are pressures and tendencies which threaten its position in academia. There are both external and internal reasons for this situation. The biggest challenge comes from changes in the Finnish system of higher education. During the last decade universities have experienced restructuring of teaching and research. As the Finnish universities are public institutions, their development has been dependent on political and governmental decisions. For a number of reasons the state has actively pursued universities to enlarge the student body, while the number of teachers has barely increased. At the same time the administrative duties of the staff have multiplied because of large-scale organizational reforms (e.g., the Bologna process). As funding of departments has also become based on results (mainly producing degrees), it is nowadays expected that departments seek outside funding for research activities. This has forced scholars constantly to write project applications and many staff members complain that they do not have time to do research while they take care of teaching and administrative duties. The government has taken now also the first steps in privatizing the Finnish higher education system. In 2010 all universities will become either public law institutions (being outside the state budget, but still receiving state funding and having public responsibilities) or they will be administered as private foundations. Government expects that some forty percent of the original capital for foundation based universities will come from business corporations. Public law institutions are also expected to receive part of their funding from the private sector. During the next decade the number of universities will also be cut down by combining some of the now existing universities into bigger institutions. These changes will affect many disciplines, as universities face pressure to specialise according to their strengths. It is also uncertain how humanities and social sciences are able to attract outside funding for their activities. In the case of political science, a 15

16 further difficulty is that a general interest in politics is low in Finland today and as there seems to be no severe political shocks ahead, it is difficult to get financiers to put their money on political science. That is why political science faces an increasing challenge from new disciplines. As the number of social scientists has increased, this has led to the birth of new subjects, as scholars try to create their own research domains in academia. A result has been a plethora of disciplines, which are closer to practical social problems than traditional social sciences (e.g., ethnic studies, Russian studies, leadership studies, women s studies). Politicians and students are attracted to these new subjects, because they seem to be more relevant for social practice. This can be seen also in official governmental documents. It is revealing that one influential policy paper by the European Union even questions the existing disciplinary system: To understand modern problems the old academic disciplines have to change, as there is an increasing need to develop interdisciplinary capability of scholars (European Commission 2003: 17). That is why political science as an academic discipline will face increasing threats in the future. It may even be that the time of existing social science disciplines has already passed. This problem does not then touch only Finnish political science. A fragmentation of the discipline and its internal confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream research is a problem in the current situation. The situation does not offer any good ground to defend political science as a discipline. We should give more attention to changes in education policies, as they can change also the nature of disciplines. The way we study politics, may well change also what we know about politics. 16

17 References: Anckar, Dag and Erkki Berndtson (1988). Introduction: Centers and Peripheries, Styles and Strategies. In Dag Anckar and Erkki Berndtson, eds., Political Science between the Past and the Future. Essays to Mark the 50th Anniversary of the Finnish Political Science Association. Helsinki: The Finnish Political Science Association, Berndtson, Erkki (2007). The Current State of Political Science in Finland, in Hans- Dieter Klingemann (ed.), The State of Political Science in Western Europe. Opladen & Farmington Hills: Barbara Budrich Publishers, European Commission (2003) The role of the universities in the Europe of knowledge COM (2003) 58 Final, Brussels, Paakkunainen, Kari (1985). Demokratia, tiede ja kansanvalta. Valtiotieteellisen yhdistyksen intellektuaalihistoriaa : Helsinki: Valtiotieteellinen yhdistys. Palonen, Kari (1983). Yleisen valtio-opin perustaminen Helsingin yliopistoon. In Jaakko Nousiainen and Dag Anckar, eds. (1983). Valtio ja yhteiskunta. Tutkielmia suomalaisen valtiollisen ajattelun ja valtio-opin historiasta. Porvoo-Helsinki-Juva: WSOY, Palonen, Kari and Berndtson, Erkki (1982). Political Science in Finland. Development in a Periphery. Paper prepared for presentation at the XIIth IPSA World Congress, Rio de Janeiro, August 9-14, Pesonen, Pertti (1958). Valisijamiesvaalien ylioppilasäänestäjät. Vammala: Vammalan kirjapaino Oy. Rasila, Viljo (1973). Yhteiskunnallinen korkeakoulu Porvoo: WSOY. Research Assessment Exercise Panel 15: Social Sciences ( ral_conclusion_social.pdf). Reinalda, Bob and Kulesza, Ewa (2006). The Bologna Process Harmonizing Europe s Higher Education. Opladen & Farmington Hills: Barbara Budrich Publishers. 17