Public Administration Programmes in Sweden

Transcription

1 UMEÅ UNIVERSITY Department of Political Science SE Umeå 14 Public Administration Programmes in Sweden Dr Kerstin Kolam, assisted by Ms Kristina Lannto and Ms Maud Lantto 14.1 INTRODUCTION Defining Public Administration programmes in Sweden is not an easy task. Apart from the programmes that are labelled PA, there are also other university programmes that both consist of PA courses and aim at employment within public administration. The programme for Social Work, for example, has courses in political science, law and economics where the students learn about the Swedish public system, legal aspects and public economy. Other examples are the Environmental Health Programme and the Programme for Human Resources Management and Development. This inventory only deals with ÔpureÕ PA programmes from a Political Science perspective HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK Public Administration Programmes in Sweden have developed along two lines. At the universities there has since long been programmes targeted towards the civil service. The main emphasis used to be on law and later on politics. Parts of the programmes gradually merged into one, training both civil servants and local officials within the general field of public administration. The PA programmes for local officials started as non-academic programmes. Later on the development of the welfare state made programmes for local officials in a broad sense important. The development of the Swedish welfare state started already during the 1940s but the second WW led to a break. The welfare services are in the main produced at the local level in Sweden. That is why the need of trained officials has been the greatest in the municipalities. An institute for Social Work was established in 1920 in Stockholm by the city of Stockholm and The Association for Social Work. During the first years the number of students at the institute was rather low, partly depending on difficulties in attracting students to the programme. The programme started with 30 students per year and in 1939/40 the number of students accepted was 100 a year. A few years later, in 1944, a second institute was established in Gšteborg and three years later a third one in Lund. The institutes were a form of associations, partly financed by the Government and the municipalities. During 1960 the Government stated that it was necessary to reorganise the education. The contents and the organisation, as well as the theoretical 361

2 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION and practical parts of the education were discussed. A Royal Commission was set up with the aim of looking into these issues. One of the suggestions put forward by the commission was to establish an institute in UmeŒ. There were three different programmes at the institutes. One aimed at training social workers, the other local officials that were employed by the municipalities in the local administration and the third was a general social science programme. When the first municipal amalgamations were carried out in the beginning of the 1950s it was discovered that there was a need of a fourth programme to train officials in fiscal matters. These students were supposed to get employment in the bigger municipalities, whereas students at the other programmes were intended for the smaller municipalities. During this time some of the municipalities only had one official employed and this person should have a broad training in order to be able to take care of all matters in a municipality. Gradually the requirements were increased regarding the educational background of persons working within public administration. The reason for this was the increasing demands in the public administration, i.e. in the municipalities, as a whole. The municipal amalgamations in 1952 and during late the 1960s and beginning of the 1970s decreased the number of local units substantially. Both amalgamations led to a decrease in the number of local politicians, but an increase in the number of employees. In the very beginning of the welfare state there was not a clear distinction between the local politician and the local administrator. The local politician was in many cases the one who also took care of the administrative tasks within a certain policy field, for example as the chairman of the Social Board within a municipality. The chairman was in charge of the welfare benefits for people in need of financial support and actually also took care of the payment of social benefits. The development of the welfare state continued, however, and it became obvious that the municipalities needed professional public servants to deal with practical matters. In the 1960s a university based PA programme was introduced at the Universities of Stockholm, Gšteborg, Lund and UmeŒ and at the University College of stersund. The students had the opportunity to take some optional courses but in the main the major subjects were Political Science, Economics, Statistics and Social and Economic Geography. In the programmes the subjects were integrated and mixed, with special focus on Public Administration. The PA programmes at the institutes were from the beginning targeted mainly towards the local level. However, in 1974 a new PA programme (linjen fšr offentlig fšrvaltning) was introduced at some of the universities. The students were expected to be employed mainly by state authorities. The core subjects were Politics and Economics. In 1977 higher education in Sweden underwent a reform. The institutes of Social Work had been in charge of the education of local bureaucrats. Now the Government wanted to incorporate the institutes with the universities. The reason for this was that the links between higher education and research should be strengthened. The programmes did not, however, change much regarding contents and courses, other than the normal changes undertaken to update courses. The next higher education reform came only a few years later. In the beginning of the 1980s it was discovered that the number of educational programmes had 362

3 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMMES IN SWEDEN increased and that many of the programmes were overlapping regarding contents. They often aimed at the same positions within the public sector, even if they differed. Some of the programmes included internship, others not, some had a more theoretical approach, others were more practically oriented. A committee suggested that a new Public Administration programme should be introduced. It would consist of basic studies for one and a half years and after that the students could choose between two alternatives: one in Public Administration and the other in Economics. Another important suggestion, which was realised was the introduction of chairs in Public Administration. The latest changes in the PA programmes were undertaken in the beginning of the 1990s. Some of the universities and university colleges went from the integrated form of courses to studies in the core subjects, often mixing the PA students with students graduating in Political Science, Economics, Statistics etc. One explanation to this is that another type of budgetary system was introduced in higher education forcing university departments into large-scale production. The aim of the new programme was to strengthen the theoretical parts in the courses and the relations to research INSTITUTIONAL SETTING Public Administration programmes are today taught in universities and university colleges. These are the universities of Lund, Linkšping, Stockholm, Uppsala, UmeŒ, and Gšteborg, the Mid-Sweden University College, both in Sundsvall and in stersund, and the University Colleges, since January 1999 Universities of Karlstad, VŠxjš and rebro. In Gšteborg there is a School of Public Administration as part of the university. The School functions like any other university department. All departments involved in PA programmes, with the exception of the language departments in VŠxjš, belong to the Faculties of Social Sciences PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED DISCIPLINES In Sweden Public Administration is regarded as a sub-discipline in or a part of Political Science in most cases. In Gšteborg one might say that PA is regarded as a sub-discipline in Business Management and Political Science. The PA programmes include courses within the main subjects with specific emphasis on public administration. The most common core subjects are Political Science and Economics. Depending on university the students may also choose Statistics, Sociology, Business Administration or Social and Economic Geography as their major subject, but there is a set of core subjects that usually are compulsory. The Swedish Public Administration programmes were originally established on close co-operation between the subjects involved. However, this did not mean that there was an interdisciplinary basis. The students had several different subjects during one semester, combining for example, courses in Political Science, Economics, Statistics and Law. Since 1993/94 the PA programmes are organised differently. Students only take one subject per semester. This is also common in any other type of 363

4 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION academic studies. Co-operation was also realised through a board consisting of representatives from all departments involved. This is still the case. Gradually, the core disciplines in the programmes started dominating. One exception is the programme offered in Gšteborg at the School of Public Administration, which still runs according to the traditional model. The Swedish higher education system is highly decentralised. In practice this means, that the contents of every PA programme is formally decided upon by the Social Science Faculties at each university. Every department involved in the programme also has a high degree of freedom when it comes to the contents of specific courses, although planning and negotiations are undertaken within the boards for PA programmes. The main impression is that the planning of the programmes is conducted in an atmosphere of mutual interest and consensus CONTENTS OF PA PROGRAMMES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Students within the PA-programmes can graduate as Politices kandidat (BA) after a minimum of three years of studies or Politices magister (MA) after a minimum of four years of studies. In practice a majority of the students graduate as Politices Magister at all universities and university colleges. In some cases, as in Linkšping, Sundsvall, and rebro, it is possible for a student to obtain a Master's degree by combining single-subject courses, i.e. by not taking part in a PA Programme as such. Admission to the PA-programmes is centralised through the National Admissions Office to Higher Education. The general entry requirements are completed secondary school or adult secondary school or folk high school or 25 years of age plus four years of working experience or foreign secondary school of minimum 12 years. In addition a certain level of Swedish, English, Civics and Mathematics are required (specific requirements). Apart from the basic courses, which usually are compulsory, the Swedish PAprogrammes consist of a number of options for the students. The freedom of choice is also considerable when one compares the universities within the country. It is therefore impossible to describe one Swedish programme, or even one programme at one university. This is the reason for presenting the programmes below in more detail. The only common denominator seems to be studies in Politics and Economics (with the exception of one of the programmes in VŠxjš, see below). In the majority of the programmes students are allowed to choose whatever studies they would like to conduct during one or two semesters. These studies may be conducted at any faculty in the universities. Special emphasis is put on the public sector, but the students are trained for employment in both public and private sector as well as the voluntary sector. In most of the programmes courses are not exclusively for PA students, especially at the basic level. One clear exception is Gšteborg where there is no co-ordination between programme courses and single-subject courses. At some universities and university colleges a set of courses are only aimed for PA students. These courses are usually at intermediate and advanced levels. The descriptions of the different 364

5 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMMES IN SWEDEN programmes, which follow below, are based on the contents of the programmes during 1997/98. Part of the europeanisation and internationalisation in Swedish higher education is to offer courses in other languages. The descriptions also include the mentioning of courses offered in English. Göteborg The PA programme in Gšteborg starts with 1,5 years of basic studies in Political Science, Economics, Business Administration, Law and Statistics. Thereafter the student can specialise in either Management Economics or Public Administration. Within Management Economics Business Administration is emphasised. Public Administration consists of courses in Law and Political Science. The freedom of choice is large within the programme once the basic studies are completed. Studies abroad are also available. No courses in the programme are offered in a foreign language. In Gšteborg there are five courses with an explicit PA dimension: Organisation and Administration in a Comparative Perspective (basic level, compulsory); Management Control in Public Sector (intermediate level, compulsory), Politics and Administration in a Comparative Perspective (intermediate level, optional); The European Union (intermediate level, optional); Policy Making in the European Union (advanced level, optional). At the University College of Karlstad compulsory subjects in the PA-programme are Political Science, Economics and Law. The programme starts with courses in these subjects and in the mentioned order. After this the student may choose one of two options as their major: Political Science or Economics. According to the programme semesters six and eight are optional, meaning that the student may choose any subjects, including internship abroad. Studies abroad are available, but there are no courses offered in English for the Swedish students. Karlstad offers six courses in the field of Public Administration: Comparative Politics and Administration (basic level, compulsory and intermediate level, optional); Swedish and Comparative Politics (intermediate level, compulsory); Public Politics and Administration (basic and intermediate level, both optional); European Studies (evening course, optional). Karlstad During the first year the students study Political Science and Economics. The second year consists of courses in Statistics, Law and Political Science or Economics. Years three and four enables the student to take optional courses in, for example, Business Administration, Social and Economic Geography, English, The Political Economy in Developing Countries etc. Finally the student conducts advanced studies in either Political Science or in Economics. It is possible for students to spend one or two semesters abroad, but there are no signed agreements with PA departments in Europe. Only one course, in Economics, is offered in English. Linkšping has five courses with a PA perspective: Swedish and Comparative Politics (basic level, compulsory, and intermediate level, optional); Public Administration (basic level, compulsory, and intermediate level, optional); Comparative Politics and Administration (advanced level, compulsory). 365

6 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION Lund During the first year the student in Lund takes courses in Political Science and Economics. It is recommended that the student then conduct studies at basic level in other subjects before he or she continues with intermediate and advanced studies. Besides the main subjects the student may choose one of the following alternatives: Law and Statistics or Business Administration, Social and Economic Geography, Statistics or Commercial Law. In addition the student may choose whatever subjects he or she wants during one year. The programme in Lund consists of three options. Public Economics aims at special qualifications in economics and financial control, mainly in politically controlled organisations. In addition to the compulsory basic courses in Political Science and Economics the student also takes Business Administration. At the intermediate level in Economics some courses are compulsory: Micro Economic Analysis, Decentralised Economic Control and a Master's thesis in Public Economy. At the intermediate level in the second option the student selects courses in Political Science. Students selecting the third option of the PA-programme have two alternatives. At the intermediate level he or she can choose International Economics or International Organisations and Negotiations. The former consists of courses in Development Economy, International Economy and Economic Integration. The latter alternative offers courses in International Politics, International Negotiations and European Politics. In both cases the Master's thesis has to be written in English. Studies abroad are available, but no internship, neither in Sweden nor abroad. Many courses are offered in English. Courses with a PA dimension are: Politics and Government (basic level, compulsory); European Co-operation in Theory and Practise (intermediate level, optional); Comparative Public Administration and Political Science PA Analysis (intermediate level, optional); Negotiations and Decision Making in the European Union (advanced level, optional); Governing the Environment (advanced level, optional); Public Leadership (advanced level, optional). Stockholm The PA programme in Stockholm is organised in a different way compared to the other programmes. Up to BA level there is no specific Public Administration profile. The student takes courses in different subjects, but with Political Science or Business Administration as the major subject. Some of the basic, intermediate and advanced level courses deal with European and comparative aspects, as well as with Public Administration. At Master's level there are four programmes, where the student can graduate as a Master of Public Administration. In two of the programmes the PA perspective is more obvious: ÔPolitical Science with a European DimensionÕ and ÔPublic Policies and OrganisationÕ. Entry requirements in the first programme are a BA degree with 90 ECTS credits in Political Science or equivalent. In the second programme the requirements are a BA degree with 90 ECTS credits in Political Science or in Business Administration and 30 ECTS credits in Political Science or a BA degree in Public Administration. At BA level in Political Science there are only two courses with a PA dimension: Public Administration (basic level, compulsory); The Internationalisation of Politics (intermediate level, optional). At Master's level the number of courses is higher. The programme with a European perspective offers: Europe as a Political System; 366

7 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMMES IN SWEDEN Comparative European Politics; Policy Areas in Europe. The other programme, Public Policies and Organisation, offers: Public Policies and Policy Analysis; Public Organisation and Leadership; Public Policies in an Institutional Perspective. All courses are optional within the respective programmes. Sundsvall Mid-Sweden University College in Sundsvall offers a European Programme where European Studies in Politics and Administration is the core, and also the compulsory subject. The rest of the courses in the programme are optional and the students may choose subject like Sociology, Business Administration and languages. The student is expected to spend one or two semesters for studies abroad. In Sundsvall no courses are offered in English. Courses with a PA dimension are: Politics and Administration (basic level); Comparative Politics (basic level), European Integration/Political Theory (basic level); Policy Analysis (advanced level). All courses are compulsory. Umeå The Public Administration programme at UmeŒ University starts with a core programme consisting of Political Science, Economics, Law and Statistics. From the fourth semester on the student can choose between four alternatives as his or her major subject: Political Science, Economics, Social and Economic Geography or Statistics. Depending on the major subject the student has one or two semesters of optional studies in any subject at any faculty. Studies abroad and internship in Sweden or abroad are possible alternatives. Many of the optional courses in the programme are taught in English. Courses with a PA perspective are the following: Swedish and Nordic Politics and Administration (basic level, compulsory); Politics and Administration in a Comparative Perspective (basic level, compulsory); Policy Analysis (intermediate level, optional); EU and Democracy (intermediate level, optional); Environmental Policy and Administration (intermediate level, optional); Transitions in Public Management (intermediate level, optional). Uppsala During the first three semesters the student takes courses in Political Science, Economics and Statistics and/or Public Law. From the fourth semester on the student may choose intermediate studies in Economics, Politics or Statistics or specialised studies focusing on international issues, for example European Politics, International Politics or Development Politics. Advanced studies in one of the above mentioned subjects leaves the student with one year of optional courses. Specialised studies during the fourth semester consist of Political Science. The fifth semester is devoted to courses in the same subject focusing on Europe. The sixth semester is studies in Political Science with one course and a thesis. During the seventh semester the student can apply for studies abroad taking optional courses or apply for internship in Sweden or abroad. Finally, during the last semester, the student takes one course in Political Science and finishes with a Master's thesis. Some of the courses in the programme are taught in English. Uppsala offers the following PA courses: Comparative Politics (basic level, compulsory, advanced level, optional); Public Administration (basic level, compulsory); European Politics (intermediate level, optional); Theory and Method of 367

8 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION Evaluation and Implementation (advanced level, compulsory); Comparative European Politics (advanced level, compulsory); Comparative European Administration (advanced level, compulsory); Växjö At the University College of VŠxjš there are two programmes in Public Administration: European Public Administration and International Public Administration with Languages. The programme in European Public Administration starts with a basic course on different perspectives on Europe, for example political, geographical, geopolitical, social, economic and legal aspects. Both Eastern and Western Europe are included. During semesters three to five the student takes intermediate courses in either Political Science or Economics. A third option is to take courses in any other subject. For students taking any of the first two options the sixth semester consists of an internship in a European country. Those who major in Political Science take all courses in English during the fourth semester. Students with the third option take optional courses in any subject. Finally, for a Master's degree, the student takes additional courses in the main subject, including a Master's thesis. The first PA programme offers the following courses in PA: Comparative Public Administration (basic level, compulsory); Local Political Organising (intermediate level, compulsory); Policy and Evaluations Methods (advanced level, compulsory). The PA programme with languages focuses on English, German or French and the student takes one language, which also can be the major subject in the degree. Otherwise the student majors in Political Science. The student can only take a BA degree in this programme. The first year starts with studies in any of the languages, including studies in modern history, geography etc. of the country in question. The second year is devoted to studies in Political Science. Comparisons are made between Sweden and countries where English, French and German are spoken. During the third year the student takes advanced studies in his/her language or in Political Science. During the last semester the student goes abroad for internship during ten weeks. Internship abroad is compulsory. Some courses at the advanced level are offered in English. The second programme offers four compulsory courses in PA: Comparative Administration (basic level); Comparative Politics (both basic and advanced level); Public Ethics (intermediate level). During the first three semesters the student takes courses in Political Science, Economics and Statistics. One of the subjects is chosen as the major. The whole programme consists only of these subjects. Depending on the major subject the freedom of choice varies. In Statistics there are only compulsory courses. In the other two subjects the students have some opportunities to choose between courses. Courses are only offered on Swedish, but studies abroad are available. rebro has two compulsory courses with a PA dimension: Politics and Administration in Sweden (basic level); International and Comparative Politics (intermediate level). 368

9 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMMES IN SWEDEN Östersund Mid-Sweden University College in stersund has a programme in Economics, Politics and Environment, with an emphasis on the latter. The first three semesters consist of a core programme which is compulsory. Economics, Politics, Law and a course in Ecology and Society are taught. Three semesters are devoted to studies in the major subject. One and a half semester are optional courses in Business Administration, Sociology, Law, Psychology and Statistics. All compulsory courses in the programme deal with environmental issues and perspectives. Studies abroad are available, but no courses are offered in English. stersund offers their PA students the following courses with a PA dimension: Politics in a European Perspective (basic level, compulsory); Environmental Politics (intermediate level, optional); Comparative Politics (advanced level, optional). Conclusions All Swedish PA programmes, except in Gšteborg and VŠxjš, include basic studies in Political Science, such as Political Theory and International Relations in its ÔpureÕ form. The common core at the basic level is studies not only in Swedish politics and administration, but also in comparative studies. Even if the word administration is not mentioned in the title of a course, the aspect may be dealt with anyway. There is usually at least one book at the reading list covering the subject in some Political Science courses. Gšteborg and VŠxjš have a different model. At these universities the programmes do not consist of basic studies in general Political Sience. Another observation one can make from the inventory of the course curricula is that many programmes offer courses in English as well, in most cases both for Swedish and foreign students. This may enable comparisons between systems, provided that the foreign students have a good knowledge of their own political and administrative system. Furthermore, courses in English makes it easier for a department to invite teachers in PA from other countries as guest lecturers, for example within the SOCRATES teacher exchange programme. THE EUROPEAN AND COMPARATIVE DIMENSION An number of courses in the Swedish PA programmes have an explicit European and comparative dimension. Table 14.1 is a summary of the results of the inventory Two universities/university colleges are missing from the table. This does not, however, mean that their PA programmes lack a European dimension altogether. There are courses that focus on Europe in general, but none of them in PA. In courses, such as Comparative Politics, Comparative PA and International Relations, conditions in European countries, as well as within the European Union, are dealt with, but not with a main emphasis on Europe. Finally, to present a true picture of the situation one should, in fact, be present in the classroom. Both lectures and hand outs that are not specified in the literature lists may contain a European perspective. 369

10 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION Table 14.1 University Name of course Compulsory/optional Göteborg The European Union optional Policy Making in the European Union optional Karlstad European Studies optional Lund European Co-operation in Theory and Practice optional Negotiations and Decision Making in the European Union optional Stockholm Europe as a Political System compulsory Comparative European Politics compulsory Policy Areas in Europe compulsory Sundsvall European Integration/Political Theory compulsory Umeå EU and Democracy optional Uppsala Comparative European Politics compulsory Comparative European Administration compulsory European Integration compulsory European Politics compulsory Växjö Östersund The Idea and Practise of Europe compulsory Understanding West European Cooperation compulsory Politics in a European Perspective compulsory 14.7 During the past few years the demand of courses with a European dimension has increased among the students. The European Union as a politico-administrative system seems to be more common as a theme than comparative Public Administration perspectives. One explanation may be that in general students avoid courses with an explicit PA dimension. Why this is the case is hard to tell. One hypothesis is that young students of today perceive Public Administration as something boring and obsolete. Since many of the courses are optional teachers try to avoid offering courses that may not be popular among the students. But there seems to be rather few teachers, as well, interested in general PA as a subject. One exception is courses where Public Administration is highlighted in connection to a specific policy area, i. e. environmental administration, health care administration etc. As mentioned previously, Public Administration is a subject that tends to be hidden in the Politics courses. A course in European Politics, for example, may very well deal with PA, but this is not obvious from the heading, and sometimes not even from the course curriculum. RESEARCH There are several chairs in Public Administration in Sweden: two in Stockholm and three in Gšteborg, and one each in Lund and UmeŒ. In addition there are several chairs in Political Science, some of which may be connected to Public Administration as well. Special PA research institutions are to be found in Stockholm and Gšteborg. In rebro there is an institute concentrating on research on municipalities and county councils, Novemus. 370

11 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMMES IN SWEDEN Originally research in Public Administration developed along the same line as the rest of Europe, i.e. with a strong legalistic influence. Gradually there has been a growing impact from management research, especially the kind conducted within Business Administration. Lundquist concludes that PA in a broad sense can be divided into rule of law (the discipline of Law), rationality, efficiency and efficacy (Management), and political democracy and public ethics (Political Science). According to Lundquist Political Science bears a big responsibility, because political democracy and public ethics are exclusive for the public sector, whereas management values are present in all sectors of society, i.e. public, private and voluntary. Today there seems to be an emphasis on management values (although they are not dominating) at the expense of legal, democratic and ethical values. In the 1960s much PA research was done within a large research programme, which involved all the Political Science departments during this time. The programme was focusing on politics and administration at the local level, i.e. in the new, bigger municipalities. Another big research project on the same theme was in effect during the late 1970s. During the past few decades PA research has been dealing with implementation, policy analysis and evaluation. Comparative aspects in research have by tradition been dealt with more or less. Scandinavian studies, for example, have been fairly common in Political Science/ Public Administration. The reason for this is that not only Scandinavia but all the Nordic countries have a common history and are comparatively similar. During the past decades Denmark and Sweden have been the leading nations in different aspects, including public administration, mainly because these two countries used to be the rulers in the area. Also in modern times the diffusion of ideas, for example in public administration, is fairly high. Previously Royal Commissions as a rule used to have a chapter on the conditions in some other western countries in whatever subject was investigated. This particular chapter always included the Nordic countries. Research on Europe and the European Union seems, however, to be a rather new theme in Swedish Political Science. Both the Government and the Parliament have been eager to support the research community financially. In a report from the Ministry of Education in 1997 it was suggested that networks for European studies should be established. The Parliament decided that very same year to finance such an enterprise. There is now three networks for European studies: in Political Science, Economics and Law. The aim of the networks is to promote the development of a broad European profile in research in order to enhance the understanding of the European Union. The networks started operating in the fall of The activities include conferences once or twice a year, seminars and publications, for example a yearbook. The number of researchers involved increases continuously. There is also some cooperation between the three networks, one of them being a website, another one the above-mentioned yearbook. Lund University has also a network for co-operation between departments and researchers called Centre for European Studies at Lund University. The main faculties involved are the Social Sciences, Humanities and Law. ÔThe aim is to encourage research, education and long-term competence on Europe within the University, but also to develop external contacts of the University, both nationally and inter- 371

12 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION 14.8 nationally.õ Research in Lund is mainly concentrating on the European Union and its effect on member states (integration, EU foreign policy etc). Among the major research areas in Political Science at Stockholm University are International Politics, European Studies, and The Modern State and Central Political Institutions. European Studies has recently become part of the research profile at the department. Some of the research projects deal with general Public Administration from a Swedish point of view, others with specific policy areas. One example of the former is ÔDemocracy and Bureaucracy: The Swedish State in Historical and Comparative PerspectiveÕ and of the latter ÔThe Swedish Finnish School Question. Metaphores in Organisational WorkÕ. Research is also conducted on local government, change and legitimacy of public administration, management through goal-definition, the welfare state and gender issues. Research on Europe deals with foreign policies and integration issues. RELATIONS WITH THE PROFESSION Students with a degree in Public Administration have always found employment, mainly within the public sector. Most of the students have been employed by the local authorities, i.e. municipalities. Some have also found work within the county councils that are responsible for health care in the main. Different studies done by the universities or departments show that at least up until the beginning of the 1990s around 90% of the students had gained access to employment in relation to their training within a few months after graduation. During the 1970s and the 1980s many students were employed right after their internship but before they had finished their final thesis. This created a problem for the universities, because in the statistics these students were regarded as drop-outs and, thus, failures in the system. Some of these students have later returned to the universities in order to finally complete their degree. There are no recent studies on the rates of employment among PA-students. One can, however, suspect that the picture is somewhat different now considering the cut backs within the public sector in Sweden during this decade. On the other hand, there seems to be an increase in employment within the third sector, i.e. voluntary organisations. As a rule students with a PA degree seem to be very well off at the labour market despite the financial situation at central, regional or local level within public administration. There have not been any explicit attempts from university institutions to try to influence the labour market for PA-students. But since teachers and administrators involved in the programmes have been involved in the planning of the different reforms during the years, there has always been plenty of opportunities to discuss and negotiate with representatives from the state, the municipalities and other employers. According to the so called Swedish model negotiations between parties involved in a matter have been considered the best way to reach consensus. PA programmes are also well known to managers within Swedish public administration since so many of them have been trained in these programmes themselves. Governments at all levels have, as a tradition, always purchased research services 372

13 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMMES IN SWEDEN 14.9 from the academic institutions. One may even say that one of the reasons that there are so few independent research institutions in Sweden is the fact that governments have been using the existing structures for this purpose. There has been little need of other types of research centres. The type of research conducted at university department consists of collecting background material, making evaluations etc. Occasionally there has been a boom of private consultants carrying out research in this field. In some cases the consultants are university professors and senior lecturers with a small business on the side. IN-SERVICE TRAINING AND STAFF DEVELOPMENT Post-entry pre-service training is offered by many state authorities, for example the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Swedish National Audit Office (Riksrevisionsverket). State, regional and local authorities sometimes purchase in-service training from the universities. European and comparative dimensions are very much in demand. There is a development council for state authorities (UtvecklingsrŒdet fšr den statliga sektorn) that has purchased a whole MA programme in Public Administration from some universities. These universities co-operate, Stockholm University with Stockholm Business School, and the universities of Lund and UmeŒ. The students are civil servants in management positions and with a BA degree in Public Administration. Some universities also offer a Master's programme for civil servants and local officials. The entry requirements are a BA degree and a minimum of two years as a middle manager in public administration. This is a part time programme consisting of both special courses and regular courses at advanced level in the major subject, i.e. Political Science. CONCLUSIONS Public Administration is regarded as a sub-discipline in or part of Political Science. This is where the main responsibility for PA lies, although other subjects, such as Law and Economics also include PA perspectives in their courses. The inventory shows that there are some courses with an explicit PA dimension and also, though fewer, with a European and comparative dimension. These types of courses were, as a fact, introduced in the early 1990s. Before that there didn't seem to be much interest in Europe in particular. In comparative courses Europe was regarded as part of the Western world and much more emphasis was put on the USA instead. Comparative PA dealt mostly with the Nordic countries. The present courses with a European and comparative dimension deals mainly with EU as a politico-administrative system. Courses on comparative public administration are very few. One possible explanation is that it is difficult to attract students taking courses in anything that may be labelled as bureaucracy in a broad sense. This in turn may mean that PA perspectives are present, but well hidden in course curricula. It is of course not only the students that are to be blamed. The same 373

14 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION perception of PA seems to be rather common among teachers in Political Science, i.e. bureaucracy is boring and obsolete. The Swedish higher education system is highly decentralised and it is not the universities, but departments that decide what courses to offer. In a system where teachers themselves decide what courses to offer and where these courses usually are optional for the students, it is no wonder that this situation has emerged. The way the present programmes are organised, and taking into account other factors in Swedish higher education as well, one conclusion is that the identification with the programme among PA students seems to be weak at some universities. At least some of the students apply for the programme in order to get access to studies in subjects that are difficult to get entry to. What these subjects are varies over time, but for the time being Political Science and Economics are very popular. Once these students have entered their favourite subject they leave the programme. Few PA programmes have a fixed set of courses compulsory for all students. This in turn means that the students are chattered around at different courses. Finally, the present budgetary system forces departments into large-scale ÔproductionÕ of education. In practice this means that PA students take courses together with other students from other programmes. Finally it is clear from the inventory that there seems to be a big difference between The School of Public Administration in Gšteborg and the University of VŠxjš on one hand and the rest of the universities on the other hand. In Gšteborg courses are more explicitly focusing on Public Administration. Students seems to identify themselves more clearly with the programme because they are not mixed with other students and they follow the programme together from one semester to the next. The University of VŠxjš offers a whole programme called European Public Administration. Courses during the first semester are focusing entirely on Europe, 374

15 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMMES IN SWEDEN ANNEX 14.1 levels of government. SWEDISH UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGES WITH PA PROGRAMMES both Western and Eastern Europe. The courses also cover national, regional and local School for Public Administration, Gšteborg University Vasaparken, Box 100 SE Gšteborg phone: fax: Karlstad University College Universitetsgatan 1 SE Karlstad phone: fax: Linkšping University SE Linkšping phone: fax: Lund University Box 117 SE Lund phone: fax: Stockholm University SE Stockholm phone: fax: Mid-Sweden University College, Sundsvall Holmgatan 10 SE Sundsvall phone: fax: UmeŒ University UmeŒ universitet SE UmeŒ phone: fax: Uppsala University Box 514 SE Uppsala phone: fax: VŠxjš University College Campus Phoneeborg P G VejdesvŠg 1532 SE VŠxjš 375

16 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION phone: fax: Orebro University College Fakultetsgatan 1 SE rebro phone: fax: Mid-Sweden University College, stersund SE stersund phone: fax:

17 ANNEX 14.2 COURSES IN SWEDISH PA PROGRAMMES School for Public Administration, Göteborg University Karlstad University College Semester Course ECTS-credits Compulsory Language 1 Swedish Politics 7,5 X Swedish Administrative Law 7,5 X Swedish Civil Law 7,5 X Swedish State and Local Public Administration 7,5 X Swedish 2 Statistics 15 X Swedish Economics 15 X Swedish 3 Organisation and Administration in a Comparative Perspective 15 X Swedish Management Control in Public Sector 15 X Swedish 4 or 5 Economic Calculation 15 Swedish Management Accounting 15 Swedish Politics and Administration in a 7,5 Swedish Comparative Perspective The European Union 7,5 Swedish Economic Efficiency 15 Swedish 6 Management and Evaluation 15 Swedish Financial Accounting 15 Swedish 6 Any optional courses 30 7 Economic Management 15 Swedish Management 7,5 Swedish Degree Project-essay, Public Administration 15 Swedish Policy Making within the European Union 7,5 Swedish Audit 7,5 Swedish Problems and Methods in Social Science 7,5 Swedish Health Economic Theory 15 Swedish Evaluation within Health Care 15 Swedish International Economics 7,5 Swedish Municipal Pricing 7,5 Swedish Contractual Law 7,5 Swedish Economic History of Ideas 7,5 Swedish Public Finances 7,5 Swedish Planning in Public Organisations 7,5 Swedish 8 Degree Project-Essay, Public Finance and Accounting 30 X Degree Project-Essay, Public Administration 30 X Political Science: 1 Introduction to Political Studies 6 X Swedish Swedish Politics and Administration 6 X Swedish Comparative Politics and Administration 6 X Swedish International Politics 6 X Swedish Political Theory and Method 6 X Swedish 2 Political Theory 6 X Swedish Swedish and Comparative Politics 6 X Swedish Public Policies and Administration 6 Swedish International Politics 6 Swedish Political Ideas and Ideologies 6 Swedish Individual course 6 Swedish Methodology 4,5 X Swedish Minor Thesis 7,5 X 377

18 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN EUROPE Semester Course ECTS-credits Compulsory Language 3 Political Theory 7,5 X Swedish Public Policies and Administration 7,5 Swedish Political Ideas 7,5 Swedish International Politics 7,5 Swedish Swedish and Comparative Politics 7,5 Swedish Individual course 7,5 Swedish Senior Thesis 15 X 4 Methodology 7,5 X Swedish Public Policies and Administration 7,5 Swedish Political Ideas 7,5 Swedish International Politics 7,5 Swedish Swedish and Comparative Politics 7,5 Swedish Politics and Societal Development in the Third World 7,5 Swedish Gender and Politics 7,5 Swedish The Present Welfare State and the Public Sector 7,5 Swedish Individual course 7,5 Swedish MasterÕs Thesis 15 X Optional Course: European Studies (evening course) 15 Swedish Linköping University 1 Political Theory 7,5 X Swedish Swedish and Comparative Politics 7,5 X Swedish Public Administration 7,5 X Swedish International Politics 7,5 X Swedish 2 Macro Economics 10,5 X Swedish Micro Economics 12 X Swedish Economic Policy 7,5 X Swedish 3 Introduction to Statistics 7,5 X Swedish Regression Analysis and Time Series Analysis 7,5 X Swedish Introduction to Law 15 X Swedish 4 Political Science: Political Theory 7,5 X Swedish Methods in Political Science 7,5 X Swedish Comparative Politics and Administration 7,5 X Swedish Minor Thesis 7,5 X Swedish or: Economics: Micro Economic Theory 7,5 X Swedish Macro Economic Theory 7,5 X Swedish Public Finance 7,5 Swedish Economic Growth and Productivity 7,5 Swedish Law and Economics 7,5 English Minor Thesis 7,5 X Swedish 5 Administrative Law 15 Swedish Environmental Diplomacy 15 Swedish The Political Economy of Development 15 Swedish 6 Political Science: Methods in Political Science 7,5 X Swedish Political Theory 7,5 Swedish Swedish and Comparative Politics 7,5 Swedish Public Administration 7,5 Swedish International Politics 7,5 Swedish Politics, Technology and Social Change 7,5 Swedish Senior Thesis 15 X 378

19 PUBLIC A DMINISTRATION PROGRAMGS IN SWEDEN Lund University Semester Course ECTS-credits Compulsory Language or Economics: Econometrics 7,5 Swedish Applied Micro Economics 7,5 Swedish Industrial Organisation 7,5 English Economic Integration 7,5 Swedish Financial Markets 7,5 Swedish Senior Thesis 15 X 7 Optional courses in any subject 30 6 Political Science: Conflicts in Science 7,5 X Swedish Theory and Methods in The Studies of Politics 7,5 X Swedish MasterÕs Thesis 15 X or Economics: Applied Economics 15 Swedish Analysing Economic Problems 7,5 Swedish Law and Economics 7,5 Swedish MasterÕs Thesis 15 X 1 Political Theory 7,5 X Swedish Politics and Government 15 X Swedish International Politics 7,5 X Swedish 2 Political Science Methods 9 Swedish Conflicts and Co-operation in International 9 Swedish Politics Mass Media and Political Opinion 9 Swedish Analysis of Foreign Policies 9 Swedish Politics and Development in the Third World 9 Swedish European Co-operation in Theory and Practice 9 Swedish Comparative Administration and Political 9 Swedish Science Analysis Minor Thesis 12 X Swedish 3 Political Theory 7,5 Swedish Methods 7,5 Swedish 3 or 4 Negotiations and Decision Making in the 7,5 English European Union Organisation Theory 7,5 English Time and Space in International Politics 7,5 English Problems in Political Philosophy: Citizenship, 7,5 English Culture and Democracy Post-Colonialism, Gender and Race 7,5 English Human Rights 7,5 English National Identities and International Conduct 7,5 English 3 International Political Economy 7,5 English Public Leadership 7,5 English Social Change and Democracy: Perspectives 7,5 English from Asia Senior Thesis 15 X 4 Alternatives in Political Theory and Methods 15 Swedish Power, Ethics and Territoriality 15 Swedish Democracy in Transition 15 Swedish The Territorial Dimension of the State 7,5 English Democratisation 7,5 English Governing the Environment 7,5 English Den gršnslšsa politiken i mštet mellan lokalt 7,5 Swedish och globalt Comparative Political Culture 7,5 English MasterÕs Thesis 15 X 379

20 HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN EUROPE Stockholm University Semester Course ECTS-credits Compulsory Language Political Science 1 Political Theory 9 X The Forms, Rules and Processes of Politics 9 X Public Administration 6 X International Politics 6 X 2 Analysis of Politics 15 X One thematic course: options 7.5 X 1) The Modern State and Democracy 2) The Internationalisation of Politics One thematic specialisation: options 7.5 X 1) The Modern State and Democracy: - Religion and Politics in Islam - Beyond the Modern State? - State and Democratisation in the Third World I - Constitutional Policies 2) The Internationalisation of Politics: - Theory and Practise in Human Rights - Media and the World - The Ethics of Internationalisation - Old and Modern Classics of International Relations Theory 3 Methodology In Political Science 7.5 X Seminar and Essay Work 15 X Special course: options 7.5 X - Explaining war - Security and International Relations - Minorities and Nation-States: Identity, Citizenship, Multi Culturalism and Globalisation - Mass Communication, Collective Identity and the Public Sphere in the Global Era - State and Democratisation in the Third World II 4-6 Any other Social Science subject for a complete BA degree 7-8 MasterÕs Programme 1) Political Science with a European Dimension Europe as a Political System 15 X Comparative European Politics 7.5 X Policy Areas in Europe 7.5 X Seminar in Methodology 7.5 X Individual literature course 7.5 X MasterÕs Thesis 15 X 2) Public Policies and Organisation Public Policies and Policy Analysis 15 X Public Organisation and Leadership 15 X PA Policies in an Institutional Perspective 7,5 X Thematic course 7,5 X MasterÕs Thesis 15 X Mid-Sweden University College, Sundsvall 1 Political Theory 7,5 X Swedish Politics and Administration 7,5 X Swedish Comparative Politics 7,5 X Swedish European Integration/Democratic Theory 7,5 X Swedish 2 Introductory Course in Law and Adm. Law 15 X Swedish EU-Law 15 X Swedish 3 Micro Theory 15 X Swedish Macro Theory and International Economics 15 X Swedish 380