Environmental Policy Brief for the Lake Victoria Basin 1

Transcription

1 School of Economics and Commercial Law GÖTEBORG UNIVERSITY Department of Economics Environmental Economics Unit Environmental Policy Brief for the Lake Victoria Basin 1 November 2007 Regrettably, Lake Victoria is today seriously threatened due to receding water levels, soil and waste pollution, over-fishing, and a growing decline in the health of its ecosystems. As a result, the livelihoods and well-being of over 30 million people who live around its basin are at risk. It is imperative that we act urgently and decisively to halt further decline of the lake and the surrounding environment. Mwai Kibaki, President of Kenya at the inauguration of the Lake Victoria Basin Commission in Kisumu, June 11th, This Policy Brief was written at the request of Sida's Lake Victoria Initiative, Nariobi (att: David Nilsson) by Olof Drakenberg at the Environmental Economics Unit (EEU), Department of Economics, Göteborg University supported by Wilfred Nyangena of EfD Kippra (Kenya) and Razack Lokina, EfD Tanzania and Innocent Kabenga, EEU Kigali. Input has also been provided by Sida s Helpdesk for Environmental Assessment and SwedBio. The brief has been prepared as part of Sida-EEU s institutional collaboration on environmental economics and strategic environmental assessment. Further comments can be directed to olof.drakenberg@economics.gu.se. The policy brief is mainly a desk study complemented by interviews in Nairobi and Kisumu in June Sida does not necessarily share the views expressed in this material. Responsibility for its contents rests entirely with the authors.

2 Summary The Environmental policy brief provides input to the Swedish regional cooperation strategy for Sub Saharan Africa and particularly the Lake Victoria basin. The densely populated basin is richly endowed with natural resources. National development plans in the five basin countries Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda all underline the importance of growth in natural resources based sectors like agriculture and tourism and to a varying degree mining and fisheries. Yet current trends indicate that ongoing resource degradation (land, water, fisheries) will impede poverty reduction, growth and consequently the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. The environmental situation has changed since the former Swedish cooperation strategy was adopted. The most important differences are; reduced catches of Nile perch, the reappearance of the water hyacinth, lower water levels in the lake and the increasing awareness on the need for climate change risk reduction. The energy crisis and the social and economic risks associated with overfishing of Nile perch provide strong political incentives for national governments to move regional collaboration higher up on the agenda. Other important changes include the enlargement of the East African Community with Rwanda and Burundi and the increased capacity of the Lake Victoria Basin Commission. Stronger regional cooperation provides an opportunity to reduce costs for natural resources governance, to improve knowledge transfer and the application of new policy instruments. Moreover, it creates a political momentum that could facilitate implementation of legislation at the national and local level. A Strategic Action Plan for the Lake Victoria Basin was adopted by the East African Community in April It is an important point of departure for improved natural resources management and development and includes elements such as investments in reforestation, implementation of policies for fisheries and reduction of point source pollution. However, many components in the action plan are more focused on addressing the symptoms (reforestation) than the underlying causes of unsustainable management of natural resources and degraded ecosystems (lack of alternative livelihoods and weak law enforcement). Therefore investments in health, education, infrastructure and broader institutional strengthening are necessary to complement the Strategic Action Plan in order to diversify the economy as well as to reduce poverty and the current pressure on ecosystems. Recommendations for regional Swedish development cooperation within the Lake Victoria Basin include; - Strengthen the capacity of the Lake Victoria Basin Commission - High level conference to follow up on the Strategic Action Plan to improve accountability and transparency - Seek synergies between the Strategic Action Plan and bilateral and regional Swedish support - Promote use of Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA) in EAC policy development to improve the quality of policies and increase capacity 2 (36)

3 Table of Contents Summary...2 Table of Contents Introduction Key transboundary environmental issues and causes Land, wetland and forest degradation and the poor Fisheries, habitats, biodiversity and the poor Water quality, pollution and the poor Water quantity, water balance, climate change and the poor Poverty and the environment Population overview Health and Environment Vulnerability and climate change in Lake Victoria Conflict and Environment in Lake Victoria Economic growth, natural resources and environment GDP growth and employment Natural resources savings rate and investments Market and policy failures Regional natural resources governance The East African Community The EAC and management of natural resources in the Lake Victoria Basin Lake Victoria Basin Commission Swedish development cooperation in the region Conclusions and issues for Sida to consider General conclusions Proposals for regional development cooperation Seek synergies between the Strategic Action Plan and bilateral and regional Swedish support Strengthen the Lake Victoria Basin Commission Increase transparency, accountability and enhance information flow Promote the use of strategic environmental assessments in EAC policy development Build regional capacity on climate change and disaster risk reduction Support regional institutions and networks...22 References...26 Annex I Major development projects, institutions and donors in the region...30 Annex II Brief information on Atmospheric deposition...33 Annex III Adjusted Net Savings (36)

4 1. Introduction The purpose of the Environmental policy brief is to provide input to the Swedish regional cooperation strategy for Sub Saharan Africa and particularly the Lake Victoria basin. Focus is on environment, climate change and natural resources and how the management of these resources impact on poverty and poverty reduction. The findings draw heavily on the recent reports made on behalf of the Lake Victoria Basin Commission; Strategic Action plan for the Lake Victoria Basin (which was adopted in April 2007) and the Regional Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Lake Victoria Basin (RTDA). Policy briefs for the five countries have also fed into the overall Environmental policy brief for the Basin. They are presented in a separate Annex. 2. Key transboundary environmental issues and causes The Lake Victoria Basin is richly endowed with natural resources including fertile lands, water, fisheries, minerals, wildlife and forests. The economy in the basin is largely based on natural resources including agriculture, fisheries, mining and ecosystem services. Lake Victoria is thus a source of livelihoods, food, energy, drinking and irrigation water and transport for the people in the basin. The Strategic Action Plan identified four key environmental issues plus governance policies and institutional weakness to be of greatest importance. The environmental issues are i) land, wetland and forest degradation, ii) fisheries, habitats and biodiversity, iii) pollution 2, iv) water balance, water use management and climate change. 2.1 Land, wetland and forest degradation and the poor Overview Land use and land degradation is ranked as the most pressing transboundary environmental issue. Land degradation is a basin wide problem referring to decline in the overall quality of soil or vegetation condition commonly caused by human activities. The poor are impacted in a number of ways including reduced agricultural yields, higher energy prices, loss of future incomes and reduced access to lands. Soil erosion leads to land degradation. The economic costs of soil erosion in terms of reduced agricultural yields is significant and has been estimated to 1,9 % of GDP in Rwanda, 3,8 % of GDP in Kenya and between 4-12 % of GNI in Uganda. 3 Although these figures are associated with some degree of uncertainty, they indicate the magnitude of the costs of land degradation. Conversion of forests and wetlands into agricultural or urban lands affects water flow in rivers 4 and increase siltation 5 thus affecting hydro power generation and creating power outages and push up 2 Pollution, eutrophication and atmospheric deposition on the lake from domestic and industrial activities (EAC Strategic Action Plan, 2007) 3 Republic of Rwanda, Economic Analysis of natural resources management in Rwanda, 2006, Kenya- Cohen et al, Estimating the environmental cost of soil erosion at multiple scales in Kenya using emergy synthesis, Uganda, Yaron et al, Deforestation s impacts on river flow vary considerably depending on the locality and how the land is subsequently used, increased use of irrigation etc. It often increases dry season flow but in some cases it could also reduce them. World Bank, The problem with siltation is illustrated with soil particles washed away by rain or wind and that by gravity ends up at the bottom of an irrigation or hydro power dam thus decreasing storage capacity. 4 (36)

5 energy prices. Conversion of wetlands typically reduces water flow in the dry season as the ecosystems capacity to retain water is degraded. Wetlands around the lake and its river systems are often a valuable source of food, fodder and other incomes to the poor, including the landless. These lost incomes are not always compensated for when wetlands are converted which increases vulnerability and can give rise to conflicts. Trends Intensive land use has transformed most of the natural landscape in the Basin. Approximately 46% of the lake basin is severely eroded. 6 In Tanzania the rate of expansion of agricultural land is about 2 %/year 7 and in Rwanda agricultural land has expanded with 7% from Wetlands such as the Yala swamp in Kenya, Kabale (Uganda) and Rugetzi (Rwanda) have increasingly been converted to agricultural land. Deforestation is particularly rampant in Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda where forest cover has decreased by 47, 27 and 26 % respectively during the last decades. 8 In Kenya, with little remaining forests cover, deforested areas in recent years include parts of Mau forest and areas around Trans Nzoia district. Deforestation rates are also particularly high in the mining districts of northern Tanzania. The booming market for biofuels has recently added pressure on forests for conversion. In the Nyando river Basin (Kenya) soil erosion equals 40 tonnes per hectare and year and in Rwanda losses average 10 tonnes per hectare 9. In some areas, degradation has reached a point where up to 30% of farm land is abandoned for agricultural use 10. Programmes to halt land degradation and increase forest cover have been introduced to counter the challenges. Impact on ecosystems Deforestation typically contributes to increased soil erosion, reduced biodiversity and modified river flows. Soil erosion leads to losses of organic matter and nutrients and reduced agricultural productivity. 11 Furthermore it fertilizes downstream water bodies and eventually Lake Victoria thereby contributing to algea blooms and the spread of the water hyacinth. Forests impacts on water retention, water flow and flood protection is complex and situation specific. In a study from the North West of Mount Kenya, conversion of natural forest to small scale agriculture lowered infiltration of the soils causing an increased runoff and flash floods. 12 Certain deciduous tree species can mitigate dry season water shortage whereas plantation of fast growing trees typically exacerbates water shortages. 13 When wetlands are converted to agricultural lands many of their water regulating and filtering services are lost as well as biodiversity and the capacity to reduce nutrient loading of the lake. Causes On average 90 % of the population in the riparian countries depend on agriculture. Farm size is often less than 1 hectare. Population pressure, weak governance and lack of alternative livelihoods push the poor men and women to cultivate marginal lands including river banks, wetlands, forests and steep slopes. Wetland conversion is partly caused by large private companies (for instance in the Yala swamp, Kenya). Biomass constitutes more than 90% of the energy needs in the Basin which adds to the problem of deforestation. Forest cover is also reduced due to illegal logging. Insecure property rights and poor access to credit constrain investments in soil and water conservation. To 6 UNEP, The figure refers to the situation in the whole country. United Republic of Tanzania, Burundi and Uganda, FAO figures , Rwanda (GoR and Donor Group, 2006 Joint Sector Review). It should be noted that in Rwanda there are promising indications of increased tree planting activities. In 2005/2006 the number of villages involved in reforestation was 60% compared with 40% five years earlier. (EDPRS July 2007) 9 Beachler, ICRAF, In Rwanda land productivity on much eroded farms is estimated to be about 20 % lower than on farms with little erosion. (Clay et al, 2001). 12 Mungai et al, ICRAF, (36)

6 varying extent cultural or legal barriers prohibit women from land ownership thus reducing their willingness to invest and thus their ability to increase output. Use of unsustainable farming methods is also explained by weak or inaccessible knowledge. Lower female participation in education put women at disadvantage in acquiring knowledge. In some parts, notably in Tanzania increasing livestock population has contributed to over grazing and land degradation. Regional responses The top three interventions in the Strategic Action Plan, adopted by the EAC in April 2007 are Invest in re-forestation and afforestation programmes (Nat 14 ) Invest in rehabilitation and restoration of degraded wetlands and rangelands (Nat) Mechanisms that promote efficient use and investment in farming methods and practices that reduce pressure on forests and wetlands (Nat) Key regional interventions listed were; 1) enhancing community awareness and involvement in management of natural resources and 2) strengthen, harmonize and coordinate and implement land allocation systems. Policy coherence In general, all countries acknowledge the challenges of land degradation, loss of forest cover and need for improved property rights in their key planning documents (PRS, Vision documents etc). At the same time substantial increases in agricultural productivity are envisioned without any clear and significant evidence of increased investments in natural capital (soil conservation, protection of wetlands, fish stock rehabilitation etc). Notably, Rwanda has a target to rapidly reduce the dependence on agriculture for employment partly to reduce pressure on the land. Population control measures and generating growth in non-agricultural sectors are important and feature in key planning documents. 2.2 Fisheries, habitats, biodiversity and the poor Overview Fisheries are a major source of employment, foreign currency and support livelihoods for 3 million people directly involved in the industry. 15 Overfishing is a serious risk for the people in the basin. Consequences for the poor include reduced intake of animal protein, declining yields per effort and risk of lost employment opportunities. In Uganda fish protein consumption has diminished by 75% per capita during the last decade due to the rising cost of fish 16. Trends Introduction of new fish species has dramatically reduced biodiversity in the lake while at the same time contributed to increased export earnings and employment. The annual fish catch in 2005 was tonnes, an increase by 30 % since 2000 and 50% since Fishing effort has increased substantially during ; number of fishermen is up 52 %, fishing crafts up 63% and motorization up 211%. Uganda has almost doubled its catch since 2000 while Kenya s catch has been reduced by one third. The state of fish stocks is debated. According to the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization fish stocks in inland water where non-motorized fishers operate has gone down but total fish stock is estimated 14 Proposed interventions were categorised as either national or regional. Nat = National, Reg= Regional. A longer list of prioritized interventions is included in the Stratgic Action Plan. See Annex III. 15 EAC, 2006b 16 Uganda Fisheries Resource Research Institute quoted in National Geographic March 13, FAO statistics show that fish protein share of total protein consumption in the five countries on average was reduced by 30% between (36)

7 to be stable. Others foresee a decline in future fisheries. 17 What is undebated is that the catch per effort has gone down and that the average size of Nile perch is declining. Furthermore the total catch of Nile perch has decreased somewhat and the species account for a dramatically lower share of fish catch (down from 42% in 2000 to 29% in 2005). During this period Dagaa has increased its share from 40 to 48 %. 18 Post harvest losses are estimated to between 20-40% depending on the season. 19 Lower lake levels led to increased post harvest losses. Unreported catch, partly illegal, has been estimated to amount to as much as 20% of total catch. 20 Aquaculture remains a small but growing sector. Research on Lake Tangayika suggests that climate change could have larger impacts on fisheries than overfishing. 21 Impact on ecosystems The introduction of foreign species like the Nile Perch is estimated to have reduced the number of fish species by 200. Rapidly increasing fishing effort in recent years may have reduced biodiversity further. Reduced biodiversity increase the vulnerability of the ecosystem. There are also indications that overfishing of Nile perch has been beneficial for biodiversity in the lake. 22 Causes The main causes of increased fishing effort are the high demand for fish exports, large fish processing capacity and lack of alternative livelihoods in combination with unrestricted access to the lake (lack of fish quotas) and population growth. Overfishing is mainly due to increased fishing effort and to a smaller degree to improved equipment. According to Ugandan fishermen the major contributing factors are use of wrong fishing gears and methods and too many boats/too much fishing 23. Poor governance and low compliance with regulations, weak enforcement, and corruption further aggravates the risks for overexploitation 24. Fish habitats are also affected by water quality, contamination of chemicals and sedimentation, (see more under Pollution). Responses The top three interventions in the Strategic Action Plan, adopted by the EAC in April 2007 are Capacity building of communities on sustainable fisheries management (Nat) Strengthen, harmonize and implement policies and legislation including quota for fishing and fish processing (Reg) Provide credits to support alternative livelihoods (Nat) Other key regional interventions included; 1) stock restoration with fish from satellite lakes and 2) restrictions on expansion of fish processing plants. Policy coherence Both EAC and national plans (PRS etc) raise issues about pollution, need for harmonization and inadequate resources to monitor fishing efforts as constraints to growth in the sector. Decentralized local management via Beach Management Units are seen as an important element to arrive at sustainable outtakes of fish. Notably Uganda projects significant growth of revenue generation in 17 See for instance Cowx et al, 2005, referenced in Kolding et al, Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization, The market outlook for Nile perch is considered bleak due to declining catch and stong competition. The FAO recommends strong control of fishing, fishing quotas and minimum sizes of Nile perch as well as diversification into other species, such as tilapia farming. (FAO Globfish Nile perch Market Report July 2007) 19 Uganda Ministry of Water and Environment, Cowx et al., O Reilly et al, 2003, The study which is referenced in the IPCC 2007 finds that fish yields in Lake Tanganyika may be reduced by 30% due to rising temperatures and changed wind patterns. 22 The haplochromis species, which was once thought to be extinct, has also resurfaced in the Lake. This has been attributed to the decline in the population of Nile perch. (FAO Globfish Nile perch Market Report Aug 2006) 23 Ikwaput, 2005 quoted in Ugandan TDA, Odada et al, (36)

8 the fisheries sector. It is unclear if planned efforts on increased monitoring and harmonized legislation will be sufficient to ensure sustainable management of the resource. 2.3 Water quality, pollution and the poor Overview Pollution is a major problem in the Lake Victoria Basin involving a great number of different sources and actors. The lake is used for drinking water by both urban citizens and fishing communities around the lake. Water pollution impacts directly on human health and reduce the opportunity to engage in economic activities or education. Indirectly, polluted water also impacts on livelihoods by degrading soils for productive use, affecting livestock and breeding grounds for fish and by increasing the burden of the poor by having to collect firewood to boil water for drinking. Nutrient loading is also a cause of the invasion of the water hyacinth. Impacts of the water hyacinth on the poor include increased difficulty in collecting water, loss in fishing time, reduced functioning of urban water supply systems etc. The most important pollution issues are; microbiological (fertilizing and health impacts), eutrophication (fertilizing), chemical (contamination) and suspended solids (impacting on hydro power, irrigation dams, river flow etc). 25 Pollution is strongly linked to land use and land degradation. Trends The flow of nutrients to the lake has accelerated. In Nyando river (Kenya) sedimentation load has increased by 3-4 times in 100 years. 26 Since the 1960 s algae biomass concentration has increased 5 times and lack of oxygen has moved from a marginal problem to affect nearly half of the lake today. 27 About % of nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) enter the lake via atmospheric deposition 28 ; either with rainfall (wet deposition) or winds (dry deposition). The second most important source of nutrient load is rivers whereas point sources (industry, municipalities) represent a small fraction of the total load. Areas infected by the water hyacinth had been reduced to non nuisance levels in 2005 but reappeared in late Chemical effluents to rivers and the lake are increasing. 29 Impact on ecosystems Excessive nutrient load leads to eutrophication, causing a massive growth in algaes, water hyacinth and similar species. This results in oxygen depletion that affects fish breeding and conditions for other aquatic species and contributes to reduced biodiversity in the lake. Chemical effluents degrade soils and water and the capacity of wetlands to provide water purification services. Causes Land degradation and burning of biomass are the main contributing factors to nutrient pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Due to the burning of biomass, agricultural residues and firewood nutrients are emitted in the air and deposited on the lake. Soils are washed away and via rivers transported to the lake or blown away. As explained under Land degradation, population pressure and lack of alternative livelihoods are forcing people to cultivate marginal land and intense cultivation of lands. Erosion is significantly higher during wet years. Increased frequency of extreme weather, including heavy rains due to climate change will cause more erosion. 25 Odada et al, Ibid 27 Ibid. If the amount of oxygen in the water is reduced to zero the area cannot sustain biological activity (breeding grounds for fish etc). 28 Annex II gives a quick introduction on atmospheric deposition, causes and impacts. 29 Odada et al, (36)

9 Poor sanitation is the main contributing factor to micro-biological pollution that strongly impact on human health. Municipal treatment plans are in very poor standards and access to sanitation is very low. Occurrence of flooding further exacerbates the problem with poor sanitation. Chemical pollution of the lake is primarily caused by lack of industrial wastewater treatment facilities, use of agro-chemicals and leakage from dumps and mining operations. The use of pesticides and fertilizers is growing among the region s large scale farms 30. Levels of pesticides and heavy metals in water systems are low but increasing (RTDA). Unclear property rights and weak institutions are impediments to investments in soil and water conservation and pollution control. Responses The top three interventions in the Strategic Action Plan, adopted by the EAC in April 2007 are Reduce point source pollution by strengthening industrial and municipal waste management (Nat) Develop and implement spatial/urban planning with establishment of waste disposal infrastructure and clean technologies (Nat) Strengthen measures and control of the aquatic weeds (Reg) Other key regional interventions selected include; Harmonize and enforce regulation on invasive species. The measures proposed under Land use and Land degradation have a strong, complementary impact on pollution. Under LVEMP II a substantial amount of research is planned to study and quantify atmospheric deposition, the single most important contributor of nutrient load in Lake Victoria. Policy coherence In line with the Millennium Development Goals all countries have plans to increase access to improved water and sanitation. Projected increase in agricultural output, often including increased sales of cash crops will raise the use of fertilizer and pesticides. It is unclear if sufficient measures are put in place to ensure good management of agro-chemicals and control of industrial effluents. Increased mining in the region, particularly in Tanzania could raise the contamination of heavy metals from low levels. Strengthened property rights are planned but implementation is uncertain. 2.4 Water quantity, water balance, climate change and the poor Overview Water is mainly used for agriculture, drinking water, hydro power and industry. The White Nile has its source at Jinja, Uganda and the basin is part of the bigger Nile Basin. Water quantity is therefore a critical issue impacting all Nile Basin states downstream. International agreements make significant increase in irrigation politically sensitive. Agriculture is mostly rainfed. Although there are reports of over abstraction of ground water in some places, freshwater shortage has not been a major issue in the Basin. Scarcity has primarily been caused by pollution and not lack of water. 31 Rainfall on the lake accounts for 82% of the inflow to Lake Victoria. The remaining 18% is discharged through the rivers of which Kagera accounts for one third. The outflow is dominated by evaporation (76%) whereas the outlet to the White Nile at Jinja accounts for 24 %. Lake levels have followed a general downward trend since 1964 but with significant variations (See figure 5). Due to conversion of wetlands and forests and increased irrigation, reduced river flow in some basins could cause serious water shortages in the Mara River, Tanzania 32. River discharge is also affected by 30 Odada et al, Ibid 32 Personal communication Chin Ong (ICRAF) and Mussolini Kithome (NELSAP-Mara) 9 (36)

10 different kinds of crops/species grown in the catchment. Eucalyptus and cut flowers for instance are relatively water intense. Reduced water availability impacts negatively on agricultural yields and food security. The health of the poor often deteriorates with reduced access to clean water. Abstraction of water for irrigation purposes could create tension between downstream and upstream populations. Figure 1: Comparison of water level and outflow of Lake Victoria (from ) Source: LVEMP Water Quality Synthesis Report, 2005 Trends Demand for water rise with a growing population. Climate change can have a large impact on precipitation and water levels in the Basin. Current trends in the Basin shows slightly increased rainfall over the past 100 years and somewhat increased rainfall intensity. Projections indicate that the water level of Lake Victoria would initially fall as increases in evaporation offset changes in precipitation, but subsequently rise as the effects of increased precipitation are overtaking the effects of higher evaporation. 33 In such a scenario the potential for irrigation and hydro power improves. More extreme wheather events such as droughts and floods are expected. Impacts of more extreme weather are most severely felt by poor men and women and affect the vulnerability of both rural and urban poor. Short term effects may include loss of housing, crops and health and long term effects include lower agricultural yields caused by increased soil erosion due to heavier rains. Although it must be underlined that, there are a number of uncertainties in projections on future climate impacts (the models themselves, global CO2 emissions etc) climate change risks having significant impacts on the region. Along with the expected increase of population, irrigation and reliance on hydro power it is likely that present problems with low water levels will remain. 34 There is growing awareness of the need for integrated water resources management and stronger water institutions on a national level. It can generally be said that both policy development and implementation are improving. 33 Tate et al, 2004, Water balance of Lake Victoria: update to 2000 and climate change modelling to According to IPCC, 2007, 18 out of 21 projections indicate higher precipitation in East Africa. However the IPCC also state that there is a higher degree of certainty regarding temperature rises than for projected changes in precipitation in Africa. In an analysis of vulnerability and climate change, (ILRI, 2006) parts of East African highlands where farmers depend on mixed rainfed and perennial systems are identified as being among the most vulnerable to climate change risking to loose more than 20% of the length of the growing period thus facing reduced food security. 34 Netherlands Commission for environmental assessment, (36)

11 Impact on ecosystems Reduced water levels affect the breeding grounds for fish and biodiversity. Heavier rainfalls increase the risk for flooding, landslides and land degradation thus leading to further nutrient loading both in terms of erosion of soils and inadequate capacity to take care of household sewage. Causes The experienced lower water levels in the lake are primarily explained by reduced rainfall but are also impacted by a mix of land degradation, deforestation, irrigation, release of water for hydro power generation at Jinja and conversion of wetlands. Inadequate pricing mechanisms and weak institutional framework lead to non optimal allocation of water resources. As explained under land degradation, poverty, weak governance and insecure property rights contribute to illegal logging, deforestation and encroachment into wetlands. Responses The top three interventions in the Strategic Action Plan, adopted by the EAC in April 2007 are 35 Undertake water and soil conservation measures (Nat) Invest in education, training, public awareness and research programs for disaster management (vulnerability to surface and ground water) (Reg) Invest in funds for disaster management and prevention (Reg) Other selected key regional interventions include; 1) develop and implement clear guidelines and rules for water abstraction (surface and groundwater) for main users of the lake and lake basin water and 2) institutionalize risk reduction measures and 3) develop an effective information and communication system for drought and flood preparedness. Policy coherence Both hydro power and irrigation are projected to increase according to the EAC and the five country s key planning documents. There could be a growing conflict of interests between different users (countries/individuals) and uses of water (sectors). Several countries have plans to protect remaining forests and wetlands. 3. Poverty and the environment 3.1 Population overview About 35 million people live in the Lake Victoria basin. Poverty rates are highest in Western Kenya, Burundi and Rwanda (65-60% below 1 USD/day) and significantly lower in Uganda and Tanzania (32-36 %). The population is growing at about 3% per year and the population density in the Basin is higher than the national average. Since 1960 population growth within 100 km from the shore has grown from 60 to 246 inhabitants per km 2 which is faster than the continental average for Africa that grew from 9 to 38 inhabitants per km A longer list of prioritized interventions is included in Annex III. 36 UNEP, (36)

12 Figure 2 Population Density around Lake Victoria 1960 and 2005 Source: UNEP, Africas Lakes, Atlas of our changing environment, 2006 Land is increasingly scarce and holdings are small, 75% of the population subsist on one hectare or less. Ecological conditions impact on the poor s ability to earn an income, meet material needs and maintain health and basic education. 3.2 Health and Environment Polluted water and air constitute a major constraint on economic activity, employability, education and poverty reduction. In Uganda 35% of the burden of disease was attributable to malaria, diarrheal diseases and respiratory infections where the two latter are largely caused by polluted water or air 37 and in the East African Community more than die in diseases attributable to pollution (about 60 % due to water pollution/poor hygiene, 40 % due to indoor air pollution and 1 % outdoor air pollution). 38. Urban water supply/sewage is in bad standards generally. In the lower parts of the basin they are considered to be in extremely poor condition. In the Kenyan part of the basin, infant mortality is significantly higher than the national average and the incidence of malaria is among the highest in the world (RTDA 2006). In certain highlands in Uganda, the frequency of malaria has increased between % due to a warmer climate. 39 Climate change is also projected to increase drought and flooding due to erratic rainfall. Flooding in combination with poor sanitation cause outbreaks of diarrheal diseases and expose drinking water to pollution from agricultural runoff. The majority of the poor use firewood/charcoal/dung for cooking. Indoor air pollution is the leading cause of respiratory infections mostly affecting women and children. Increased exports of fish have raised the market price. The share of fish protein of total protein intake fell by 30% between HIV/Aids prevalence is high throughout the region. Fishing communities have been reported to contribute to the transmission of the disease. The fierce competition on fishery resources following reduced catch per fishing effort has aggravated the situation where sex often is a condition for access 37 Uganda National Health Policy, WHO, Estimates for Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Kenya, Figures from Tanzania are not included. 39 Uganda National Adaptation Plan of Action (referred to in a news article in 06/04/07. The extent to which the warmer climate is responsible for increased incidence of malaria is debated. Yet, the IPCC (2007) is highly confident that human health could be negatively impacted by climate change and climate variability. Deforestation and wetland conversion in Western Kenya and a higher ambient temperature has created more favourable conditions for mosquitos (Munga et al, 2006) 40 FAO, For the five countries the share fell on average by 30% of protein intake during the period. In Burundi and Uganda the share fell by about 50%. 12 (36)

13 to fish. High prevalence of HIV/Aids typically reduces farmers capacity to maintain agricultural productivity as well as to invest in soil and water conservation causing further land degradation. 3.3 Vulnerability and climate change in Lake Victoria As shown in previous sections, climate change adds to existing stresses (land degradation, food security, diseases and natural disasters) in the region rather than introducing something new. Projections indicate higher temperatures and increased rainfall and frequency of natural disasters such as flood and drought. 41 Climate change affects biodiversity and the possibility for an ecosystem to deliver services like food, climate regulation, flood protection etc. for human well-being. Well managed ecosystems reduce vulnerability and are useful for both mitigation (world wide deforestation account for 20% of emitted greenhouse gas emission) and adaptation to climate change. Land scarcity and population pressure is forcing the poor to cultivate and inhabit marginal lands, floodplains, slopes etc thus increasing their vulnerability to floods. Urban poor, living in slums like Nyalenda, Kisumu, in Western Kenya with inadequate and poorly managed drainage channels are particularly exposed to floods and diseases. 42 The great dependence of rain fed agriculture makes the rural poor specifically vulnerable to drought. Of the five countries, Kenya has suffered the most but all countries have experienced increased frequency of natural disasters in recent decades. 43 In Kenya, La Nina affected 23 million Kenyans and caused losses equivalent to 16 % of GDP (mainly hydro power, crop and livestock loss and health). The floods in affected and caused losses equivalent to about 11% of GDP. According to IPCC main adaptation strategies to climate change are diversification of livelihood activities, institutions rules and governance (early warning systems), adjustment in farming operations and migration. 44 In Burundi the key prioritized interventions to adapt to climate change are; improved seasonal early warning climate forecast; avoid deforestation and reforest stripped areas; and popularize rainwater harvest techniques for agricultural and domestic use. 45 Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda have also recently (2007) presented National Adaptation Plans of Action. 3.4 Conflict and Environment in Lake Victoria Environmental scarcity is perceived to have contributed to the genocide in Rwanda in Recent examples of resource use conflicts in the region have been observed amongst Kenyan/Ugandan/ Tanzanian fishers on Lake Victoria; conflicts for grazing grounds among Ugandan and Tanzanian cattle keepers in the cattle corridor between Ankole/Rakai in Uganda and Minziro/Kagera area of Tanzania; conflict in wetland fish and forest resources of Minziro/Sango Bay area. Similar conflicts are common among communities in all the riparian countries. Land use conflicts are particularly severe in Rwanda, Burundi and along the Kenyan Basin of the Lake IPCC, UN Habitat, Emergency events database 44 IPCC, 2007, 45 Government of Burundi, 2007, National Adaptation Plan of Action 46 Homer-Dixon, 1996, Ohlsson, EAC, (36)

14 4. Economic growth, natural resources and environment 4.1 GDP growth and employment Ecosystem services include food, fuel and water, pollination, erosion control etc. The monetary and non-monetary value of these services and their importance for human well-being is significant. All economies in the region are based predominantly on agriculture and to a lesser extent other natural resources dependent sectors such as fisheries, wildlife tourism, forestry and mining. See table 1. Growth strategies in all countries aim at increasing agricultural output, to diversify the economy, to invest in improved transport and energy infrastructure and to invest in human capital. Strengthening institutional capacity and property rights also feature high in all development plans. Table 1 Importance of environment and natural resources to GDP and employment Burundi Kenya Rwanda Tanzania Uganda GDP per capita, PPP, current USD Environment and natural resources, share of GDP Environment and natural resources, share of employment Agriculture, crops+livestock 50 22,7 34, ,7 Fisheries * 0,5 0,4 * 1,9 Forestry * 1,1 1,3 * 1,5 Mining 1 0,5 0,6 3 0,8 Tourism 4 11,6 5,8 9,4 9,9 Total 55 36,4 42,8 57,4 51,8 Agriculture (including fisheries and forestry) Tourism** 3 9,4 *The figure on agriculture also includes fisheries and forestry. Sources: World Development Indicators (GDP per capita), Kenya Statistical Abstract 2006, Central Bureau of Statistics, Rwanda EDPRS share of GDP , Tanzania in Figures 2006, National Bureau of Statistics, Uganda key Economic Indicators , Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Burundi NAPA Figures on tourism calculated according to World Travel and Tourism Council Kenya has the most diversified economy in which agriculture account for a relatively small share, about 25%, compared with 50% for Burundi. When other natural resources sectors are added, such as mining and tourism it is clear that responsible management of natural resources is of greatest importance to the economy in East Africa. 4.2 Natural resources savings rate and investments To get a better view of the economic development in the country and resources available for future growth the World Bank has developed the Adjusted Net Savings indicator. It depicts a broader picture of savings in an economy by taking into account investments in human capital, depletion of natural resources and damage caused by pollution. Due to lack of data the measurement currently does not consider the economic impacts of degraded agricultural lands, water resources degradation, reduced fish stocks, biodiversity losses or reduced ecosystem services like water retention, flood regulation or nutrient recycling. Given that land degradation is a large problem in the region we have chosen to include data from economic valuations of the costs of soil erosion where such studies exist (Rwanda, Uganda and Kenya). These estimates should be treated with caution; they are calculated in different ways and should above all be seen as an indication of the costs associated with poor management of natural resources. As shown in previous chapters, degradation of natural 4,6 4,6 7,9 14 (36)

15 resources and ecosystems in one country can have regional implications. Likewise ecosystems in one country may be impacted by policies in neighbouring countries. For instance deforestation rates can partly be driven by logging bans and improved forest governance across the border. Land degradation in upstream countries affects downstream water users and fishers etc. Table 2 show that Burundi and Uganda have negative Adjusted Net Savings which implies that total wealth is declining. Persistently negative savings indicate an unsustainable development. In the case of Burundi this is mainly explained by the high deforestation rate and in Uganda by land degradation causing lower agricultural yields. In both these cases the impacts can be felt downstream in Lake Victoria. 48 This is particularly challenging for poor men and women whose main assets beside labour are natural capital like land and common property resources such as forests and grazing lands. Table 2 Adjusted Net Savings for the five Lake Victoria Basin Countries Burundi Kenya Rwanda Tanzania Uganda Gross savings (%of GNI) 8,7 12,2 19,5 9,3 10,1 Consumption of fixed capital (%of GNI) -6,7-8,8-7,7-8 -8,1 Education expenditure (%of GNI) 3,9 6,6 3,5 2,4 4 Reduction of natural capital* (% of GNI) -11,7-5,4-4,8-0,80-12,1 Adjusted net savings (%of GNI) -5,8 4,6** 10,5** 2,90-6,1** *Energy and mineral depletion, net forest depletion, CO2 and particulate emissions. **For Rwanda, Kenya and Uganda costs associated with land degradation have been added. Source: World Bank, 2007, Little Green Data book. For more information on Adjusted Net Savings, see Annex V. 4.3 Market and policy failures Current unsustainable management of natural resources and degradation of ecosystem services can to a large extent be explained by market failures and poorly developed or implemented polices. Individual farmers are not paying for the damage caused by nutrient loading of the lake. Likewise commercial cash crop farmers are not compensating downstream water users for reduced access to water or degraded water quality due to agrochemical use. Regulations on treatment of industrial wastewater are lacking and fishermen that refrain from using illegal fishing gear suffer from unfair competition from those that violate regulations. The examples above illustrate that benefits of investing in better natural resources management often are greater on a societal level than on the individual level. The pay back period for investments in improved soil and water conservation may be too long for poor farmers. Improved access to credit or special programs may be needed to address the problem. Such schemes are easier to implement if societal benefits accrue to the investor (i.e. a country). In the case of Lake Victoria, benefits of investments in ecosystems and better incentive systems that promote sustainable development will be shared among the five countries and notably the shoreline nations of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. Without regional cooperation, transparency and accountability it is unlikely that sufficient investments in natural resources and better management systems will take place. Policy instruments to improve environment and natural resources management can be divided into four categories: using markets, creating markets, environmental regulation and engaging the public. In the Basin environmental regulations is the most widely used policy instrument but there are also examples of environmental taxes such as forest concessions, fish levies and information campaigns 48 Typically deforestation and loss of soils lead add to the nutrient load of the lake. See previous also Land, wetland and forest degradation and the poor 15 (36)

16 targeting the public. Strong institutions that are able to monitor and enforce regulations on forestry, fishery and land use will be of great importance. Improved collection of natural resources rents (forest concessions, water tariffs, royalties on fisheries) can increase the efficiency of the economy and generate funds that can be redistributed with a view to generate pro-poor growth. The Ministries of Finance could clearly play a more important role in support of better management of natural resources. 5. Regional natural resources governance Lake Victoria is a shared resource with common public good characteristics which create specific governance challenges. Weak governance is considered a major cause of natural resources degradation. 49 Governance must encompass all administrative levels to be efficient. Regional governance cannot replace national or local governance but it can help raise the political pressure thus improving governance on national levels. Since the start of the 90 s the five countries have developed policies for environmental and natural resources management on national level. Local authorities have been given greater responsibility through decentralization reforms in for instance Uganda and Rwanda. However, law enforcement is typically weak, institutions for monitoring are heavily dependent on donor funding and their capacity is low. 50 Corruption is widespread 51. Most of the agricultural and rural development institutions have been unstable which have resulted in low productivity as well as environment and natural resource degradation. 52 Defined and enforced property rights (private or common) are generally seen as a condition for good management of natural resources. Therefore it is positive that the countries in the Basin seek to improve land titling and land Acts. Cultural or legal barriers still prohibit many women from ownership and equal control over resources thus constraining their participation in economic activities, access to credit and investments in soil and water conservation etc. For more information on national and local natural resources governance see the respective country policy briefs in the Annex. The East African Community is the main regional institution. But management of natural resources in Lake Victoria basin is also subject to international conventions ratified by the individual countries (desertification, climate change, biodiversity etc) and affected by other frameworks like NEPAD and the Nile Basin Initiative. 5.1 The East African Community The entry of Rwanda and Burundi as new members in 2007 is a sign of the political interest in East African Community (EAC) and brings all five Lake Victoria basin countries into one community. Its mission is to widen and deepen economic, political, social and cultural integration in order to improve the quality of life of the people in the region through increased competitiveness, value added production, trade and investment. EAC s development strategy aims at consolidating a customs union, establishing a common market and prepare for a monetary union and political federation. The EAC priority sectors are agriculture, industry, tourism and wildlife. 53 The poor state of infrastructure, particularly roads is considered a binding constraint to growth. 54 Reliable and adequate energy supply is highlighted as a 49 EAC, Ibid 51 Corruption in fisheries industry is discussed in Odada et al, 2004, and in the forest sector in Shayo, EAC, 2006d 53 EAC, 2006c 54 Ibid 16 (36)

17 key regional concern with important economies of scale 55. Currently most foreign investments are directed to natural resources sectors. The EAC underscores the importance of attracting investments outside of natural resources. Institutions under the EAC include the EAC Secretariat, EALA (legislative assembly), EACJ (court of justice), EADB (development bank) LVFO (Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation) and LVBC (Lake Victoria Basin Commission). The EAC and its institutions are dependent on donor financing. With the inclusion of Rwanda and Burundi, partner country contributions rise from 62 to 78 % of the EAC budget with development partners contributing the remaining 22 %. 56 The EAC lacks an effective system for monitoring implementation of decisions made by its different institutions. According to the EAC the main part of the implementation problems is with the capacity, monitoring and evaluation and accountability systems at the national level. Also, an overemphasis of harmonising national interests instead of focusing on finding solutions to regional requirements is a problem within the EAC. 57 Increased political will and financial contributions from member countries are important to strengthen the EAC and its weak institutions. 58 A series of measures are planned to strengthen the capacity of the EAC and its institutions. 5.2 The EAC and management of natural resources in the Lake Victoria Basin EAC highlights Lake Victoria as an area of common economic interest, a protocol (ratified in 2004) defines specific areas of cooperation with a new institution, the Lake Victoria Basin Commission charged with overseeing the implementation of the protocol. Implementation of the protocol is referred to as a key focus of the EAC Strategy. In 2004 the EAC council of ministers adopted a shared vision and strategy framework. The shared EAC vision for Lake Victoria is: A prosperous population living in a healthy and sustainable managed environment providing equitable opportunities and benefits. In the EAC development strategy the shared vision and strategy framework is referred to as a planning tool. 59 There is little mention of the strategy framework in the development strategy more than the overly ambitious goal of completing the implementation of the vision and strategy framework by December Lake Victoria Basin Commission The Lake Victoria Basin Commission (LVBC) is the most important regional coordination body for environmental management and natural resources in the basin. The tasks of the commission include promoting and coordinating: harmonization of laws and regulations, promotion of stakeholder participation, monitoring, evaluation and compliance with agreed actions. The strength of the LVBC is linked to the status of the national focal points at ministerial level. 60 The status of these national focal points should be strengthened. 61 The LVBC secretariat resides in Kisumu, Kenya. Staff and core operations are funded by the EAC partner states and the budget is about 2 MUSD or 7 % of the 55 EAC, 2006e 56 EAC, Council of Ministers 18th of April EAC, 2006c 58 Lubaale et al, EAC, 2006c 60 Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Kenya), Ministry of Water and Livestock Development (Tanzania), Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (Uganda), Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forestry, Water and Mines (Rwanda) and Ministry of Land Management, Tourism and Environment (Burundi). 61 Laugerud, (36)

18 EAC budget. The LVBC also receives financing from development partners through the Partnership fund for Lake Victoria. The mandate of LVBC is partially overlapping with the mandate of NELSAP within the Nile Basin Initiative. Whereas LVBC is a intergovernmental institution NELSAP is a time-limited project. There is need to revisit the mandates of these institutions to improve coordination. 62 The Strategic Action Plan for the Lake Victoria Basin agreed upon by EAC Council of Ministers in March 2007 provides an important point of departure for future priorities. The priorities in the Strategic Action Plan as described in previous chapters should be seen in the light of the need to qualify for GEF funding (Global Environmental Facility). This could be a reason why issues like income generating activities and high population growth (causes) are given lower priority than land, forest and wetland degradation and unsustainable fish exploitation (symptoms). The LVBC is given the mandate to monitor implementation of the Strategic action plan which broadly can be described as an investment in the natural capital (soil productivity, water retention, water purification, fish stocks etc). Clearly success of the SAP depends on results achieved by other programmes such as investments in infrastructure (roads, credit markets, energy, and institutions) and investments in human capital through health and education. A new operational strategy for LVBC has recently been adopted and will be of great importance to implement the Strategic Action Plan. Production and income generation programme is a strong component along with the programme on Environment and Water resources management. 6 Swedish development cooperation in the region The Swedish Lake Victoria Initiative is a regional program. Regional programmes should focus on areas where a regional approach is the only or the most efficient way to address specific problems. The current strategy consists of: Capacity development for sustainable development, Empowering communities and individuals, Sound environment and sustainable use of natural resources, Combating HIV/AIDS and Private sector development for economic growth. Support has been given to a wide range of regional institutions, networks and and multi donor programs including: LVBC, LVEMP, NELSAP-CU, ECOVIC, LVRLAC, EABC, UN Habitat, Network of environmental journalists. The environmental situation has changed since the strategy for was adopted. The most important differences are; reduced catches of Nile perch, the reappearance of the water hyacinth, lower water levels in the lake and the increasing awareness on the need for climate change risk reduction. The energy crisis and the social and economic risks associated with overfishing of Nile perch provide strong political incentives for national governments to move regional collaboration higher up on the agenda. Other important changes include the enlargement of the East African Community with Rwanda and Burundi and the increased capacity of the Lake Victoria Basin Commission. Stronger regional cooperation provides an opportunity to reduce costs for natural resources governance, to improve knowledge transfer and the application of new policy instruments. Moreover, it creates a political momentum that could facilitate implementation of legislation on the national and local level. Development cooperation in the Lake Victoria Basin also relates to the Swedish strategy for Sub- Saharan Africa and to the strategy for the Great Lakes region. The strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa 62 CMI, 2006, Regional dimensions of Norwegian Country Programmes in East Africa 18 (36)

19 gives priority to: strengthen regional organisations and regional integration, peace and security, shared natural resources, energy, transport and trade. Conflict prevention, security and confidence building measures are key features in the strategy for the Great Lakes region. Most of the interventions proposed in the Strategic Action Plan for Lake Victoria are best undertaken on a national level. Therefore it is important to increase awareness of the regional priorities in bilateral development cooperation to ensure a coherent approach. 63 Table 3 provide an overview of bilateral cooperation in the five countries. Table 3 Bilateral cooperation Burundi Kenya Rwanda Tanzania Uganda Current strategy -top three four sectors Strategy period Sida support 2006 (MSEK) Main sectors 2006: -Humanitarian assistance -Human rights and democratic governance -Conflict, peace and security Main sectors 2006: -Human rights and democratic governance -Natural resources and the environment -Infrastructure Proposed sectors for * -Democratic governance -Natural resources and Environment -Urban development Jan Dec 2007 Main sectors 2006: -General budget support -Education (Research) -Human rights and democratic governance -Humanitarian assistance Main sectors 2006: -General budget support -Education -Human rights and democratic governance -Health Main sectors 2006: -Humanitarian Assistance -Health -Human rights and democratic governance Proposed sectors for Democratic governance with Peace and Security -Private Sector Development and trade. -Health sector Jan Dec Jan Dec Jul Jan 2001-Dec Dec *Source Draft strategy April 2007 (Kenya) and May 2007 (Uganda) **Projected figure in the respective strategy documents In line with the Paris Declaration on Aid effectiveness Sweden is aiming for improved alignment with governments priorities and harmonization with other donors. See Annex II for more information about major development projects, institutions and donors in the region. 7 Conclusions and issues for Sida to consider 7.1 General conclusions Poverty reduction and economic growth in the Lake Victoria Basin cannot be sustained without well functioning ecosystems. The rapidly growing population is largely dependent on natural resources based sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, tourism, forestry and mining. Although national development plans seek to increase economic diversification, natural resource based sectors are 63 According to a recent World Bank review of regional programs, the impacts can be enhanced by greater coordination with Country Assistance Strategies. World Bank, 2007c 19 (36)

20 expected to continue to be critical for poverty reduction and growth. Current resource degradation hinders growth, reduce agricultural yields and impact negatively on people s health and well-being. The main environmental problems are land, wetland and forest degradation, pollution, overfishing and declining water balance. Climate change is likely to add to these existing problems while at the same time increasing the vulnerability of poor men and women cultivating or inhabiting marginal lands prone to floods and drought. Climate change could also provide opportunities for private sector development and increased funds. Capacity is needed to understand the implications of climate change and to ensure cost efficient adaptation. Sustainable management of the Lake Victoria Basin calls for a wide mix of interventions that affect the actions of economic decision makers ranging from subsistence farmers to large corporations and authorities. Interventions needed include investments in education, health, infrastructure, natural resources sectors and institutions but also policy development and governance in general and natural resources governance in particular. Lake Victoria is a shared resource, a public good, which demands regional cooperation for its management. Joint action provides an opportunity to reduce costs for natural resources governance, to improve knowledge transfer and harmonize policies. Moreover, it creates a political momentum that could facilitate implementation of legislation on the national and local level. The enlargement of the East African Community with Rwanda and Burundi could help support the necessary collective action. The Strategic action plan adopted by the East African Community address the need for improved natural resources governance and investments in forests, fisheries, water and land etc. It is a promising plan for which the challenge lies in its implementation. The Lake Victoria Basin Commission has the mandate to harmonize laws and regulations and to monitor implementation of the Strategic action plan with support from national focal ministries. Weak governance and low policy implementation pose a serious threat to the realization of the plans. 7.2 Proposals for regional development cooperation Sweden has strong and long bilateral ties with the most of the countries in the Basin and has played an important role to promote regional action on Lake Victoria. Based on this policy brief and our knowledge we have made a number of proposals that respond to underlying causes identified in the policy brief and are suitable to be addressed on a regional level. We recommend that these proposals are further discussed by Sida. It should be noted that we have not taken part of evaluations from all the ongoing support to regional programs and actors. Furthermore the proposals chosen mainly focus on issues more directly linked to environment and natural resources sectors and governance despite the great need for complementary investments in health, education, energy, roads etc. This delimitation is chosen as we believe that these important complementary issues are addressed on both EAC and national level. That said we strongly underline the importance that the Lake Victoria Secretariat discuss alternative livelihood options, economic diversification, improving market access etc in its dialogue with the LVBC Seek synergies between the Strategic Action Plan and bilateral and regional Swedish support The bilateral ties between Sweden and the five Basin countries provide an opportunity to support improved regional management of the Lake. It appears that Sweden is particularly well positioned to incorporate the Strategic Action Plan for Lake Victoria Basin in its dialogue with Kenya and Rwanda where there is on-going support to natural resources and environment sector/authorities. There is also a strong link between implementation of the EAC Strategic Action Plan and Human rights and democratic governance, a focus sector for Swedish bilateral cooperation in all five 20 (36)