Alien Invasions, Ecological Restoration in Cities and the Loss of Ecological Memory

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1 OPINION ARTICLE Alien Invasions, Ecological Restoration in Cities an the Loss of Ecological Memory Valentin Schaefer 1,2 Abstract After a community or ecosystem is lost, it may leave behin an ecological memory. The site history, soil properties, spores, sees, stem fragments, mycorrhizae, species, populations, an other remnants may influence the composition of the replacement community or ecosystem to varying egrees. The remnants may also hol the site to a trajectory that has implications for ecological restoration. This is true in urban situations in particular where repeate isturbance has maske the history of the site. The ecological memory remaining may be insufficient for a site to heal itself; restoration activities are require to irect the future of the site. Conversely, in light of climate change an other rapily changing environments, the existing ecological memory may be poorly suite to the new conitions an restoration projects nee to create new an perhaps novel ecosystems. The loss of ecological memory facilitates the establishment of foreign invasive species. These invasives may eventually create a new stability omain with its own ecological memory an egree of resilience. To be successful, invasive species control must aress both internal within patch memory of invasives an external between patch memory. Further research is necessary to ocument an conserve ecological memory for ecological restoration in response to future ecosystem changes. Key wors: ecological memory, invasive species, urban restoration. Introuction Ecological memory consists of the species of an area an the ecological processes that will etermine the trajectory for the ecosystem into the future. Also inclue are fire history an management practices of inigenous peoples. Ecological memory is less in areas with habitat loss such as cities, in areas ominate by invasives, an in otherwise isturbe sites (for this article invasives refers to alien invasive species an exclues native invasives). There is an internal component to ecological memory consisting of biological legacies represente by remnants of species in the immeiate area. An external component encompasses more mature surrouning support areas. In cities, native ecosystems usually occur as patches of habitat connecte by corriors in a matrix of streets an builings. Unerstaning how these remnants function spatially as patches an corriors is especially important in urban areas (Anersson 2006). Recognition of the potential contribution of these remnants to future ecosystem function has le researchers to encourage the use of the precautionary principle in evaluating their importance (Myers 1993). 1 School of Environmental Stuies, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 2Y2 Canaa 2 Aress corresponence to V. Schaefer, schaefer@uvic.ca Ó 2009 Society for Ecological Restoration International oi: /j X x Ecological memory inclues the biological legacies within habitat patches an mobile link species, such as in coral reefs, ispersing along corriors from other habitat patches (Nystrom & Folke 2001). The major ecological processes within a habitat patch that etermine which species flourish inclue competition an trophic structure an may follow assembly rules; ecological memory has bearing on the question of how communities come to be the way they are (Polis et al. 1997; Weiher & Key 1999; Temperton & Hobbs 2004). Between habitat patches, the major ecological processes inclue ispersal (immigration) an ispersal agents such as ecological corriors that can act as ispersal filters. Ecological memory also inclues the genetic composition of populations, the genetic iversity of its iniviuals an in the case of some plants, the genetic iversity of parts within an iniviual. It is important in some cases that ecological restoration match the genetic history of plant stock being use on a project to the site being restore, although in future ue to the impacts of climate change this may involve using plant stock from other regions that are better suite to the new climatic conitions at a site. It has been known for a century that the ifferent growth forms of trees in ifferent parts of their range may be genetically etermine as an aaptation to the particular growing conitions in ifferent parts of their range. More recent examples are reporte with conifers an willows in the California High Sierra Nevaa (e.g., Clausen 1964) an Sitka aler (Alnus sinuata) an paper MARCH 2009 Restoration Ecology Vol. 17, No. 2, pp

2 Ecological Restoration in Cities an the Loss of Ecological Memory birch (Betula papyrifera) in British Columbia (Benowicz et al. 2000). Urban areas can retain a surprisingly large amount of ecological memory. One such reservoir for forest an stream ecosystems occurs potentially in urban ravines. These environments are buffere from local isturbances by being spatially isolate. In a stuy of urban ravines in Greater Vancouver, British Columbia, we foun that the ravines covere a linear istance of almost 100 km an a surface area across their tops (not counting slopes) of at least 11.5 km 2 (Schaefer et al. 1992). The ravine environment improve water quality with the water temperature of one creek ropping 1.5 C over a 1-km istance espite the large amount of impervious surface in the watershe raining into the creek through six storm rains. Also, the mature secon growth forest of Douglas-fir (Pseuotsuga menziesii) ha a healthy unerstory an groun cover. Historic parks an lanscapes may similarly contain ecological memory important to succession in urban lanscapes (Schaefer & Higgs 2007). Other urban reservoirs of ecological memory may inclue special use lans such as golf courses, cemeteries, airports, an university campuses. For example, a Natural Features Stuy an tree inventory of the University of Victoria campus, British Columbia (Harrop-Archibal 2008a), reveale the presence of an enangere species on site, Foothill Sege (Carex tumulicola), an reporte the startling fact that the campus was at the heawaters of four urban watershes. A campus tree inventory complementing the Natural Features Stuy recore over 5,000 iniviuals from 140 species, one-thir of them native (Harrop-Archibal 2008b). The ecological processes an species richness foun on just one university campus represent a rich potential local resource. The variability foun in ifferent ecotypes of tree populations, refugia in ravines in urban areas, an population remnants of enangere species on university campuses, represent a memory that will enable ecosystems to respon positively to changes in the climate an other factors. In ecological restoration, the challenge is to conserve an use as much of this memory as possible. Ecological Memory an Ecosystem Resilience Ecological memory is one of the major components of ecosystem resilience (Gunerson 2000). The greater the ecological memory the more resilient the community (Nystrom & Folke 2001; Bengtsson et al. 2003). Similarly, unmanage an more mature lanscapes that are a mosaic of patches with a variety of successional stages have more ecological memory. Less resilient manage lanscapes ten to be spatially an temporally more homogeneous (Bengtsson et al. 2003). For example, temperate forests in a natural lanscape have a longer natural cycle of renewal than the 100-year cycle of renewal for manage forests. Both the loss of natural mosaics of habitat an an accelerate cycle of renewal work against species that cannot isperse over long istances between suitable patches of habitat. There is a reuction in natural bioiversity an an increase in invasive species whose opportunistic life histories benefit from the homogenize lanscape (Bengtsson et al. 2003). The cycle of renewal is especially an issue in urban situations where the original soil is often remove an replace with sterilize topsoil. The zonation within the A an B soil horizons, the profile with vertical stratification of flora an fauna living in those horizons, is nonexistent an can take years to reestablish. A revegetate restore site may simply remain an ornamental planting with roots staying within the confines of the planting hole an no etritus foo chain. Getting from ornamental to funamental, to a system rather than a collection of ornaments, is one of the biggest challenges facing restoration projects within cities. Urban habitats have their own typology that covers a spectrum extening from fully functional ecosystems in remnant fragments to purely ecorative plantings in pots an boulevars, expaning the manate of ecological restoration an increasing the complexity of situations (Schaefer et al. 2004). We foun this to be the case with the Green Links Project, Greater Vancouver, British Columbia, where we use plantings of native vegetation over a 10-year perio to improve habitat quality an to strengthen connectivity between patches. In this focal restoration (Higgs 2003) project, 15,000 volunteers installe 75,000 plants, primarily shrubs cm high, in city parks, riparian areas along urban streams, in utility rights-of-way, boulevars, schoolgrouns, gravel pits, an in founation plantings aroun builings (Schaefer 1999). The plants installe in more natural settings flourishe but those that were plante in newly create founation plantings or in well-establishe but constraining environments (e.g., shrubs in fiels or rights-of-way of ense grass), i poorly. Many years later, these latter plantings remaine a collection of the original plants in other wors they were ornaments with little potential. They faile to establish a more complex expaning system with healthy nutrient cycles an foo webs. Preserving internal patch memory in the form of rotting tree stumps an logs stimulates regeneration in forest ecosystems (Turner et al. 1998). The same woul be expecte in urban situations as a whole. Similarly, small patches of soil an humus left unisturbe can serve as foci for the site to regenerate. Also important in urban restoration is external ecological memory foun in larger areas of natural habitat, in parks, or in periurban sites. These are source populations that can recolonize smaller patches within the city where the species may have been extirpate (Hanski 1999). Such source populations contribute to the remembering ientifie in interactions between hierarchies of aaptive cycles seen in the panarchy moel (Holling et al. 2002). The aaptive cycles that represent the various balance states within an ecological system are interconnecte where higher later levels can help lower levels to remember their earlier 172 Restoration Ecology MARCH 2009

3 Ecological Restoration in Cities an the Loss of Ecological Memory successional states as they recover from isturbance. Ecological memory helps younger stages remember what they are to become an establishes the trajectory for ecological restoration that was historically present on the site. Ecological Memory, Cities an Invasive Species Next to habitat loss, many consier invasive species the greatest threat to bioiversity on the planet (Vitousek et al. 1997; Wilson 1999). This may be especially true in urban areas. The ecological threat from invasive species has le to some fear-base resource management an inappropriate measures to control or eraicate invasives (Gobster 2005). An example woul be the removal of Himalayan blackberry (Rubus iscolor) uring songbir breeing season as occurre in Metro Vancouver, British Columbia, when community efforts to remove invasive species initially began in the 1990s. Invasive species form their own ecological memory. Their sees can persist for long perios, for example 30 years or longer in the case of Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) (Kaufman & Kaufman 2007). It has also been our experience in Victoria, British Columbia, that native plants will not grow on groun that was use to store Scotch broom remove from restoration sites, even several years after the ebris pile ha been taken away, suggesting that a persistent allelopath was present. Invasive species can create new ecosystems an communities that ha never occurre before on the planet. Such novel or emergent ecosystems no longer require human intervention to persist. Such novel ecosystems characteristically occur in urban, cultivate, or otherwise egrae lanscapes with ispersal barriers, an they were create by irect or inirect isturbance from humans. The human impacts cause the extinction of local native species (Hobbs et al. 2006). A better unerstaning of the role of ecological memory after a isturbance from invasive species will lea to more effective restoration, especially in cities. Ecological memory is a powerful metaphor of great benefit in ecological restoration in ifficult urban environments an while ealing with invasive species (Peterson 2002). Changes in ecological memory can be expresse in the following formula as a starting point for more serious analysis. Ecological memory (EM) equals the original species an processes remaining or latency (L), minus isturbance or memory loss (D). In this scenario, D inclues invasive species an habitat estruction like removing the original vegetation, removal or turning soil, increase impervious surface, pollution, an other sources of egraation that iminish ecological memory. Thus: EM ¼ L D where the current ecological memory for a site EM within the aaptive cycle is equal to the original memory remaining L minus the loss of ecological memory or D. At some point, we can imagine that the isturbance has been so great that invasive species I are no longer part of the isturbance but are part of the latency of the original ecosystem (Hobbs et al. 2006). So, I ae to the original ecosystem EM creates a novel ecosystem NE an a new aaptive cycle. Thus, NE ¼ EM 1 I where ecological memory has crosse a threshol of change to create the new aaptive cycle. An analysis of ecological memory helps to ientify threshols for ecological restoration. Ientifying these threshols has proven to be ifficult. It woul be useful to know if the ecosystem can still heal itself after a isturbance, if the isturbance is part of the ecosystem s cycle (e.g., in fire-maintaine lanscapes), if graual change in restoration is sufficient, or if a more ramatic major shift in the ecosystem is warrante. Conversely, an analysis of ecological memory can ientify a threshol for ecosystem function below which there woul be a ramatic eterioration in the ecosystem (Groffman et al. 2006). Ecological Memory an Mutualism Ecological memory extens beyon the physical geography of a site an the genetic composition of populations an species. It inclues the broaer community of other species, especially those with strong symbiotic relationships that contribute significantly to survival. Mycorrhizae in the soil, for example, contribute to the survival of vascular plants. Douglas-fir (Pseuotsuga menziesii) an Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seelings plante with an inoculum of mycorrhizae grown to restore the Elkview coal mine near Cranbrook, British Columbia, i much better with an inoculum ae (see also Lewis et al for Re oak [Quercus rubra]). In an urban context, I use mycorrhizae in a pilot stuy of experimental shrub plantings in a gravel pit in Coquitlam, British Columbia, 1 year after the site ha been hyroseee. The composition of the inoculum was as follows: enomycorrhizal spores, 50,000/cc minimum Glomus brassalanum, G. clarum, G. eserticola, G. intraraices, G. monosporus, G. mosseae, an Gigaspora margarita; ectomycorrhizal spores, 50,000/cc minimum Pisolithus tinctorius, an Rhizipogon spp. A tablespoon of the inoculum was ae to Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium). After two growing seasons, the 10 treate plants increase an average of 60% in height compare to 40% for the 10 untreate an the tallest treate plant increase 77% in height compare to 51% for the tallest untreate plant. Using salvage plant stock in ecological restoration is challenging; the plants are sometimes traumatize. However, espite this problem, using locally salvage plant stock has avantages where the genetic composition better suits the site an there is an inoculum of the mycorrhizae with the soil an roots. MARCH 2009 Restoration Ecology 173

4 Ecological Restoration in Cities an the Loss of Ecological Memory Some invasive plants eliminate competition by killing mycorrhizae beneficial to native species. An example near Waterloo, Ontario, is garlic mustar (Alliaria petiolata), which harms maples an other native harwoos by killing native soil fungi (Stinson et al. 2006). Restoring Ecological Memory to Prevent Invasive Species Outbreaks More intact plant communities better resist invasions (Myers & Brazely 2003). The resistance of plant communities to invasion increases with plant iversity if there are no covarying extrinsic factors (Naeem et al. 2000). Invasive species in natural ecosystems share many properties with invasive microorganisms in humans. Maintaining health in the human boy is a goo metaphor for exploring approaches to ecological restoration (Schaefer 2006). Janssen (2001) suggests that there are many similarities between ecosystem function an the human immune system. Healthy natural ecosystems have an ability to protect themselves from invasive species as well. Ecological memory may offer some egree of immunity, reuce the severity of an invasion, an/or facilitate the recovery of an ecosystem at a later time. The inuce response of plants to herbivory where they prouce tannins an other insect toxins that make them less palatable is an example (Karban & Myers 1989). Plant responses to isease an injury in many ways resemble the human immune system (Schulz 2002). Invasive plants may have an initial avantage over native species because they are not immeiately recognize by local natural preators. The Chinese tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum) in Texas, for example eicates fewer metabolic resources to such efensive chemicals an more towar growth an reprouction, increasing its competitive avantage over native species, until such time as local pests or pathogens infest the invasive plant (Rogers & Siemann 2005). Reference Ecosystems Gross primary prouctivity of terrestrial ecosystems globally iverte for the foo, proucts, an activities of people is estimate to be in excess of 40% (Vitousek et al. 1986). This much gross primary prouctivity consume by a single species is consiere to be a threat to the stability of an ecosystem. This threat is not necessarily apparent with ying iniviuals. Bormann (1985) rew attention to air pollution impacts on net primary prouctivity in poplars in the eastern Unite States. In aition to reucing prouctivity, air pollution also changes species composition in the forest, favoring those more tolerant of the pollution. He pointe out that the causality is ifficult to prove. However, this loss in prouctivity an change in species composition may be significant in the survival of some species targete in restoration projects in marginal sites such as those that occur in urban areas. This calls into question the integrity of what we consier to be natural in any area an what ecological memory remains or what can realistically be reestablishe. There are a number of techniques, such as pollen analysis, available to etermine what species grew historically on a site (Egan & Howell 2001). These species existe at a time when primary prouctivity was greater an there were fewer invasives, among other ifferences from the present. The information they offer for ecological restoration toay may be inappropriate. The situation is even more complicate when consiering the impacts of global climate change on ecological restoration. Although we know that there will be changes in global temperature, precipitation, an weather patterns, they are ifficult to preict on a regional level. Harris et al. (2006) point out that global climate changes require that ecological restoration consier broaer ecosystem functions an processes rather than targeting more static species or community metrics. Ecological memory is an important component of this wier consieration. Protecte areas serve as reference ecosystems, provie moels for ecological restoration projects, an serve as future sources of bioiversity. However, Bengtsson et al. (2003) point out that with only 3% of the lan base on the planet protecte there are too few such moels still intact an bioiversity is iminishing. Due to the suppression of fire an other natural isturbances that stimulate succession, some protecte areas no longer contain the mosaic of habitats typical in the past. Also, the uncertainty of future site conitions resulting from climate change, especially on a regional basis, may make restoration targets base on historical information more ifficult to achieve (Harris et al. 2006). In light of the nee to conserve as much habitat as possible, even small fragments in urban areas that potentially contain ecological memory may further restoration efforts in the future. This is especially the case when face with uncertainties such as invasive species, global warming, pollution, an genetically moifie organisms. Conclusion A healthier ecosystem is better able to withstan invasive species an the impacts of urbanization. Ecological restoration projects in urban areas an in response to invasives will improve their success if they inclue ecological memory in their consierations. Implications for Practice Reestablishing ecological memory creates a restoration project that establishes a functioning system versus a merely aesthetic ornamental lanscape. Incluing the aition of soil symbionts to a site as part of a restoration prescription will improve the growth an survival of terrestrial plantings. 174 Restoration Ecology MARCH 2009

5 Ecological Restoration in Cities an the Loss of Ecological Memory Retaining ecological memory at a site will give native species a better opportunity to resist colonization by invasives. Some remnant habitats in urban areas such as ravines or oler parks are sources of unique plant an animal stock from original native populations for restoration projects. Restoration projects in highly isturbe urban environments might be more successful if they establishe novel ecosystems that may inclue invasive species such as Himalayan blackberry where these species have become part of the new ecological memory for the site. Restoration projects woul benefit from a careful assessment of the ecological memory of a site with the information use to set responsive targets that may be more appropriate than a restoration target base on historical conitions. Acknowlegments The author thanks E. 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