INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNS AND TEACHING PRACTICES A MODULE FOR ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDENTS, POST GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM

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1 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNS AND TEACHING PRACTICES A MODULE FOR ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDENTS, POST GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM Introduction This course is designed for the purpose of equipping the English Education students of the post graduate study program with knowledge and skills about designing an instructional package comprising syllabus, lesson plans, materials, assessment instruments, and also instruments for self reflection. The course combines the regular in class activities such as lectures, discussion, workshops and simulations, and internship programs in education institutions such as schools, colleges, universities and others. Students are organized into groups of 3s and decide their own place for implementing their design. To assure that this program won t disturb the routine (i.e. achieving specific goals / objectives), the groups should start with consulting the educators (i.e. teacher or lecturers in charged with English subject), do classroom observation, and do the teaching practice under the supervision of the teacher/lecturer in charge. Course coverage Instructional Designs and teaching Practices comprise the following activities 1. Planning the instructional packages that are based on the ideal standards as stated or implied by the curriculum. In doing these, students should have good understanding about the curriculum which is developed based on content, graduate and process standards stipulated by the Department of national Education Ministry of Education and Culture(Curriculum 2006). However, since a perangkat pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan standar isi, standar kompetensi lulusan dan standar proses 2. mengimplementasikan rancangan pembelajaran yang telah dibuat dengan bimbingan dosen pengampu di Perguruan Tinggi Negeri atau swasta yang memiliki mata kuliah yang relevan dengan bidang keilmuan yang ditekuni di PPs Undiksha 3. Mengembangkan kompetensi profesional dan pedagogik melalui kegiatan merencanakan, mengimplementasi dan melakukan asesmen yang cocok / tepat i

2 4. Bekerjasama dalam sebuah tim pengajar untuk melakukan lesson study (mengevaluasi kekuatan dan kelemahan) dan melakukan refleksi dalam sebuah team. 5. Melakukan penilaian terhadap teman sejawat dan diri sendiri tentang performa mengajar 6. Menganalisis hasil implementasi desain baik secara individu maupun berkelompok 7. Membuat laporan Tujuan Perkuliahan Setelah perkuliahan berakhir, siswa diharapkan mampu: 1. Merancang dan mengembangkan kurikulum dan silabus MK Bahasa Inggris/Bahasa Indonesia 2. Memilih, mengembangkan, dan mengkreasi bahan/sumber belajar yang sesuai dengan indikator 3. Memilih, mengembangkan dan mengkreasi bahan dan media ajar yang cocok/sesuai dengan tujuan pembelajaran 4. Memilih dan mengembangkan alat asesmen yang cocok atau sesuai dengan indikator 5. Membuat desain pembelajaran inovatif dan menantang. 6. Membuat perencanaan pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan standar isi, standar kompetensi lulusan dan standar proses 7. Mengimplementasikan rencana pembelajaran yang sudah dibuat 8. Melakukan refleksi secara individu maupun kelompok. Teknis Perkuliahan: Kegiatan di kelas (kuliah + diskusi kelas) : 3 x Workshop (curah pendapat, diskusi, kerja kelompok): 3x Implementasi di lapangan: 8x ii

3 TABLE OF CONTENT Acknowledgement Table of Content Chapter I A.... Definition and Scope of Instructional Design... 1 B.... Character of Instructional Design... 2 C.... Foundatio ns of Instructional Design... 3 D.... Principle of Instructional Design... 4 E.... Element of Instructional Design... 4 Chapter II Instructional Design Model and Method A.... Merrill s First Principles of Instruction... 8 B.... ADDIE Model... 9 C.... Dick and Carey Model D.... Kemp s Instructional Design Model E.... Gagne s 9 Events of Instruction F.... Bloom s Learning Taxonomy iii

4 G.... Kirkpatric k's 4 Levels of Training Evaluation Chapter III Curriculum and Syllabus A.... What is a Curriculum? B.... Characteri stics of Curriculum C.... What do We Mean by a Syllabus D.... Why Should a Teacher Have a Syllabus? E.... Type of Syllabus in Language Learning Chapter IV Lesson Plan A.... Definition of Lesson Plan B.... Importanc e of Lesson Plan C.... Different Format Lesson Plan Chapter V Teaching and Learning Strategies A.... Difference s among Approach, Method, Procedure, Technique, and Strategy B.... Direct Instruction Strategies C.... Indirect Instruction iv

5 Chapter VI Teaching Aids/Media A.... Definition of Teaching Aid B.... Kinds of Teaching Aid Chapter VII Assessment A.... Definition B.... Five Keys to Quality Assessment C.... Different Forms of Assessment D.... Types of Assessment E.... The Most Favorable Assessment Types for Teaching EFL References v

6 CHAPTER I This chapter leads readers to understand the notion of Instructional Design. The materials cover definition and coverage of Instructional Design as well as the characteristics, principles, elements and models of Instructional Design. A. Definition and Coverage of Instructional Design In exploring the literature, the terms Instructions and Design are defined in different ways according to the context in which the two terms are used. As far as instruction is concerned, one usually relates it to education, teaching and training. As a matter of fact, those terms are sometimes used in a single context. Theoretically, education is considered as the umbrella all the other terms because it has a broad meaning. It is widely accepted that education describes all experiences (including unplanned, incidental, and informal) in which people learn.based on this definition, education can occur everywhere, every time, either consciously or subconsciously. Education is not only about school or other formal institution, not only something planned but also something incidental. School is only one place where children can get education in a systematic way, that is, with the guidelines of the curriculum. The school age children go through a process of learning with the help of a professional adult (i.e. a teacher). In helping the learners learns, the teacher gives instruction which is defined as specially arranged learning experiences so that learning could occur effectively and efficiently with particular strategies. By this definition, the emphasis is on the presence of a formal authority (i.e. a teacher) who decides on learning experiences/activities for the learners to achieve the learning objectives. Smith and Ragan (2005) define instruction as an intentional facilitation of learning toward identified learning goals. The emphasis on achieving learning goals is also forwarded by Driscoll (2000) who states that instruction is deliberate arrangement of learning conditions to promote the attainment of some intended goals. 1

7 As seen from the definitions above, instruction and teaching are inseparable. Both refers to intentional arrangement of experiences leading to learners acquisition on particular capabilities Meanwhile, teaching emphasizes a job description of a teacher who has the formal authority to teach his/her students either inside or outside the classroom. Sometimes instructions and teaching are used interchangeably. However, when the word teaching is used, there is an implied meaning that there is a teacher. Teaching is commonly defined as learning experiences that are facilitated by a human being, not a vcd/dvd/textbook or web sites. Even though both instruction and teaching needs a human being to facilitate learning, an instructor may either work in a formal or nonformal learning institution and a teacher more likely works in a formal learning institution. Training is another popular word used in the field of education. While teaching and instructions may focus on knowledge and skills, training is more likely to deal with skills. In other words, training refers to instructional experiences that are focused upon individual acquiring very specific skills that are normally applicable almost immediately or in a shorter period of time. As the name of the course is Instructional Design, it is also important to define the meaning of design. The word design is commonly defined as an activity or process that people engage in that improves the quality of their subsequent creation. By this definition, Instructional Design is then defined as a systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation (Smith & Ragan, 2005). According to these scholars, the process of defining instructional design is usually guided by the following questions 1. Where are we going? (the goal of instruction) 2. How will we get there? (instructional strategy and instructional medium) 3. How will we know when we have arrived? (evaluation and assessment?) 2

8 The three questions above reveal the three major contents as far as instructional design is concerned. First, there must be a clearly stated goal which leads instructions 1. Instructional Design as a Process Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials, activities, tryout and evaluation of all instructions and learner activities (Brent Wilson, (2005). 2. Instructional Design as a Discipline Instructional Design is the branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies. 3. Instructional Design as a Science Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity. 4. Instructional Design as Reality Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion. 5. Instructional as a System An instructional system is an arrangement of resources and procedures to promote learning. 6. Instructional as in Technology 3

9 Instructional technology is the systemic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems, other words, instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and other organized knowledge to the task of instructional design and development. Robert Reiser, (2001). Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development 7. Instructional Development (ID) Instructional Development (ID) is the process of implementing the design plans.( n.html) Instructional design is the systematic process of developing instructional systems or other words, Instructional Design is defined as a systematic process that is employed to develop education and training programs in a consistent and reliable fashion (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007). In addition, Instructional Design models or theories may be thought of as frameworks for developing modules or lessons that (1) increase and/or enhance the possibility of learning and (2) encourage the engagement of learners so that they learn faster and gain deeper levels of understanding. Whereas, instructional development is the process of implementing the system or plan. B. Character of Instructional Design (ID) There are three major flavors of the standard Instructional Design (ID). Pedagogy. Some ID courses emphasize pedagogy approaches to teaching and learning. They may focus on anything from how to develop strong tutorial materials to building collaborative learning environments but the focus is on the pedagogy. There is often little focus on the process of ID. The ID Model. This type of ID course focuses on one model of the process of instructional design, usually the Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model developed by Dick and Carey. These courses typically cover each of the steps in the instructional system design (ISD) model and require students to complete a mini instructional design project that demonstrates they can understand and apply the ID model they 4

10 learn. Many courses also emphasize the generic ADDIE model of ID that involves five steps: Analyze Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. ID Alternatives. ID courses in this tradition are based on the assumption that ID is not a monolithic field where you learn the process of instructional design. Instead, the field of ID is treated as one in a state of flux with several competing theoretical frameworks, families of ID models, and communities of practice. Some of these courses focus on the process of ID and others focus on the pedagogies used by designers when they create educational materials. C. Foundations of Instructional Design a) Behaviorism b) Cognitivism c) Constructivism a) Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. b) Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind. c) Constructivism: Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations, (Schuman, 1996) available at D. Principle of Instructional Design There are several principles of Instructional Design that have been identified. The first is described as a set of interrelated principles which, when properly applied in an 5

11 instructional product or setting, will increase student learning. These principles include the following: Task/Problem-Centered - Students learn more when the instruction is centered on relevant real-world tasks or problems, including a series of tasks or problems that progress from simple to complex. Activation - Students learn more when they are directed to recall prior knowledge, to recall a structure for organizing that knowledge, or are given a structure for organizing new knowledge. This activation can also include a foundational learning experience upon which new learning can be based. Demonstration - Students learn more when new knowledge is demonstrated to them in the context of real-world tasks or problems. The knowledge that is demonstrated is both informational and skill-based. Demonstration is enhanced when it adheres to research-based principles of e-learning. Application - Students learn more when they perform real-world tasks or solve realworld problems and receive feedback on and appropriate guidance during that application. Integration - Students learn more when they are encouraged to integrate their new knowledge into their life through reflection, discussion, debate, and/or presentation of new knowledge. E. Element of Instructional Design There are four basic components which are included in instructional design namely: a) The leaner b) Objects c) Methods d) Evaluation More detailed information about the components and principles of an instructional design is shown in Merrills s chart below: 6

12 Figure 1: Components of Merrill's Principles of Instructional Design The chart above is described as follows. Navigation Learners should see how contents are organized They should be able go forth and back, and correct themselves Motivation Learning environments should be interesting, relevant and achievable Real tasks are more motivating than formal objectives, glitz and novelty Knowing content is not motivating, students should be able to skip over Performing whole tasks is more motivating then decontextualized actions and operations Immediate feedback decreases motivation - delayed judgment increases (interesting, this is not like direct instruction) Collaboration Interaction Favor small groups (2-3) to optimize interactions Group assignments should be structured around problems (whole tasks), i.e. "real" products or processes Navigation is not interaction (i.e. it is not cognitive interactivity) Interaction means solving real-world problems or tasks 7

13 Key elements are: a context, a challenge, a learner activity and feedback. Activation Activating of relevant previous experience promotes learning by allowing them to build upon what they already know and giving the instructor information on how to best direct learners. Providing an experience when learners previous experience is inadequate or lacking to create mental models upon which the new learning can build. Activities that stimulate useful mental models that are analogous in structure to the content being taught can also help learners build appropriate schemas to incorporate the new content. Does the courseware activate prior knowledge or experience? 1. Do learners have to recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from past experience (as a foundation for new knowledge)? 2. Does the same apply to the present courseware? 3. Is there an opportunity to demonstrate previously acquired knowledge or skill? Demonstration Demonstrating involves activities that help learners understand better through simulations, visualizations, modeling, etc. The choice of activities is dependent upon the objectives of the lesson, the availability of tools and facilities, and the characteristics of the learners. Demonstration includes guiding learners through different representations of the same phenomena through extensive use of instructional media, pointing out variations and providing key information. A teacher should be capable of making a decision about what and how a demonstration is needed in his/her instruction. Some questions that may function as a reflection are: 1. Are examples consistent with the content being taught? E.g. examples and non-examples for concepts, demonstrations for procedures, visualizations for processes, modeling for behavior? 2. Are learner guidance techniques employed? (1) Learners are directed to relevant information?, (2) Multiple representations are used for the demonstrations?, (3) Multiple demonstrations are explicitly compared? 3. Is media relevant to the content and used to enhance learning? Application 8

14 The application requires that learners use their new knowledge in a problem-solving task, using multiple yet distinctive types of practice. Merrill (YEAR?) categorizes instructional design implementation into four: (a) information-about, (b) parts-of, (c) kindsof, and (d) how-to practice that should be used depending upon the kind of skill and knowledge identified. The application phase should be accompanied by feedback and guidance that is gradually withdrawn as the learners' capacities increase and performance improves. To know whether or not a learner is able to practice and apply the acquired knowledge or skill, the following checklist needs to be employed. 1. Are the application (practice) and the post test consistent with the stated or implied objectives? (1) Information-about practice requires learners to recall or recognize information. (2) Parts-of practice requires the learners to locate, name, and/or describe each part. (3) Kinds-of practice requires learners to identify new examples of each kind. (4) How-to practice requires learners to do the procedure. (5) What-happens practice requires learners to predict a consequence of a process given conditions, or to find faulted conditions given an unexpected consequence. 2. Does the lesson require learners to use new knowledge or skill to solve a varied sequence of problems? Do learners receive corrective feedback on their performance? 3. In most application or practice activities, are learners able to access context sensitive help or guidance when having difficulty with the instructional materials? Is this coaching gradually diminished as the instruction progresses? Integration Integration in an effective instruction that occurs when learners are given the opportunity to demonstrate, adapt, modify, and transform new knowledge to suit the needs of new contexts and situations. This should be followed up with a reflection such as through discussion and sharing to make new knowledge becomes part of a learner's personal store and give the learner a sense of progress. Collaborative work and a community of learners can provide a context for this stage. Integration involves encouragement for the learners to integrate (transfer) the new knowledge or skill into their everyday life. To check the existence of integration within the instructional process, the following questions are used. 1. Is there an opportunity to publicly and to demonstrate their new knowledge or skill? 9

15 2. Is there an opportunity to reflect-on, discuss, and defend new knowledge or skill? 3. Is there an opportunity to create, invent, or explore new and personal ways to use new knowledge or skill? 10

16 CHAPTER II Instructional Design Model and Method An instructional design model gives structure and meaning to an ID problem, enabling the would-be designer to negotiate his/her design task with a semblance of conscious understanding Models help us to visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units. The value of a specific model is determined within the context of use. Like any other instrument, a model assumes a specific intention of its user. A model should be judged by how it mediates the designer's intention, how well it can share a work load, and how effectively it shifts focus away from itself toward the object of the design activity (Martin Ryder, 2012). There are several instructional design models and instructional methods that have been developed and implemented over the years. Instructional designers use instructional design models, methods, and theories as a base for online course design and delivery. These instructional methods act as a compass to design for instruction (Martin Ryder, 2012). The following are some of the instructional design, models, and methods, which are commonly used: 1. Merrill's First Principles of Instruction 2. ADDIE Model 3. Dick and Carey Model 4. Kemp's Instructional Design Model 5. Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction 6. Bloom's Learning Taxonomy 7. Kirkpatrick's 4 Levels of Training Evaluation A. Merrill's First Principles of Instruction Many current instructional design models suggest that the most effective learning environments are those that are problem-based and involve the student in four distinct phases of learning: (1) activation of prior experience, (2) demonstration of skills, (3) application of skills, and (4) integration or these skills into real world activities. Figure 2 below illustrates these five ideas. Much instructional practice concentrates primarily on phase 2 and ignores the other phases in this cycle of learning. 11

17 Figure 1: First Principles of Instruction Diagram At the top level the instructional design prescriptions based on first principles are as follows: Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems. Learning is facilitated when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge. Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner. Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is applied by the learner Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world. B. ADDIE Model The ADDIE instructional design model is the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training developers. The ADDIE model is at the very core of instructional design and is the basis of instructional systems design (ISD). There are various adaptations of the ADDIE model but it generally consists of five cyclical phases Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. These processes represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools. Analysis In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified. Design The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning and media selection. The design phase should be systematic and specific. Development The development phase is where instructional designers and developers create and assemble 12

18 the content assets that were blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase, storyboards are created, content is written and graphics are designed. If e learning is involved, programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Implementation During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. Evaluation The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users which were identified. It is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model. Most of the current instructional design models are spin-offs or variations of the ADDIE instructional design model; other models include the Dick & Carey and Kemp Instructional System Design (ISD) models. One commonly accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This is the idea of receiving continual or formative feedback while instructional materials are being created. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. Figure 1 below illustrates the ADDIE model: Figure 2: ADDIE Model, Diagram by: Steven J. McGriff, Instructional Systems, College of Education, Penn State University C. Dick and Carey Model 13

19 Another well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction. Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes". The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows: Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(ska) that a learner will be expected to acquire Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task Analyze Learners and Contexts: Identify general characteristics of the target audience including prior skills, prior experience, and basic demographics; identify characteristics directly related to the skill to be taught; and perform analysis of the performance and learning settings. Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective that describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance. Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of posttesting, purpose of practice items/practice problems Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment Develop and Select Instructional Materials Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try to identify areas of the instructional materials that are in need of improvement. Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly. 14

20 Figure 3: Dick and Carey Model D. Kemp's Instructional Design Model The Jerold Kemp instructional design method and model defines nine different components of an instructional design and at the same time adopts a continuous implementation/evaluation model. Kemp adopts a wide view, the oval shape of his model conveys that the design and development process is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, development and assessment to insure effective instruction. The model is systemic and nonlinear and seems to encourage designers to work in all areas as appropriate (Steven McGriff). The model is particularly useful for developing instructional programs that blend technology, pedagogy and content to deliver effective, inclusive (reliable) and efficient learning. According to McGriff, Kemp identifies nine key elements: 1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program. 2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning. 3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes. 4. State instructional objectives for the learner. 5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning. 6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives. 7. Plan the instructional message and delivery. 8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives. 9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities. 15

21 Figure 4 below illustrates the Kemp instructional design model: Figure 4 Kemp Instructional Design Model E. Gagné's 9 Events of Instruction Robert Gagné is considered to be the foremost contributor to the systematic approach to instructional design and training. Gagne and his followers are known as behaviorists, and their focus is on the outcomes (or behaviors) resulting from training. Gagné's book, The Conditions of Learning, identified the mental conditions for learning. Gagné created a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which correlate to and address the conditions of learning. See the nine events of instruction below: 1. Gain attention 2. Inform learner of objectives 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning 4. Present stimulus material 5. Provide learner guidance 6. Elicit performance 7. Provide feedback 8. Assess performance 9. Enhance retention transfer F. Bloom's Learning Taxonomy In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. Bloom 16

22 found that over 95 % of the test questions students encounter require them to think only at the lowest possible level...the recall of information. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. Verb examples that represent intellectual activity on each level are listed here. Figure 5 Bloom's Taxonomy 1. Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state. 2. Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate, 3. Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write. 4. Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test. 5. Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write. 6. Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate. 7. Create: design, construct, plan, produce, invent, devise, make Note: During the 1990's a new group of cognitive psychologists, lead by Lorin Anderson (a former student of Bloom), updated the taxonomy to reflect relevance to 21st century work. The new taxonomy includes a higher level cognitive performance titled "Create." Read more information. 17

23 Figure 6 Bloom's Revised Taxonomy G. Kirkpatrick's 4 Levels of Training Evaluation Donald L Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus, University Of Wisconsin (where he achieved his BBA, MBA and PhD), first published his ideas in 1959, in a series of articles in the Journal of American Society of Training Directors. The articles were subsequently included in Kirkpatrick's book Evaluating Training Programs (originally published in 1994; now in its 3rd edition - Berrett-Koehler Publishers). Donald Kirkpatrick's 1994 book Evaluating Training Programs defined his originally published ideas of 1959, thereby further increasing awareness of them, so that his theory has now become arguably the most widely used and popular model for the evaluation of training and learning. Kirkpatrick's four-level model is now considered an industry standard across the HR and training communities. The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model essentially measure: REACTIONS-What they thought and felt about the training LEARNING-The resulting increase in knowledge or capability TRANSFER-Extent of behaviour and capability improvement and implementation/application RESULTS-The effects on the business or environment resulting from the trainee's performance 18

24 All these measures are recommended for full and meaningful evaluation of learning in organizations, although their application broadly increases in complexity, and usually cost, through the levels from level 1-4. Figure 7 Kirkpatrick's 4 Levels of Training Evaluation 19

25 CHAPTER III Curriculum and Syllabus Curriculum and syllabus are keywords as far as an education system is concerned. In the context of Indonesia education system, curriculum has changed three times in less than 10 years period, from Curriculum 1994 (from 1994 to 2002), Competency Based Curriculum, ( ) and School Based Curriculum (2006-present). Curriculum changes are usually followed by reforms in syllabus development, methods and techniques of teaching, materials design and assessment techniques. The followings are definitions of curriculum cited from different sources. A. What is a Curriculum? Longstreet and Shane (1993) consider that curriculum is a plan as a response to the increasing complexity of educational decision making. In other words, a curriculum is developed to simplify the education complexity and is used as a reference in making decision in education. Posner (1998) states that curriculum is the planned learnings for which the school is responsible. Planned learnings can be long written documents specifying content, shorter lists of intended learning outcomes, or simply the general ideas of teachers about what students should know. This definition seems to assume that what is studied is learned. It may limit planned learnings to those that are easiest to achieve, not those that are most desirable. Marsh (2004) argues that curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to students so that they can attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites. Emphasis is on learning rather than teaching, especially learning skills and knowledge at sites other than schools. The assumption is that all sites including workplace sites can be conducive to learning general knowledge. This approach to curriculum has been heavily publicized in a number of countries recently and is usually supported for economic reasons by business organizations, other vocationally oriented groups, and advocates of explicit competency standards. This definition usually leads to a narrow technical-functionalist approach to curriculum, requiring that unduly large numbers of outcomes and high levels of specificity be identified. Meanwhile, Robinson (1991) concludes curriculum involves a plan of work to be taught in a particular course, issues of policy, planning, and the complete educational environment. This point of view indicates curriculum is very complex. It needs 20

26 professionalism to design curriculum that is appropriate for educational needs, especially students need. B. Concept of Curriculum Development Walker (1990) argues that the fundamental concepts of curriculum development include the following elements: a) Content refers to what learners will particularly learn or focus on. This, for example, includes concept maps, topics, and themes, all of which are abstractions which people have invested and named; b) Purpose refers to the statements of intentions and targets to be achieved after a learner has gone through a process of learning. Purposes are usually categorized as intellectual, social and personal; often divided into superordinate purposes; stated purposes are not always reliable indicators of actions; c) Organization refers to the order of sequences that are decided and organized to help learners learning in a cohesive and systematic way. A curriculum can be tightly organized or relatively open-ended. Beane et al. (1986) recommend five aspects to be considered in developing a new curriculum. a) The experiences of learners (This is important to make learning more meaningful by connecting what learners already know to what is there new to learn. b) Making decisions about both content and process (This is related to the previous point, in which the understanding towards learners background knowledge and experiences is considered as the basis for deciding what and how to learn) c) Making decisions about a variety of issues and topics (This is intended to provide scope and direction for learners/ learning) d) Involving many groups (This is related to the provide flexibility as the implementation will include diverse groups of learners) e) Decision-making at many levels (This is intended to provide grades for learners in which every grade have special requirements to be eligible for moving on to the next grades).. Furthermore, Longstreet and Shane (1993) refer to four major conceptions of curriculum: 21

27 a) Society-oriented curriculum This curriculum is designed with the purpose to serve society. In other words, schooling provides learners with general and specific needs as part of a society. b) Student-centered curriculum This curriculum place learners as the crucial source in which learning is planned to provide learners with meaningful learning that is applicable in real life. c) Knowledge-centered curriculum This curriculum considers the importance of knowledge so that the design involves the inclusions of knowledge that are assumed to be important for learners to learn. d) Eclectic curriculum This curriculum combines two or more of the conceptions above. Foe example, it is developed from a lit of knowledge that are needed in the society (combining points a and c) Another theory of curriculum development was put forward by Eisner and Vallance (1974). These scholars postulate five orientations as follows. a) A cognitive process orientation This curriculum orientation considers cognitive skills as the fundamental aspect for development. Cognitive skills here should be applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems in real life. b) Technological orientation The orientation of this curriculum is to develop learners knowledge and skills to catch up with technology and achieve pre-specified goals c) Self-actualization orientation Curriculum development has the orientation for the individual student to discover and develop his/her unique identities; d) Social reconstructionist orientation The orientation of the curriculum to enable schools to become an agency of social change 22

28 e) Academic rationalist orientation This curriculum with this orientation prepare students to became rationalist who use and appreciate the ideas and works of various disciplines. In developing curriculum, Seel and Dijkstra (2004) suggests that the fundamental basis and justification for curriculum development is human needs, therefore it is not hard to understand that a curriculum is dynamic. Its development should consider what people needs today and in the future. In the context of implementation, curriculum has impacts on instructional planning. The impact can be presented in the picture below. Figure 1 Impact of Curriculum on Instructional Planning C. What do We Mean by a Syllabus? A syllabus is a document which contains what will (or at least what should) be learnt (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Furthermore, Robinson (1991) states syllabus refers to a plan of work to be taught in a particular course. From both definitions, it can be concluded that syllabus is document containing the plan of work to be taught in particular course. Furthermore Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state there are several different ways in which a syllabus can be defined. This stem from the fact that the statement of what will be learnt passed through several different stages before it reaches its destination in the mind of the learner. Each stage on its route imposes a further layer of interpretation. a) The evaluation syllabus 23

29 At its simplest level a syllabus can be described as a statement of what is to be learn. This kind of syllabus will be most familiar as the document that is handed down by ministries or other regulating bodies. It states what the successful learner will know by the end of the course. In effect, it puts on record the basis on which success or failure will be evaluated. Thus we might refer to this as an evaluation syllabus. It reflects an official assumption as to the nature of language and linguistic performance. For example, if the syllabus is framed in terms of grammatical structures, this reflects a view that knowing a language consists of knowing the constituent structures. It would be impossible to produce an evaluation syllabus without having a view of what language is and thus how it can be broken down. b) The organizational syllabus As well as listing what should be learnt, a syllabus can also state the order in which it is to be learnt. We might call this an organizational syllabus. In a rough sense, evaluation syllabuses fulfill this role, in that they normally list what should be learnt in, for example, the first year of learning etc. The organization syllabus is most familiar in the form of the contents page of a textbook, and it is this form of syllabus that most people would think of when asked: What is a syllabus? The organizational syllabus differs from the evaluation syllabus in that it carries assumptions about the nature of learning as well as language, since, in organizing the items in a syllabus, it is necessary to consider factors which depend upon a view of how people learn, e.g. : What is more easily learnt? What is more fundamental to learning? Are some items needed in order to learn other items? What is more useful in the classroom? Criteria like these must be used in order to determine the order of items. The organizational syllabus, therefore, is an implicit statement about the nature of language and of learning. c) The materials syllabus The two syllabuses considered so far might be regarded as pure syllabuses, in that they have not been interpreted. They are a straight forward statement of what is to be learnt with some indication of the order in which the items should be learnt. 24

30 The syllabuses say nothing about how learning will be achieved. But a syllabus, like a course design model, is only as good as the interpretation that is put on it. On its route to the learner the organizational syllabus goes through a series of interpretations. The first person to interpret the syllabus is usually the materials writer. So we get our third kind of syllabus the materials syllabus. In writing materials, the author adds yet more assumptions about the nature of language, language learning and language use. The author decides the contexts in which the language will appear, the relative weightings and integration of skills, the number and type of exercises to be spent on any aspect of language, the degree of recycling or revision. These can all have their effect on weather and how well something is learnt. For example, if certain vocabulary items are presented in texts which appeal to the learners, they are more likely to be remembered, because the learners attention will be more involved. d) The Teacher Syllabus The second stage of interpretation usually comes through the teacher. The great majority of students in the world learn language through the mediation of a teacher. Thus we have the teacher syllabus (Breen, 1984). Like the materials writer, the teacher can influence the clarity, intensity and frequency of any item, and thereby affect the image that the learners receive. It usually becomes a trouble for inexperience teachers when they have to clarify the materials and modify to make the materials simpler. e) The classroom syllabus As every teacher knows, what it planned and what actually happens in a lesson are two different things (Allwright, 1984). A lesson is a communicative event, which is created by the interaction of a number of forces. We might use the analogy of a journey again to illustrate this point. The lesson plan is like planned route, but like a planned route it can be affected by all sorts of conditions along the way the unexpected traffic jam, the slow-moving vehicle that you get stuck behind, the diversion because of road works, the new one-way system that you get lost in. But the journey might also be helped along by the new stretch of motorway, the company of travelling companions, fine weather etc. 25

31 It also happens in the classroom. The classroom creates conditions which will affect the nature of a planned lesson. These might be extraneous factors, such as noise from outside, hot weather, interuptions to deal with an administrative matter, a visitor. They might come from the learners as a group: perhaps they are tired after a long day, excitable after an incident in the break. Individual students might hold matters up by asking questions or distracting the attention of the class. They might on the other hand make a lesson memorable by putting an interesting question or telling an amusing anecdote. The classroom, then, is not simply a neutral channel for the passage of information from teacher to learner. It is a dynamic, interactive environment affecting the nature both of what is taught and what is learnt. The classroom thus generates its own syllabus (Breen, 1984). f) The learner syllabus The syllabuses we have considered till now might all be referred to as external syllabuses. The learners might participate in their creation to some extent, but essentially they are external to the learner. The last type of syllabus, however, is an internal syllabus. It is the network of knowledge that develops in the learner s brain and which enables that learner to comprehend and store the later knowledge. We might call this the learner syllabus (Breen, 1984). The learner syllabus differs from all the other types we have mentioned not just in being internal as opposed to external, but in that it faces in the opposite direction. It is a retrospective record of what has been learnt rather than a prospective plan of what will be learnt (Candlin, 1984). The importance of the learner syllabus lies in the fact that it is through the filter of this syllabus that the learner views the other syllabuses. What is in that learner syllabus, in other words, will have a crucial influence on whether and how future knowledge is learnt. It is for this reason that the learners must be taken into account on a continuing basis through every stage of the course design process. There is, then, not just one syllabus, but several, and the teaching learning process involves the interaction of them all. When we use the term syllabus, we should be very clear which one we are referring to. In particular, do we mean the external specification of future learning of the internal construct developed by the learner? But the most important point of all to draw from this analysis is that 26

32 there is no necessary relationship between any of the syllabuses, and in particular, there is no direct relationship between the starting point of the evaluation syllabus and the end point of the learner syllabus. On any empirical evidence, this should be blindingly obvious and yet the fallacy persists: I have taught the syllabus. Therefore the students have learnt what is in the syllabus. D. Why Should a Teacher Have a Syllabus? Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state there are 9 reasons why a teacher should have a syllabus. However, only 7 reasons are discussed here because two reasons are only valid / applicable for teaching ESP. The seven reasons are: a) Language is a complex entity. It cannot be learnt in one go. We have to have some ways of breaking down the complex into manageable units. The syllabus in defining the constituent parts of language knowledge, thus provides a practical basis for division of assessment, textbook, and learning time. b) A syllabus gives moral support to the teacher and learner. It makes the language learning task appear manageable. c) Returning to our analogy of learning as a journey, the syllabus can be seen as a statement of projected routes, so that teacher and learner not only have an idea of where they are going, but how they might get there. d) A syllabus is an implicit statement of views on the nature of language and learning. A syllabus will normally be expressed in terms of what is taken to be the most important aspect of language learning. If we lay out a syllabus in structural terms, we are saying that knowledge of the structures of the language constitutes the most important element of language competence. If we take a skills basis, we are saying that skills are the most important aspect and so on. A syllabus, then, tells the teacher and the student not only what is to be learn, but, implicitly, why is to be learnt. e) A syllabus provides a set of criteria for materials selection and/or writing. It defines the kind of texts to look for or produce, the items to focus on in exercises etc. This is probably one of the commonest user for a syllabus, but it can be one of the most damaging to the course design, if wrongly used (see 4 below p. 90) 27

33 f) Uniformity is a necessary condition of any institutionalized activity, such as education. It is deemed to be important that standards within a system are as equal as possible. A syllabus is one way in which sstandardization is achieved (or at least attempted). g) In that teaching is intended to lead a learner to a particular state of knowledge, there need to be criteria against which success or failure in reaching that state will be assessed. A syllabus, therefore, provides a visible basis for testing. The role of the syllabus is a complex one, but it clearly satisfies a lot of needs. We need crucially to be aware of the different roles that the syllabus plays, so that it can be used most appropriately, in particular we need to recognize its ideal nature and, therefore, its limitations as an indicator of learning. E. Type of Syllabus in Language Learning There are several types of syllabuses which can be applied in language learning (Robinson, 1991). It is usually influenced by approach, namely: content, skill, and method leading to the different target of learning. The following figure will present the types of language syllabus. Figure 2 Type of Language Syllabus 28

34 Content-based syllabuses: language form, language notion, language function A basic distinction is between product syllabuses and process syllabuses. White uses the term content for product and suggests that there are several kinds of content syllabus. The first is that of language form, consisting of an ordered set of language items, typically graded by supposed difficulty of learning. This syllabus has had the longest history in ELT and has also been very important textbooks. For many ESP course designers, it is evident that this syllabus type is still a powerful if to them, unacceptable model. However, some practitioners refer that this type of syllabuses does not meet the students need. The major innovation in ELT is notional functional syllabus in which the basic units are notion or concepts (for example, time, space0 or functions (for example, greeting, asking, seeking clarification). This syllabus type was greatly developed within ESP so the notional functional syllabus can still appear to be a norm for ESP. It is continuous to be found in EAP. Content-based syllabuses: situation, topic Situationally organized syllabuses can be found in English for business purposes, in some English for technology courses and in the English for social orientation components of EAP courses. For some ESP situations, there may be an order. For example, in a business setting, the situations may be presented in the chronological order of a typical day s or week s work. In an EAP course, the situations may follow the sequence of a student s arrival in Britain or in USA: registering for a course, meeting other students, visiting the doctor, getting a flat etc., although it must be admitted that several sequences are possible here. More important for ESP, however, is the topic-based syllabus, which deploys the content of the students work or specialist study. One objective of the ESP course may in fact be to teach this specialist content. Each work filed, of course, has different topic. For example, in front office, the topic is handling check-in/out while in restaurant the topic is serving the meal for the guest. Besides in the area of topic, it is also important to concern to specialist content of the field. For many ESP courses, though, the specialist content is utilized as an organizing device for the syllabus, in order to motivate the students and as a basis for the real syllabus of language forms, functions or whatever the course designers wish to focus on. Skill based syllabuses Figure 3 suggests that skill-based syllabuses are something of a half-way house between content or product syllabuses on the one side and method or process syllabuses on 29

35 the other, by language skills. It means that syllabuses focusing exclusively or principally on one the four traditional languages skills. Examples would be a course in writing business letters or in oral skills for business people, or in academic reading. The actual content of the course, however, might be language forms or functions, as in content-based syllabuses. Another set of skills which may from the focus fro an ESP course are termed professional skills or communication skills. Linguistics accuracy is not ignored but it is not the sole component. An example of a macro-skill here might be making an oral presentation, the micro-skins including control of gestures and body language effective use of visual aids, as well as appropriate phraseology and terminology and clear pronunciation. Method based syllabuses: processes Let us now consider method or process approaches to syllabus design. Firstly, we can study about the process or learning process syllabus. The key feature of this approach is that what happens in the classroom is a matter for negotiation between the students and the teacher. There is thus a political aspect to the approach, namely a redefinition of the authority relations in the classroom. What students may opt to do might resemble any one (or mixture) of the other syllabus types for example, students may wish to follow a traditional language form syllabus, the reason for its selection being that this is how the students feel they would learn best. Process syllabus enables the students to study what they really need and want to learn. However, this syllabus is more appropriate when the students really know what they need. Method-based syllabuses: task The procedural or task syllabus, consisting of a set of task or activities ordered according to cognitive difficulty. Class time is devoted to performance of the task and attention is only consciously directed to language if this is necessary for completion of the task. A major concern throughout is that students understand the task and what they are doing, and do not act in a mechanical way. An important feature of the approach is that each task has a conceptual, a linguistic and a physical aspect. This means that each task has an indentified and relevant specificsubject content : is at an indentified, appropriate and manageable linguistic level and has an indentified and appropriate performance requirement (for example, if students have to write in class, then this is because writing is required by the task, and not just as a language practice activity. 30

36 CHAPTER IV Lesson Plan A. Definition of Lesson Plan A lesson plan is the guide for teaching a lesson. In basic terms, it is the goal (what the teacher wants the students to learn), the procedures for reaching this goal (the format of the lesson), and how the teacher will measure that the goal has been reached (a handout, project, test). (: A lesson plan is a detailed guide to be used in teaching. Most lesson plans include a title, topic, name and number of the standard being addressed, goals, objectives, materials, procedure, practice, evaluation, and ways to extend the learning outside the lesson. Lesson plans is a vital in teaching, it gives the teacher as a guide to pull through. Bear in mind that teaching is a difficult job since a teacher should always be dealing with children or teenagers with raw skills, knowledge, and wisdom. ( B. Importance of Lesson Plan There are several benefits to plan a lesson as follows: It is one step backward two steps forward approach. Although can be difficult to do and requires tones of effort to accomplish at first, it enables to save much time in the coming years, since the lesson plans wich just made can be employed over and over again, but If updates is more necessary. It allows managing the time, effort and resources efficiently. It gives teacher a bird s eye of view of things to be taught and learned everyday. It provides the teacher many ways to keep the teaching process not monotonous and redundant. Keep in mind that the attention of students is just equivalent to half of their age, and a lesson plan is the best way to keep the interests of students and pupils interests all throughout. Since it is like a script in movies, lesson plans makes teaching mundane and easy. Makes a teacher organized whilst teaching activity. A teacher can able to determine when to insert icebreakers and interesting facts and lessons to keep the pupils glued to their lessons. Variations in the activities are easily whipped out which will benefit for student, when dealing with a class that has multiple intelligence, and different activities. 31

37 Lesson plans will easily help instructors to achieve goals and objectives, and the same can be said on the part of the students or pupils. Lesson plans helps to get rid of problems or avoid them. It gives instructor a reality check of teacher everyday performance. It improves the habit and attitude of students or pupils. Will waste less time finding things. Instructor will able to be organized or not to be organized. Will not be sidetracked with rabbit trails (unless you want to be!) Teacher does not get lost (because he/she knows where are going to.) Having an outline of journey helps teacher stay on track. It also helps her/him to catch any molehills before they become mountains. Lesson planning keeps teacher going in the right direction. His/Her expectations are clear. Good lesson plans give instructor to the opportunity to lay out expectations clearly. Be Self-Confidence. When a teacher is feels down on his/herself, he/she can sabotage him/her entire homeschool experience. Definitely improves teaching skills. Finally, with lesson plan, an instructor will be able to impart the things that need to do the best of his/her abilities C. Different Format Lesson Plan There are many different formats for lesson plans. Some teachers prefer one lesson plan format; the others prefer a different one. Eventhough they reflect different formats and styles, but the goal or purposes are concerned. The followings are several examples of different lesson plan formats. 32

38 FORMAT 1 Teacher Course Date Leson of Unit Topic Instructional goal Performance objective Rationale Lesson Content Instructional Procedures Evaluation Procedures Teaching Materials Student Handouts, Inc. 33

39 FORMAT 2 LESSON PLAN Objectives: Materials needed: Class activities: Warm-up/review Presentation Practice Application Contingency plan: Homework: Evaluation: 34

40 FORMAT 3 Objectives: LESSON PLAN 1) Warm-up/Review 2) Introduction to the New Lesson 3) Presentation 4) Practice 5) Evaluation 6) Application 35

41 FORMAT 4 LESSON PLAN Background information on class/students: Objective(s): Materials: Pre-assessment: Learning/Teaching activities (list steps and time required for each): Contingency plan: Evaluation of students: Assignment: Self-evaluation (by teacher): 36

42 FORMAT 5 Topic of lesson: LESSON PLAN Objectives: Materials needed: Time Allotment Business items (announcements): Introduction/Review: Teaching/Learning activities: Instruction Practice Evaluation Some of the common elements that noticed were objectives pre-assessment materials warm-up presentation practice evaluation application 37

43 FORMAT 6 LESSON PLAN 1. Material Identity a. Materials : b. Subject Code : c. Semester : d. Devision / Prog. Study : e. Total Credit : 2. Topic of Lesson : 3. Meeting 1, 2, 3, etc : 4. Time Allotment : 5. Standard Competency : 6. Basic Competency 7. Indicator : 8. Learning Experience : 9. Source : a. Sources : Including Bibliography b. Materials : Learning Materials c. Learning Tools : 10. Learning Methods : 11. Learning Scenario : a. Pre-activity b. Whilst-Activity c. Post-activity 12. Evaluation Learning Result : 13. Result Analysis and Continugency: 38

44 FORMAT 7 LESSON PLAN Subject : Grade : Semester : Duration : Standard competency : Basic competency : Indicator : Objectives : Material : Teaching Strategy : Teaching Learning Activities: a. Pre- activity (Gives duration of time) b. Whilst Activity (Time duration) Exploration Elaboration Confirmation c. Post-Activity (Time duration) Sources Evaluation 39

45 CHAPTER V Teaching and Learning Strategies A. Differences among Approach, Method, Procedure, Technique, and Strategy In instructional process, we hear frequently 4 terms, namely: approach, methods, procedure, technique, and strategy (Harmer, 2007). How do they differ? a. Approach: people use the term approach to refer to theories about the nature of language learning which are the source of the way things are done in the classroom and which provide the reasons for doing them. An approach describes how language is used and how its constituent part interlock-it offers a model of language competence. An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge of the language and makes statements about the conditions which will promote successful language learning. b. Method: a method is the practical realization of approach. The originators of a method have arrived at decision about types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kinds of material which will be helpful and some model of syllabus organization. Methods include various procedure and technique as a part of their standard fare. c. Procedure: a procedure is an ordered sequence of technique. For example, a popular dictation procedure starts when students are put in small groups. Each group then sends one representative to the front of the class to read the first line of a poem which has been placed on a desk there. Each student then goes back to their respective group and dictates that line. Each group then sends the second representative to read the second line. It continuous until the last line. d. Technique: a common technique when using video or film material is called silent viewing. This is where the teacher plays the video with no sound. Silent viewing is a single activity rather than in sequence. Besides four those terms, we also frequently hear the term strategy. Strategy: a plan, method, or series of activities designed to achieve a particular educational goal (David, 1976 in Sanjaya, 2006). This definition indicates two things. First, a strategy involves plan of action including the use of method and the empowerment of sources in instruction. Second, strategy is designed to reach goals. Furthermore, Sanjaya (2006) explain instructional 40

46 strategy is a set of materials and procedures used simultaneously to get goal of students learning. From both definitions, it can be concluded that strategy involves method, procedure, materials, and empowerment of sources to get the goal in instruction. Borich explains that there are two main strategies in instruction, direct and indirect instructions. B. Direct Instruction Strategies Killen (1996) defines direct instruction is whole-class expository teaching (sometimes less flatteringly called chalk and talk ). It is a teacher-centered approach in which the teacher delivers academic content in a highly structured format, directing the activities of students and maintaining a focus on academic achievement. In line with Killen (1996), Boric (2007) explains this strategy is used in teaching of facts, rules, and action sequences in efficiently achieved. Direct instruction is a teachercentered strategy in which you are the major information provider. In the direct instruction model, your role is to pass facts, rules, or action sequences on to students in the most direct way possible. This usually takes a presentation and recitation format with explainations, examples, and opportunities for practice and feedback. The direct instruction presentation and recitation format not only requires verbal explanations from you but also teacher-student interactions involving questions and answers, review and practice, and the correction of student errors. In the direct instruction model, the concept of a presentation in the elementary and secondary classroom differs considerably from the concept of a lecture in a college classroom. The typical college lecture rarely will be suitable for your classroom, because your learners attention spans, interest level, and motivation will not be the same as those of a college student. Therefore, the lecture as presented here is neitrher a lengthy monologue nor an open, free-wheeling discussion. Instead, it is a quickly paced, highly organized set of interchanges that you control, focusing exclusively on acquiring a limited set of predetermined facts, rules, or action sequences. Rosenshine and Stevens (1986) have equated this type of instruction with that of an effective demonstration in which the following accurs : 1. You clearly present goals and main points. a. State goals or objectives of the presentation beforehand b. Focus on one thought (point, direction) at a time. 41

47 c. Avoid ambiguous phrases and pronouns. 2. You present content sequentially. a. Present material in small steps. b. Organize and present material so learners master one point before you go to the next point. c. Give explicit, step-by-step direntions. d. Present an outline when the material is complex. 3. You are specific and concrete. a. Model the skill or process (when appropriate) b. Give detailed and redundant explanations for difficult points. c. Provide students with concrete and varied examples. 4. You check for students understanding. a. Make sure that students understanding one point before you proceed to the next. b. Ask students questions to monitor their comprehension of what has been presented. c. Have students summarize the main point in their own words. d. Reteach the parts that students have difficulty comprehending either through further teaching or explanation or by students tutoring each other. Table 1 provides examples of some of the action verbs that correspond to the objectives most suited for direct instruction. These outcomes are learned trough application of facts, rules, and action sequences that usually can be taught in a single lesson. You can most easilly and directly test them with multiple-choice, listing, matching, fill-in, and shortanswer guestions. Test items would call for the listing of memorized names, dates, and other facts; summarizing or paraphrasing of learned facts, rules, or sequences; or connecting together and applying learned facts, rules, and sequences in a context slightly different from the one in which they were learned. Previously, Rosenshine (1971) refers to direct instruction as active teaching, which is characterized by: Full-class instruction (as opposed to small-group instruction) Organization of learning around questions you pose Provision of detailed and redundant practice 42

48 Presenting material so learners m,aster one new fact, rule, or sequence before the teacher presents the next. Formal arrangement of the classroom to maximize recitation and practice Figure 1 presents the teaching strategies most commonly associated with the direct instruction model. You can see that a large share of teaching time is likely to be devoted to direct instruction, that is, to providing information directly so students interspersed with expalinations, examples, practice, and feedback. Table 1 Action verbs that correspond to the objectives most suited for direct instruction. Cognitive Objectives Affective Objectives Psychomotor Objectives Recall Describe List Summarize Paraphrase Distinguish Use Organize Demonstrate Listen Attend Be aware Comply Follow Obey Display Express Prefer Repeat Follow Place Perform accurately Perform independently Perform proficiently Perform with speed Perform with coordination Perform with timing Figure 1 Some Direct Instruction Strategies 1. Daily review, cheching previous day s work, and reteaching (if neccessary) : Checking homework Reteaching areas where there were student errors 2. Presenting and structuring new content: Provide overview Proceed in small steps (if necessary), but at a rapid pace If necessary, give deteiled or redundant intructions and explanations New skills are phased in while old skills are being measured 3. Guided student practice: High frequency of questions and overt student practice (from teacher and materials) 43

49 Prompts are provided during initial learning (when appropriate) All students have a chance to respond and receive feedback Teacher checks for understanding by evaluating student responses Continue practice until student responses are firm 4. Feedback and corrective (and recycling of instruction, if necessary): Feedback to students, particulary when they are correct but hesitant Student errors provide feedback to the teacher that corrections and/or reteaching is necessary Correction by simplifying question, given clues, explaining or reviewing step, or retaching last steps. 5. Independent practice so that student responses are firm and automatic: Seatwork Unitization and automaticity (practice to over learning) Need for procedure to ensure student engagement during seatwork (i.e., teacher or aide monitoring) 95% correct or higher 6. Weekly and monthly reviews : Reteaching, if necessary Source: From Teaching Functions in instructional Programs, by B. Rosenshine, 1983, Elementary School Journal, 83, p 338. Reprinted by permission of the University of Chicago. Copyright 1986 by the University of Chicago. All rights reserved. When is Direct Instruction Appropriate? When direct instruction strategies are used for the proper purpose, with the appropriate content, and at the right time, they will be important adjuncts to your teaching strategy menu. Most direct instruction strategies are at their best when your purpose is to disseminate information not readily available from texts or workbooks in appropriately sized pieces. If such information were available, your students might well learn the material from these sources independently, with only introductory or structuring comments provided by you. However, when you must partition, subdivide, and translate textbook and workbook material into a more digestible from before it can be understood by your students, direct instruction is appropriate. 44

50 Another time for direct instruction strategies is when you wish to arouse or heighten student interest. Students often fail to complete text and workbook readings and exercise in the mistaken belief that the material is boring, not worth their effort, or presents material already learned. Your active participation in the presentation of content can change the misperceptions by mixing interesting supplemental or introductory information with the dry facts, by showing their application to future schoolwork or world events, and by illustrating with questions and answer that the material is neither easy nor previously mastered. Your direct involvement in presenting content provides the human element that may be necessary for learning to occur in many of your students. Finally, direct instruction strategies are indispensable for achieving content mastery and over learning of fundamental facts, rules, and action sequences that may be essential to subsequent learning and remembering what was learned long afterwards (Lindsley, 1992). The degree of mastery learning that occurs is directly related to the time a student is actively engaged in the learning process. The more time spent reviewing and practicing, the greater the retention and ability to put that learning into practice at a later time. Therefore, review and active student practice are important ingredients of mastery learning. The goals of mastery learning are best achieved by the instructional sequence of review, presenting new content, practice, feedback, and reteaching, as shown in figure 7.3. these progressive cycles may compose nearly all of the time scheduled for a direct instruction lesson. Many examples in this chapter illustrate this type of instructional sequence. When the content to be taught represents task-relevant prior knowledge for subsequent learning, a direct instruction format Is the best insurance that this knowledge will be remembered and available for later use. There also are times when direct instruction strategies are inappropriate. When objectives other than learning facts, rules, and action sequences are desired, direct instruction strategies become less efficient and often far less effective than the inquiry and problem solving strategies to be discussed in subsequent chapters. Teaching situation that need strategies other than direct instruction include (1) presenting complex material having objectives at the analysis, synthesis, and evaluation levels of the cognitive domain, and (2) presenting content that must be learned gradually over a long period. Such material requires learner participation to heighten a commitment to the learning process (for example, portfolios. Projects, and oral performances) to create the intellectual framework necessary for learning concepts and recognizing patterns. 45

51 Figure 2 The Direct Instructional Sequence for Mastery Learning START REVIEW PRESENT CONTENT PRACTICE PROVIDE FEEDBACK ADDITIONAL REVIEW MORE CONTENT FURTHER PRACTICE ADDITIONAL FEEDBACK Second cycle TEACH/RETEACH Third cycle (if needed TEACH/RETEACH Focus on Mastery Learning John B. Carroll inaugurated a fundamental change in thinking about the characteristics of instruction in 1963 when he argued for the idea that student aptitudes are reflective of an individual s learning rate and, therefore, some students may need more time to learn than others. In this new paradigm, Carroll suggested that instruction should focus more on the time required for different students to learn the same material. This was in contrast with the classic model in which all students are given the same amount of time to learn and the focus is on differences in ability. Carroll s new theory was based on the idea that all learners can have the potential to learn any content provided by the teacher, but take different amounts of time to do so. Carroll identified two factors that affected the learning rate of a student: perseverance of the student and the opportunity to learn. The first is controlled by the student, that is, how much time he or she spends on learning; the latter is the time allotted to learn by the teacher. However, it was Bloom in 1968 who fully developed the concepts now known as mastery learning. In the 1960s, Benjamin Bloom was involved in research on the role of individual differences in learning. Impressed with Carroll s ideas, he took them further by concluding that if aptitude could predict the rate at which one learns the instructional variables under an instructor s control, such as the opportunity to learn and instructional 46

52 materials and resources, should be able to ensure that all learners can attain mastery of any unit or lesson objective. Bloom concluded that given sufficient time and quality of instruction, nearly all students could learn. Bloom s mastery learning model also became instrumental in the nature versus nurture controversy sparked by Jensen (1969) by illuminating a model in which the learning environment provided by the teacher and not heredity could account for most of a student s learning. The theories of mastery learning resulted in a radical shift in responsibility for teacher; the blame for a student s failure rests with the instruction, not the student s lack of ability. In this type of learning environment, the challenge becomes providing enough time and effective instructional strategies so that all students achieve the same level of learning. How to Instruct for Mastery: 1. Clearly state the objective of the unit 2. Divide the unit objective into lessons, each with its own objectives and assessment 3. Identify the most effective combination of learning materials and instructional strategies for each lesson, such as presentation, recitation, modeling, questioning, discussion, and so forth 4. Each unit or lesson starts with a brief diagnostic test or formative assessment of what students know and don t know about the topic 5. The results of the diagnostic tests are used to provide instruction and corrective activities in a review, present content, practice, feedback order 6. This cycle is used first with the whole class and repeated, as needed, with the whole class or individuals. No student proceeds to new material until basic material is mastered In summary, mastery learning is an instructional strategy based on the principle that all students can attain lesson and unit objectives with the appropriate instruction and sufficient time to learn. Mastery learning puts the techniques of tutoring and individualized instruction into a group learning format and brings the learning strategies of successful students to nearly all the students of a given group. In its full form it includes a philosophy, curriculum structure, instructional model, the alignment of student assessment, and a teaching approach. 47

53 C. Indirect Instruction Because direct instruction strategies are best suited for the teaching of facts, rules, and action sequences, it should be no surprise to learn that indirect instruction strategies are best suited for teaching concepts, inquiry, and problem solving. When you present instructional stimuli to your learners in the form of content, materials, objects, and event and ask them to go beyond the information given to make conclusions and generalizations or first a pattern of relationships, you are using the indirect model of instruction. Indirect means the learner acquires a behavior indirectly by transforming or constructing the stimulus material into a meaningful response that differs from both (1) the content used to present the learning, and (2) any previous response given by the student. Because the learner can add to the content and rearrange it to be more meaningful to his or her experience, the elicited response can take many different forms. In contrast to direct instruction outcomes, there is rarely a single best answer when using the indirect model of instruction. Instead, the learner is guided to as answer that goes beyond the specific problem or content presented. Indirect Instruction derives from the ideology of constructivist perspective believing that children construct their own knowledge not just receive it. It expects the students to discover knowledge. In other words discovery is the main goal of the instructional process. Therefore, constructivist lesson should provide opened problems so it facilitates interaction of students with students and interaction of students with teacher. You might have wondered why, if direct instruction is so effective teaching facts, rules, or action sequences, it is not used for teaching concepts, inquiry, and problem solving. The answer is that not all desired outcomes call for responses that are identical to the content taught. Direct instruction is limited to (1) learning units of the content taught so they can be remembered, and (2) composing parts of the content learned into a whole, so a rapid and automatic response can occur. Learning at the lower levels of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains places heavy reliance on these two processes. Both can be placed into action by content that closely resembles the desired response (e.g., Look at this word and then say it, Watch me form a possessive and then you do the next one, Read the instructions, then focus the microscope ). The desired response need not go much beyond what is provided. The task for the learner is simply to produce a response that mirrors the form and content of the stimulus. 48

54 A great deal of instruction involves these simple processes. For this direct instruction model is most efficient and effective. Real-world activities, however, often involve analysis, synthesis, and decision-making behavior in the cognitive domain, organization and characterization behaviors in the effective domain, and articulation and naturalization behaviors in the psychomotor domain. This is complex instruction, because these behaviors are not learned by memorizing the parts and reassembling them into a whole rapidly and automatically, as are behaviors at lower levels of complexity. Instead, they must be constructed by the learner s own attempts to use personal experiences and past learning to bring meaning to and make sense out of the content provided. The indirect instruction model uses instructional strategies that encourage the cognitive processes required both to form concepts and to combine concepts into large patterns and abstractions that promote inquiry and problem-solving skills. Figure 8.5 shows some of the indirect instruction strategies performed by a teacher using this model. You can see from Figure 8.5 that indirect instruction is more complex than direct instruction. Classroom activities are less teacher centered. This brings student ideas and experiences into the lesson and lets students begin evaluating their own responses. Because the outcomes are more complex, so too are your teaching strategies. To build toward these outcomes, extended forms of reasoning and questioning may by required. The indirect instruction strategies in Figure 8.5 were among those having the highest correlation with positive student attitudes toward learning in a study by Fielding, Kameenui, and Gerstein (1983). Figure 3 Some Direct Instruction Strategy 1. Content Organization: Providing advance organizers that serve as pegs on which students Hang key points Focus learningin most productive areas 2. Conceptual movement: Induction and deducting using Selected events to establish general concepts and patterns (induction) Principles and generalizations that apply to specific event (deduction) 3. Excample and nonexcamples 49

55 Introducing critical attributes that promote accurate generalizations Gradually expanding a set of examples Heightening discrimination with noncritical attributes 4. Questions: Raising questions that Guide the search and discovery process Present contradictions Probe for deeper understanding Point the discussion in new directions 5. Learner experience (Using student ideas) : Encouraging students to Use references from their own experience Use examples to seek clarification Draw parallels and associations 6. Student self-evaluation Asking students to evaluate the appopriateness of their own responses Providing cues, questions, and hints that call attention to inappropriate responses 7. Discussion : Promoting classroom dialogue that encourages students to Examine alternatives Judge solutions Make predictions Discover generalizations that encourage critical thinking An Example of Indirect Instruction Now let s peek in on a classroom lesson in which the teacher is using indirect instructional strategies. This dialogue reflects some facts, rules, and sequences that were taught previously, but the ultimate goal is the learning of concepts and the teaching of inquiry and problem solving. This dialogue is a glimpse into a government class where a lesson on different economic systems is in progress. The teacher gets the students attention by asking if anyone knows what system of government in the world is undergoing the most change. Marty raises his hand. Teacher Marty : Marty : I think it s communism, because the Soviet Union broke up, and Russian instituted democratic reforms. 50

56 Teacher Rena Teacher Robert Teacher Robert Teacher Robert Teacher Che-lim Teacher Che-lim Teacher Mark Teacher Mark Teacher Che-lim Teacher : That right. Not unlike some countries in the Middle East that are also undergoing change. And because these change will probably continue to effect all our lives in the years ahead, it may be a good idea to know what some different forms of government are and why some choose to live or not live under them. To get us started, let me ask if anyone knows where the phrase government of the people, by the people, for the people comes from. (Rena raises her hand) Rena? : From Lincoln s Gettyburg Address... i think near the end : That s right. Most nations have similar statements that express the based. Today, we will study three systems by which nations can guide and operate their economies. The three systems we will study are capitalism, socialism, and communism. They often are confused with the political systems that tend to be associated with them. A political system not only influences the economic system of a country but also guides individual behavior in many other areas, such as what is taught in schools, the relationship between church and state, how people are chosen for or elected to political office, and what newspapers can print. (Content organization). For example, in the United States, we have an economic system that is based on the principles of capitalism or private ownership of capital and a political system that is based on the principle of democracy or rule by the people. These two sets of principles are not the same, and in the next few days, you will see how they sometimes work in harmony and sometimes create contradiction that require changes in an economic or political system, like those occurring today in some countries around the world. (Content organization). Today we will cover only systems dealing with the ownership of goods and services in different countries that is, just the economic systems. Later i will ask you to distinguish these from political systems. Who would like to start by telling us what the word capitalism means? (Questions) : It means making money : What else, Robert? : Owning land... i think : Not only land, but...(probes for deeper understanding) : Owning anything : The word capital means tangible goods or possessions. Is a hour tangible? (Concept learning: deduction) : Yes : Is a friendship tangible? : Yes : What about that, Mark? (Asks student to self-evaluate) : I don t think so : Why? : You can t touch it : Right. You can touch a person who is a friend but not the friendship. Besides, you can t own or possess a person... So what would be a good definition of tangible goods? : Something you own and can touch or see : Not bad. Let me list some things on the board, and you tell me whether they could be called capital. (Writes the list) (Examples and nonexamples) Car Stocks and bonds 51

57 Ricky Vanessa Teacher Vanessa Teacher Mickey Teacher Carey Teacher Anton Teacher Religion Information Clothes Vacation Ok. Who would like to say which of these are capital (Ricky raises his hand). (Concept learning: deduction) : Car and clothes are the only two i see : I d add stocks and bonds. They say you own a piece of something, altough maybe not the whole thing : Could you see or touch it? (Questions) : Yes, if you went to see the place or thing you owned a part of : Good. What about a vacation? Did that give anyone trouble? : Well, you can own it... I mean you pay for it, and you can see yourself having a good time. (The class laughs) : That may be true, so let s add one last condition to our definition of capital. You must be able to own it, see or touch it, and it must be durable or last for a reasonable period of time. So now, how would you define capitalism? (Concept learning: induction) : An economic system that allows you to have capital or to own tangible goods that last for a reasonable period of time. And, I suppose, sell the goods, if you wanted. : Very good. Many different countries across the world have this form of economic system. Just to see if you ve got the idea, who can name three countries, besides our own, that allow the ownership of tangible goods? (Learner experience) : Canada, Japan, Germany : Good. In all these countries, capital, in the form of tangible goods, can be owned by individuals. This dialogue illustrates one variation of the indirect model of instruction. Notice that this lesson used the naturally occurring dialogue of the classroom to encourage learners to bring their own experiences and past learning to the topic rather than to acquire an understanding by having it presented to them in an already organized form. This lesson required learners to build an understanding of the topic collectively under the guidance of the teacher using one another s predications, hypotheses, and experience. Look at Figure 3 again to recall the teaching strategies used in indirect instruction. Now, let s consider the extent to which this example lesson contains these key aspects of indirect instruction. 52

58 CHAPTER VI Teaching Aid A. Definition of Teaching Aid Teaching Aids/media are useful to: (1) reinforce what you are saying and summarize key concepts, (2) ensure that your point is understood, (3) signal what is important/essential, (4) enable students to visualize or experience something that is impractical to see or do in real life, (5) engage or stimulate students other senses in the learning process, (6) facilitate different learning styles. Instructional/Teaching Aids must be well prepared, well presented, and readable (Legible, Visible to all, Appropriate format for room and audience size), Relevant (Pertinent to topic, Up-to-date, and Consistent with local protocols). B. Kinds of Teaching Aid There are several examples of teaching aids/media such as: 1. Chalkboard/Whiteboard 2. Flipcharts 3. Overhead Projector/Transparencies 4. Power Point 5. Data Projectors/Smart Board 6. Audiotapes/CDs 7. Videotapes/DVDs 8. Podcasts The following are the explanation of each teaching media in detail. 1. Chalkboard/Whiteboard 53

59 Construction: Colored chalk and markers can enhance the presentation Using students as recorders can increase involvement and free instructor s hands Proper use: Reliable: Dependable format Should evoke consistent responses Repetitious: Should support presentation Stress the important points Summarize and reinforce key points The advantages and disadvantages Advantages No advanced preparation required, Except when displaying a complex table/chart/ diagram. Technology is not dependent on electricity or other possible glitches. Can be used by students for problemsolving, etc. Disadvantages Time-consuming if you have a lot to write. Handwriting may be difficult to read (legibility, size, glare, etc.). Turn your back on audience. Cleaning the board (chalk dust, permanent marker, etc.) Can t go back to something you ve erased. 2. Flipcharts 54