Examining independent study high schools in California

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1 ISSUES& ANSWERS REL 2009 No. 074 At WestEd Examining independent study high schools in California U. S. D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n

2 ISSUES& ANSWERS REL2009 No.074 At WestEd Examiningindependentstudy highschoolsincalifornia June2009 Preparedby VanessaX.Barrat WestEd BethAnnBerliner WestEd U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n

3 WA OR NV CA ID UT MT WY CO ND SD NE KS MN WI IA IL MO MI IN OH KY WV PA VA NY VT NH ME At WestEd AK AZ NM TX OK AR LA MS TN AL GA NC SC FL Issues & Answers isanongoingseriesofreportsfromshort termfastresponseprojectsconductedbytheregionaleducationallaboratoriesoncurrenteducationissuesofimportanceatlocal,state,andregionallevels.fastresponseprojecttopics changetoreflectnewissues,asidentifiedthroughlaboutreachandrequestsforassistancefrompolicymakersandeducatorsatstateandlocallevelsandfromcommunities,businesses,parents,families,andyouth.allissues&answersreports meetinstituteofeducationsciencesstandardsforscientificallyvalidresearch. June2009 ThisreportwaspreparedforIESunderContractED 06 CO 0014byRegionalEducationalLaboratoryWestadministered bywested.thecontentofthepublicationdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsorpoliciesofiesortheu.s.department ofeducation,nordoesmentionoftradenames,commercialproducts,ororganizationsimplyendorsementbytheu.s. Government. Thisreportisinthepublicdomain.Whilepermissiontoreprintthispublicationisnotnecessary,itshouldbecitedas: Barrat,V.X.,andBerliner,B.(2009).Examining independent study s in California.(RELIssues&Answers Report,REL2009 No.074).Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,InstituteofEducationSciences,National CenterforEducationEvaluationandRegionalAssistance,RegionalEducationalLaboratoryWest.Retrievedfromhttp://ies. ed.gov/ncee/edlabs. Thisreportisavailableontheregionaleducationallaboratorywebsiteathttp://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs.

4 Summary Examiningindependentstudy highschoolsincalifornia REL 2009 No. 074 ThisexaminationofCalifornia sindependentstudyhighschools alternative schoolsinwhich75percentormoreof studentsingrades9 12areenrolledin full timeindependentstudy describes enrollmenttrendssince2001/02andthe numberandcharacteristicsofschools andstudentsaswellasteacherqualificationsin2006/07. Independentstudyisapubliceducation alternativemeanttomeetstudents needs, interests,andlearningstyleswhileensuring thatstudentscanmeettheirschooldistrict s curriculumandgraduationrequirements.all independentstudystudentshaveanindividualizedlearningplanthatguidestheir education,andthestudentscancomplete assignmentsatanytime,pace,orplacethat conformstotheplan. WhiletheCaliforniaEducationCodedoes notrecognizeindependentstudyschoolsasa schoolcategory,californiadepartmentofeducationstaffhavedefinedindependentstudy highschoolsoperationallyasthoseinwhich 75percentormoreofstudentsingrades9 12 areenrolledinfull timeindependentstudy. Californiapolicymakersandeducatorshave expressedinterestinknowingmoreabout independentstudyhighschools.thatinterest emanatespartlyfromanacknowledgednecessityformorepubliceducationalternativesto meetwide rangingstudentneedsandpartly fromcontinuingparentdemandforchoice intheirchildren seducation.withthecurrentemphasisonaccountabilityundertheno ChildLeftBehindActof2001,thereisalso interestinwhetherindependentstudyhigh schoolstudentsarebeingtaughtbyhighly qualifiedteachers. Thestudyaddressedsixresearchquestions: WhatwastheindependentstudyenrollmentinCalifornia sindependentstudy highschoolsandothertypesofhigh schoolin2006/07,andwhatwasthe enrollmenttrendbetween2001/02and 2006/07? DoCalifornia sindependentstudyhigh schoolstargetspecificstudentpopulations and,ifso,whichones? Whatwerethecharacteristicsofstudents inindependentstudyhighschoolscomparedwiththoseofstudentsinothertypes ofhighschoolin2006/07? WhatwerethelocationsofCalifornia s independentstudyhighschoolsandtheir schoolcharacteristicscomparedwith

5 ii Summary thoseofothertypesofhighschoolin Some54.9percentofindependentstudy 2006/07? highschoolsreportedtargetingaspecific studentgroup,while20.5percentreported Whatwerethequalificationsofteachers servingthegeneralstudentpopulation. ofcoreclassesinindependentstudyhigh (Another24.6percentprovidednoinschoolscomparedwiththoseinother formationabouttargeting.)ofschools typesofhighschoolin2006/07? targetingaspecificstudentgroup,45.5 percenttargetedstudentsatriskofschool Whatpercentageofcoreclasseswere failure,39.8percenttargetedhome study taughtbyhighlyqualifiedteachersin students,10.6percenttargetedboth,and independentstudyhighschoolscom 4.1percenttargetedothergroups. paredwithothertypesofhighschoolin 2006/07? In2006/07thestudentpopulationof independentstudyhighschoolswasless Toreportcharacteristicsofschoolsand diversethanthatofothertypesofhigh studentsandteacherqualificationsofall school,withalargerpercentageofwhite Californiapublicschoolsenrollingstudents students.independentstudyhighschools ingrades9 12,thestudyusedamerged alsohadhigherpercentagesoffemale school levellongitudinaldatasetfor2001/02 students,althoughthedifferenceinfemale 2006/07totrackstudentenrollmentandused andmaleenrollmentwassmallerthan school,teacher,andcourse leveldatasets inothernontraditionalhighschools. for2006/07.thequantitativeanalysiscon Andindependentstudyhighschoolshad traststhecharacteristicsofindependent lowerpercentagesofsocioeconomically studyhighschoolswithothernontraditional disadvantagedstudents,englishlanguage andtraditionalhighschools.qualitativedata learnerstudents,studentswithdisabilifromthelatestavailableschoolaccount ties,andmigrantstudentsthandidother abilityreportcardforeachindependent typesofhighschool. studyhighschoolidentifiedtargetedstudent populationgroups. In2006/07independentstudyhigh schoolswerelesslikelythanothertypes Themainfindings: ofhighschooltobelocatedinurbanareas andtohavebeenopenbefore2001/02. In2006/07,58,788studentswereenrolled Theywerealsomorelikelytobecharter infull timeindependentstudyingrades schoolsandtoofferinstructiontostu 9 12inCalifornia s231independent dentsbelowgrade9.independentstudy studyhighschools up44.2percentfrom highschoolsaveragedlargerenrollments 2001/02.Incontrast,25,560studentswere thanothernontraditionalhighschools enrolledinfull timeindependentstudy andsmallerenrollmentsthantraditional ingrades9 12inothertypesofhigh highschools.inindependentstudyhigh school up12.1percentfrom2001/02. schools,enrollmentincreasedfrom

6 Summary iii grade9tograde12;intraditionalhigh schools,itdecreased. Teachersinindependentstudyhigh schoolswerelesslikelythanteachersin othertypesofhighschooltoholdanadvancedacademicdegreeandasecondary subject specificteachingcredential,and theyweremorelikelytoholdanelementary(multiplesubject)teachingcredential.whilethemajorityofcoreclassesin grades9 12inindependentstudyhigh schoolsweretaughtbyahighlyqualified teacher,theseclasseswerelesslikelythan thoseinothertypesofhighschooltobe taughtbyahighlyqualifiedteacher.in independentstudyhighschools,teachers subject mattercompetenceforeach classwasmorelikelytohavebeendemonstratedthroughthehighobjectiveuniformstatestandardevaluationandless likelytohavebeendemonstratedthrough advancededucation,training,orboth. June2009

7 iv Table of contents TablEofConTEnTs Why this study? 1 Regionalneed 2 Researchquestions 2 What was the independent study enrollment in California s independent study s and other types of in 2006/07, and what was the enrollment trend between 2001/02 and 2006/07? 4 Do California s independent study s target specific student populations and, if so, which ones? 5 What were the characteristics of students in independent study s compared with those of students in other types of in 2006/07? 5 What were the locations of California s independent study s and their school characteristics compared with those of other types of in 2006/07? 7 What were the qualifications of teachers of core classes in independent s compared with those in other types of in 2006/07? 8 What percentage of core classes were taught by highly qualified teachers in independent study s compared with other types of in 2006/07? 9 Possible directions for further research 9 Appendix A Data sources, methodology, and limitations 11 Appendix B Descriptive statistics 17 Notes 23 References 24 Box 1 Datasourcesandmethods 3 Map 1 LocationofCalifornia sindependentstudyhighschools,bycounty,2006/07 7 Figures 1 Cumulativechangeinenrollmentforgrades9 12,bytypeoffull timeenrollment,2001/ / Distributionofindependentstudyhighschools,bytargetedstudentpopulation,2006/ Distributionofstudentswhoaresocioeconomicallydisadvantaged,areEnglishlanguagelearnerstudents, haveadisability,orareclassifiedasmigranteducationstudents,byhighschooltype,2006/ Distributionofindependentstudy,othernontraditional,andtraditionalhighschools,bydistrictlocale, 2006/ Distributionofgrade levelenrollment,byhighschooltype,2006/07 8

8 Table of contents v Tables 1 Characteristicsofstudentsingrades9 12,byhighschooltype,2006/07(percent) 6 2 Credentialstatusofteachersofcoreclassesingrades9 12,byhighschooltype,2006/07(percent) 9 B1 Numberoffull timestudentsingrades9 12inCaliforniapublicschools,byhighschooltype, 2001/ /07 17 B2 Numberandpercentageofindependentstudyhighschools,bytargetedstudentpopulation,2006/07 17 B3 Numberofindependentstudyhighschools,byCaliforniacounty,2006/07 18 B4 Schoolcategory,byhighschooltype,2006/07 19 B5 Race/ethnicityandgendercharacteristicsofstudentsingrades9 12,byhighschooltype,2006/07 19 B6 StudentsinNoChildLeftBehindActof2001subgroups,byhighschooltype,2006/07 20 B7 Schoolcharacteristics,byhighschooltype,2006/07 20 B8 Distributionoftotalenrollment,byhighschooltype,2006/07 21 B9 Studentspergrade,byhighschooltype,2006/07 21 B10 Highestacademicdegreeobtainedbyteachersofcoreclassesingrades9 12,byhighschooltype,2006/07 B11 Authorizedteachingareaofteachersofcoreclassesingrades9 12,byhighschooltype,2006/07 B12 Coreclassesingrades9 12taughtbyhighlyqualifiedteachers,byhighschooltype,2006/07 B13 Sourceofsubject mattercompetenceofhighlyqualifiedteachersofcoreclassesingrades9 12,byhigh schooltype,2006/

9 1 Why ThiS STudy? Thisexamination ofcalifornia s independent studyhigh schools alternative schoolsinwhich 75percentor moreofstudents ingrades9 12are enrolledinfulltimeindependent study describes enrollmenttrends since2001/02and thenumberand characteristics ofschoolsand studentsas wellasteacher qualifications in2006/07. WhyThissTudy? WhilemostCaliforniahighschoolstudentspursue adiplomabyattendingclassesmondaythrough Fridayinaschoolbuildingfilledwithotherstudentsandteachers,someoftheirpeersaretaking adifferentroutetograduation:theyareenrolledin full timeindependentstudy.withinsomebroad parameters,theeducationexperienceofeachof thesesecondarystudentsisguidedbyalearning plantailoredtotheirneeds,interests,aptitudes, andabilities(californiadepartmentofeducation 2000).Basedontheplan,astudentmayormay notattendclassesinaschoolbuilding,receive dailyinstructionfromteachers,followastandard curriculumscopeandsequence,learnwithpeers, orhavesethoursforschooling. Tohelpmakepublicschoolsmoreresponsiveto thevariedneedsofcalifornia sgrowinganddiversestudentbody,thestatehasdevelopedseveral alternativestotraditionalclassroominstruction, includingfull timeindependentstudy,whichis authorizedbythecaliforniaeducationcodeas apermissibleformofattendanceforstudentsin gradesk 12(CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation 2000).Originatinginthe1970s,independentstudy recognizesthatsomestudentsneedaninstructionalsettingwithoutthestructuresoftraditional schools.amongstudentswhochoosethisalternativearestudentswithschedulingchallenges,for example,becauseofworkorfamilycaretaking responsibilities;studentspursuingparticulartalentsorinterests;studentswhohavefallenbehind andneedtargetedinstructiontofillgapsintheir learningortomakeupcredit;studentsatriskof schoolfailure(includingthosewhohavedropped outofschool);studentswhooptforahome study education;studentswhoarenotchallengedin theirregularclassroomsandwishtoaccelerate theirstudies;andstudentswithcertaintypesof disabilitiesorlearningstylesthatcanbeaccommodatedwithindependentstudy(california DepartmentofEducation2000). Allfull timeindependentstudystudentsarerequiredtodothesameamountandqualityofstudy

10 2 examining independent STudy high SchoolS in california Whilethestateisaware andtomeetthesamecurriculum ofindependentstudy andgraduationrequirementsas highschools,little otherstudentsintheirdistrict.but isknownaboutthe independentstudystudentsmay schoolsasagroup dosoinamannerandonaschedulebettersuitedtotheirneeds,as detailedintheirindividualized learningplan.anindividualizedlearningplanisa writtenagreementwiththestudent,thestudent s parentsorcaregivers,asupervisingteacher,and othersresponsibleforassistingthestudent.it specifiescourseassignments;learningobjectives andinstructionalmethods;manner,frequency, schedule,andplaceforsubmittingassignments andreportingprogress;methodstoevaluate studentwork;andascheduleforstudent teacher conferencing.studentscancompleteassignments atanytime,pace,orlocationthatconformsto theirplan. Regionalneed Whilesomeresearchexistsaboutindependent studyasaninstructionalstrategy,virtuallynone existsaboutschoolsinwhichmostorallstudents areenrolledinfull timeindependentstudy(see appendixa).eventhefoundationalstudieson independentstudybyalexanderandhines(1967) andbrown(1968)describeitonlyasaninstructionaloptionforindividualstudentsinsome traditionalhighschools.californiastatepolicy studiesissuedin2007and2008onthetopicof alternativeschoolsdonotmentionindependent studyhighschools, 1 nordoesthecaliforniaeducationcode,whichidentifiesvariouscategories ofschoolanddefinesindependentstudyasan optionalinstructionalstrategyfork 12students (CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation2000). Evenso,Californiahasagrowingnumberofhigh schoolsinwhichmostorallstudentsingrades 9 12areenrolledinfull timeindependentstudy, andthestatehasdevelopedanoperationaldefinitionforthistypeofschool. 2 Ifatleast75percent ofaschool sstudentsingrades9 12areenrolled infull timeindependentstudy,californiadepartmentofeducationstaffandtheschoolsthemselves Whilethestateisawareofindependentstudy highschools,littleisknownabouttheschools asagroup.howmanystudentsaretheyserving, andhasthisnumberchangedovertime?where aretheylocated?whattypesofstudentdothey enroll?arethesestudentsbeingtaughtbyhighly qualifiedteachersasdefinedbythenochildleft BehindActof2001? Statelegislators,foundationleaders,education policyresearchers,californiadepartmentof Educationstaff,andothershavebeenaskingthese questionsinrecentyears.thisinterestemanates partlyfromanacknowledgedneedformorepublic educationalternativestomeetwide rangingstudent needsandpartlyfromcontinuingparentdemand forchoiceintheirchildren seducation(california LegislativeAnalyst soffce2007;aronandzweig 2003;Lehr,Lanners,andLange2003).Thereisalso interestinwhetherindependentstudystudentsare beingtaughtbyhighlyqualifiedteachers,asdefined underthenochildleftbehindactof2001. Researchquestions refertotheschoolasanindependentstudyhigh school.suchschoolsmayoperateinvarioussettings,includingbrick and mortarschoolbuildings, learningcenters,communitycolleges,andother typesofcommunity basedsettings,aswellasonline(californiadepartmentofeducation2000). ThisstudyaimstogenerateamoredetailedpictureofCalifornia sindependentstudyhighschools asagroupin2006/07(themostrecentyearfor whichdataareavailable)usingsixresearch questions: Whatwastheindependentstudyenrollment incalifornia sindependentstudyhighschools andothertypesofhighschoolin2006/07, andwhatwastheenrollmenttrendbetween 2001/02and2006/07? DoCalifornia sindependentstudyhigh schoolstargetspecificstudentpopulations and,ifso,whichones?

11 Why ThiS STudy? 3 Whatwerethecharacteristicsofstudentsin independentstudyhighschoolscompared withthoseofstudentsinothertypesofhigh schoolin2006/07? WhatwerethelocationsofCalifornia sindependentstudyhighschoolsandtheirschool characteristicscomparedwiththoseofother typesofhighschoolin2006/07? Whatwerethequalificationsofteachersof coreclassesinindependentstudyhighschools comparedwiththoseinothertypesofhigh schoolin2006/07? Whatpercentageofcoreclassesweretaught byhighlyqualifiedteachersinindependent studyhighschoolscomparedwithothertypes ofhighschoolin2006/07? Box1andappendixAprovidedetailsonthe studydataandmethodologyusedtoanswerthese questions. box 1 Data sources and methods Data sources Datawerecollectedfrompublic andweb basedsourcesandusedto prepareseveraldatasetsforanalysis: aschool levellongitudinaldatasetfor 2001/ /07totrackstudentenrollmentingrades9 12andschool, teacher,andcourse leveldatasets withcharacteristicsofschools, teacherqualifications,andstudents ofallcaliforniapublicschoolsthat enrolledstudentsingrades9 12in 2006/07. Independent study, other nontraditional, and traditional s. AllCaliforniaschoolsservinggrades 9 12wereclassifiedasindependentstudyhighschools(75percent ormoreofstudentingrades9 12 enrolledinfull timeindependent study),traditionalhighschools (lessthan75percentofstudentsin grades9 12enrolledinfull time independentstudy),orothernontraditionalhighschools(schools thatarenotindependentstudyor traditionalhighschools,including continuationschools,community schools,communitydayschools,and otherschools;seetableb4inappendixb).classificationswerebasedon CaliforniaBasicEducationalData Systemenrollmentdata,independent studyenrollmentfromtheindependentstudydatabasemaintainedby theeducationoptionsoffceofthe CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation, andtheschooltypefromthecaliforniadepartmentofeducation spublic SchoolsDatabase. Enrollment trends.aschool level datasetwithtotalenrollmentand full timeindependentstudyenrollmentbyschoolwasconstructed usingdatafromthecaliforniabasic EducationalDataSystemSchoolInformationForm(CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation2008b)andthe IndependentStudyDatabase(CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation2008d). Targeted student populations. InformationfromthelatestSchool AccountabilityReportCardsfor independentstudyhighschoolswas analyzed.(ifaschool sschoolaccountabilityreportcardcouldnot belocated,otherweb basednarrativedatawereused).tworesearchers readandcodedthenarrativeprofiles todeterminethestudentpopulationtargetedbyeachschool:at risk students,home studystudents, otherspecificstudentpopulations, orageneralstudentpopulation. Datawereavailablefor224ofthe 231independentstudyhighschools (97.0percent).Thetworatersagreed oncodingsfor95.6percentofthe schools.incasesofdisagreement,the investigatorsreviewedanddiscussed thedatatoreachagreement. Student characteristics.enrollment databygrade,gender,andrace/ ethnicityarefromthe2006/07californiabasiceducationaldatasystem SchoolInformationForm(California DepartmentofEducation2008b),and enrollmentbysocioeconomicallydisadvantagedstatus,englishlanguage learnerstatus,disabilitystatus,and migranteducationstatusarefrom California sgrowthacademicperformanceindexdatafileforeachschool (CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation 2008c). School characteristics.schoollocation wasbasedonphysicaladdress,and schoolyearofopeningandcharter (continued)

12 4 examining independent STudy high SchoolS in california box 1 (continued) Data sources and methods statuswerefromthecaliforniadepartmentofeducationpublicschools Database(CaliforniaDepartmentof Education2008e).Informationused includeddistrictlocale(urban,suburban,rural)fromthecommoncore ofdataoftheu.s.departmentof EducationNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(2007),andenrollment bygradefromthecaliforniabasic EducationalDataSystemSchoolInformationForm(CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation2008b). Teacher qualifications.tobeconsideredhighlyqualified,thenochild LeftBehindActof2001requires teachersofcoresecondaryclasses (English,reading/languagearts, mathematics,science,foreignlanguages,civics/government,economics,arts,history,andgeography)to haveabachelor sdegreeandastate teachingcredentialandtodemonstratesubject mattercompetencefor eachcoresubjecttaught(california DepartmentofEducation2004). Teachersinindependentstudyneed onlyonecredentialofanytype, whereasteachersintraditionalhigh schoolsneedasecondarysubjectspecificcredentialinthecontent areaoftheirteachingassignment. Informationonteacherqualification isfromthe2006/07californiabasic EducationalDataSystemProfessionalAssignmentInformationForm staffcharacteristicsfile(california DepartmentofEducation2008a). Core classes taught by highly qualified teachers. Informationoncoreclasses taughtbyhighlyqualifiedteachers isfromthe2006/07californiabasic EducationalDataSystemProfessional AssignmentInformationFormcourseleveldataset,whichindicatescompliancewiththeNoChildLeftBehind Actof2001highlyqualifiedteacher requirementsandidentifieshow teachersdemonstratedsubject matter competenceforthatclass(california DepartmentofEducation2008a). Analysis Notestsofstatisticalsignificancewere conductedbecausethestudycoversthefullpopulationofcalifornia publicschoolswithgrades9 12. Toallowcomparisonswithother analyses,countsineachcategory analyzedarereportedinappendixb forcategoricalvariables,andaverages, standarddeviations,andquartilesare reportedforenrollmentdata. Study limitations Schooldemographicdatawerenot availableatthestudentlevelor separatelyforstudentsinindependentstudy,sostudentcharacteristics coverallstudentswithinaschool type.distributionofstudentsby socioeconomicallydisadvantaged status,englishlanguagelearner status,disabilitystatus,andmigrant educationstatuswasavailableatthe schoollevelonlyandnotforgrades 9 12separately.In2006/07datawere notconsistentlyavailableforclasses inwhichseveralsubjectsweretaught, sotheanalysismayunderestimate thepercentageofcoreclassestaught byhighlyqualifiedteachers.further detailsaboutdatacharacteristics, methodology,andstudylimitations arediscussedinappendixa. WhaTWasThEindEpEndEnTsTudy EnrollmEnTinCalifornia sindependent studyhighschoolsandother TypEsofhighsChoolin2006/07,and WhaTWasThEEnrollmEnTTrEnd between2001/02and2006/07? In2006/07,84,348students(4.2percent)ofCalifornia snearly2millionhighschoolstudentswere enrolledinfull timeindependentstudy(seetable B1inappendixB).Although907(36.1percent)of 2,515publicschoolsservinggrades9 12enrolled oneormoreoftheseindependentstudystudents, 58,788(69.7percent)ofthemattended231schools thatmetthecaliforniadepartmentofeducation staff soperationaldefinitionofanindependent studyhighschool.thoughthecutofffortheoperationaldefinitionis75percent,onaverage,97.4 percentofthestudentsingrades9 12ateachof theseschoolswereenrolledinfull timeindependentstudy. Independentstudyenrollmentinindependent studyhighschoolsincreasedfasterthandidother typesofenrollmentfrom2001/02to2006/07. In2001/02Californiahad63,582highschool

13 WhaT Were The characteristics of STudenTS in independent STudy high SchoolS? 5 studentsinfull timeindependentstudy,with 40,782ofthemattendingindependentstudyhigh schoolsand22,800attendingothertypesofhigh school.in2006/07thenumberoffull timeindependentstudyhighschoolstudentsroseto84,348, with58,788ofthemattendingindependentstudy highschools(up44.2percent)and25,560attendingothertypesofhighschool(up12.1percent; figure1).otherfull timehighschoolenrollment (studentsnotinindependentstudy)was1,708,835 in2001/02,risingto1,905,857in2006/07(up11.5 percent). docalifornia sindependentstudy highschoolstargetspecificstudent populationsand,ifso,whichones? Some54.9percentofthe224independentstudy highschoolswithpubliclyavailableschoolaccountabilityreportcardsreportedtargetinga specificstudentgroup,while20.5percentreported servingthegeneralstudentpopulation(figure2). (Another24.6percentprovidednoinformation abouttargetingaspecificstudentpopulation.)of schoolstargetingaspecificstudentgroup,45.5 percenttargetedstudentsatriskofschoolfailure (forexample,studentsperformingbelowgrade levelorwithcreditdeficiencies),39.8percent targetedhome studystudents(studentspursuing aformofindependentstudythatinvolvesaparent asinstructor),and10.6percenttargetedboth.a smallerpercentage(4.1percent)reportedtargeting othertypesofstudent,includinggiftedstudentsor thosepursuingaparticularinterest(suchasacting orcompetitivesports). WhaTWErEThECharaCTErisTiCsof studentsinindependentstudyhigh schoolscomparedwiththoseofstudents inothertypesofhighschoolin2006/07? In2006/07,44.4percentofindependentstudyhigh schoolstudentswerewhite,agreaterpercentage thaninothernontraditionalhighschools(25.3 percent)andtraditionalhighschools(32.9percent)(table1),whichweremoreracially/ethnically diverse.likewise,36.4percentofindependentstudy highschoolsstudentswerehispanic,and3.6percent wereasian,alsosmallerpercentagesthaninthe othertypesofhighschool.blackstudents,however, figure 1 Cumulativechangeinenrollmentforgrades9 12, bytypeoffull-timeenrollment,2001/ /07 (percent) figure 2 distributionofindependentstudyhighschools, bytargetedstudentpopulation,2006/07(percent) Percent Full-time independent study students in independent study s General 20.5 At risk Students in other full-time enrollment No information 24.6 Targeted 54.9 Other 4.1 Home study 39.8 At risk and home study Full-time independent study students in other schools 2001/ / / / / /07 Source: Authors analysisbasedonenrollmentdatafor2001/ /07 fromcaliforniadepartmentofeducation(2008b). Source:Authors analysisbasedon224schoolaccountabilityreport Cardsfor2006/07.If2006/07SchoolAccountabilityReportCardswere notavailableasofspring2008,schoolaccountabilityreportcardsfrom thepreviousyearorotherweb based,publiclyavailableinformation wereused(seeappendixa).

14 6 examining independent STudy high SchoolS in california Table 1 Characteristicsofstudentsingrades9 12,byhighschooltype,2006/07(percent) Student characteristic independent study (60,676 students) other nontraditional (136,174 students) Traditional (1,793,355 students) race/ethnicity White, not hispanic hispanic black, not hispanic asian/pacific islander american indian/alaska native more than one race or no response gender female male Note:Componentsmaynotsumto100percentbecauseofrounding. Source:Authors analysisbasedonenrollmentbygenderandrace/ethnicitydatafor2006/07fromcaliforniadepartmentofeducation(2008b). accountedfor8.7percentofindependentstudy highschoolstudents,agreaterpercentagethanin traditionalhighschools(7.8percent),butasmaller percentagethaninothernontraditionalhighschools (12.9percent).SmallnumbersofAmericanIndian/ AlaskaNativestudentswereenrolledinallthree typesofhighschool,wheretheyaccountedforless than2percentofthestudentpopulation. 3 Thegendersplitacrossthestudentpopulationsof thethreetypesofhighschoolalsovaries.girlsaccountedfor54.6percentofthestudentsenrolledin independentstudyhighschoolsbut39.3percentof theenrollmentinothernontraditionalhighschools and49.3percentintraditionalhighschools. In2006/07,14.3percentofstudentsinindependentstudyhighschoolsweresocioeconomically disadvantaged,asmallerproportionthaninother nontraditionalhighschools(23.6percent)and traditionalhighschools(39.9percent)(figure3). Similarly,Englishlanguagelearnerstudentsaccountedfor3.5percentofthestudentpopulation inindependentstudyhighschools,compared with10.2percentinothernontraditionalhigh schoolsand26.6percentintraditionalhigh schools.studentswithdisabilitiesaccountedfora smallerproportionofthetotalstudentpopulation inindependentstudyhighschools(2.6percent) thaninothertypesofhighschool,asdidmigrant educationstudents(0.2percent). figure 3 distributionofstudentswhoare socioeconomicallydisadvantaged,areenglish languagelearnerstudents,haveadisability,or areclassifiedasmigranteducationstudents,by highschooltype,2006/07 Socioeconomically disadvantaged students a English language 10.2 learner students Students with 13.2 disabilities 7.8 Independent study (73,730 students) Other nontraditional Migrant 0.2 (108,710 students) education 1.1 Traditional students 2.1 (1,410,691 students) Percent a.studentsaredefinedassocioeconomicallydisadvantagediftheyparticipatedinthefreeorreduced pricelunchprogramorifneitherparent graduatedhighschool. Source:Authors analysisbasedonenrollmentbysubgroupfromcaliforniadepartmentofeducation(2008c).

15 WhaT Were The locations and characteristics of independent STudy high SchoolS? 7 WhaTWErEThEloCaTionsofCalifornia s independentstudyhighschoolsandtheir schoolcharacteristicscomparedwith ThosEofoThErTypEsofhigh schoolin2006/07? map 1 locationofcalifornia sindependentstudyhigh schools,bycounty,2006/07 Ofthestate s58counties,52hadatleastone independentstudyhighschoolin2006/07(map1). TableB3inappendixBliststhenumberofindependentstudyhighschoolsbycounty. In2006/07independentstudyhighschoolswere lesslikelythanwereothertypesofhighschool tobelocatedinurbanschooldistrictsandmore likelytobelocatedinsuburbanandruralschool districts.some28.6percentofindependent studyhighschoolswerelocatedinurbanschool districts,comparedwith33.2percentofother nontraditionalhighschoolsand43.4percentof traditionalhighschools(figure4).alargershare ofindependentstudyhighschools(46.3percent) werelocatedinsuburbanschooldistrictscomparedwithothernontraditional(43.4percent) andtraditionalhighschools(42.4percent).some 25.1percentofindependentstudyhighschools werelocatedinruralschooldistricts,compared with23.4percentofothernontraditionalhigh schoolsand14.2percentoftraditionalhigh schools. Some71.9percentofindependentstudyhigh schoolsoperatingin2006/07wereopenbefore 2001/02,while83.3percentofothernontraditional highschoolsand80.2percentoftraditionalhigh schoolswere. In2006/07,40.7percentofindependentstudyhigh schoolswerecharterschools,while0.4percentof othernontraditionalhighschoolsand14.5percent oftraditionalhighschoolswere.nontraditional highschoolsgenerallyhaveenrollmentrequirementsandfundingprovisionsthatpreventthem fromoperatingascharterschools,exceptwith specialpermission. Independentstudyhighschoolsaveragedenrollmentof263students,nearlytwicethatatother Note:SixCaliforniaVirtualAcademyschoolsshowednolocaladdressin thecaliforniadepartmentofeducationpublicschoolsdatabasesothey aremappedatthecenterofeachoftheirrespectivecounties. Source:Authors analysisbasedoneachschool sphysicaladdressfrom CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation(2008e). figure 4 distributionofindependentstudy,other nontraditional,andtraditionalhighschools,by districtlocale,2006/07 Independent study s (231) Urban Suburban Rural % 25.1 Other nontraditional high schools (1,033) % 23.4 Traditional high schools (1,250) Percent Note:Localedataareunavailableforonetraditionalhighschool. Source:Authors analysisbasedondatafromu.s.departmentofeducation,nationalcenterforeducationstatistics(2007).

16 8 examining independent STudy high SchoolS in california Teachersinindependent studyhighschoolswere morelikelytoholdan elementaryorgeneral secondarycredential andlesslikelytohold asecondarysubject specificcredential thanwereteachersin othernontraditional highschools Independent study s (60,660 students) Other nontraditional s (134,614 students) nontraditionalhighschools,which averaged132students.incontrast, traditionalhighschoolsaveraged 1,434students. Some71.9percentofindependent studyhighschoolsalsoserved gradelevelsbelowthestandard 9 12highschoolgrades,while 38.3percentofothernontraditionaland17.8percentoftraditionalhighschoolsdid. Studentsingrade9accountedfor20.0percentof studentsingrades9 12inindependentstudyhigh schools,withthegrade levelenrollmentshare increasingingrade10(to24.7percent),grade 11(to26.6percent),andgrade12(to28.6percent)(figure5).Enrollmentdistributioninother nontraditionalhighschoolswassimilar,though theincreasefromonegradeleveltothenextwas greater.intraditionalhighschoolsenrollmentdistributionbygradeleveldecreasedathighergrade levels,fallingfrom28.6percentingrade9to20.8 percentingrade12. figure 5 distributionofgrade-levelenrollment,byhigh schooltype,2006/07 Traditional s (1,791,472 students) Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade Percent Note:Doesnotinclude3,459highschoolstudentswithoutaspecific grade9 12designationintheCaliforniaBasicEducationalDataSystem. Totalsmaynotsumto100percentbecauseofrounding. Source:Authors analysisbasedonenrollmentbygrade leveldatafrom CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation(2008b). WhaTWErEThEqualifiCaTionsofTEaChErs ofcoreclassesinindependenthigh schoolscomparedwiththoseinother TypEsofhighsChoolin2006/07? In2006/07over99percentofteachersofgrades 9 12coreclassesinallthreetypesofhighschool heldatleastabachelor sdegree,asrequiredbythe NoChildLeftBehindActof2001.Ofteachersof coreclassesinindependentstudyhighschools,67.7 percenthadabachelor sastheirhighestdegreeand 32.0percenthadamaster sordoctoraldegree;less than1percentofindependentstudyhighschool teachersdidnotmeettheeducationrequirement. Intheothertypesofhighschoolalargerproportionofteachersheldanadvanceddegree 42.1 percentinothernontraditionalhighschoolsand 38.7percentintraditionalhighschools. In2006/07nearlyallteachersofgrades9 12 coreclassesinindependentstudyhighschools (94.3percent),othernontraditionalhighschools (92.0percent),andtraditionalhighschools(92.2 percent)hadcompletedateacherpreparation programandheldafullcredential(table2).however,acrosstheseschooltypesthepercentageof teachersauthorizedtoteachattheelementaryor secondarylevelsvaried. Teachersinindependentstudyhighschoolswere morelikelytoholdanelementary(multiplesubject)credential(49.0percent)thanwereteachers inothernontraditionalhighschools(29.7percent) andtraditionalhighschools(8.0percent).teachersinindependentstudyhighschoolsalsowere morelikelytoholdageneralsecondarycredential (15.9percent)thanweretheircounterpartsin othernontraditionalhighschools(9.5percent)and traditionalhighschools(4.0percent). Incontrast,teachersinindependentstudyhigh schoolswerelesslikelytoholdasecondary subject specificcredential(57.1percent)comparedwithteachersinothernontraditionalhigh schools(67.9percent)andtraditionalhighschools (83.7percent);theyalsowerelesslikelytoholda credentialinotherteachingareas(36.2percent)

17 possible directions for further research 9 Table 2 Credentialstatusofteachersofcoreclassesingrades9 12,byhighschooltype,2006/07(percent) authorized teaching areas independent study (1,972 teachers) other nontraditional (6,080 teachers) Traditional (62,385 teachers) full credentials elementary (multiple subject) Secondary, general Secondary, subject specific other teaching areas a Without full credentials Note:Percentageofauthorizedteachingareasmaynotsumtothepercentageofteacherswithfullcredentialbecauseteacherscouldhavemorethanone typeoffullcredentialandteachingarea. a.specifiedincaliforniadepartmentofeducation(2008a)toincludespecialeducation,readingspecialist/certificate,primarylanguageinstruction,english languagedevelopment,speciallydesignedacademicinstructioninenglish,adulteducation,andspecialdesignatedsubjects. Source:Authors analysisbasedonstaffcharacteristicsdatafor2006/07fromcaliforniadepartmentofeducation(2008a). comparedwiththeircounterpartsinothernontraditional(58.1percent)andtraditionalhighschools (54.4percent). WhaTpErCEnTagEofCorEClassEs WErETaughTbyhighlyqualifiEd TEaChErsinindEpEndEnTsTudy highschoolscomparedwithother TypEsofhighsChoolin2006/07? In2006/07allthreetypesofhighschoolreported alargemajorityofgrades9 12coreclassestaught byahighlyqualifiedteacher,asdefinedbytheno ChildLeftBehindActof2001.Inadditiontomeetingtheeducationandcredentialrequirements, theseteachersalsometthesubject mattercompetencerequirement,eitherthroughadvancededucation,training,orboth,orthroughthestate shigh ObjectiveUniformStateStandardofEvaluation. 4 In contrasttotheothertypesofhighschool,though, independentstudyhighschoolshadthesmallest proportionofcoreclassestaughtbyahighlyqualifiedteacher,at73.9percent;theproportionswere 80.2percentforothernontraditionalhighschools and91.4percentfortraditionalhighschools. Abouthalf(51.1percent)ofcoreclassesingrades 9 12inindependentstudyhighschoolswere taughtbyhighlyqualifiedteacherswhometthe subject mattercompetencerequirementonthe basisofthehighobjectiveuniformstatestandardofevaluation,ahigherpercentagethanin othernontraditionalhighschools(30.8percent)or traditionalhighschools(11.1percent). possibledirectionsforfurtherresearch ThestudywasaninitialefforttodescribeCalifornia sindependentstudyhighschools,asubject virtuallyunexploredintheresearchliterature. Somereadersmaywanttoknowmoreaboutthis typeofschool,sotheremaybevalueinexploring performance relatedschoolcharacteristicsthat havebeenthesubjectofmuchresearchinother typesofhighschoolbuthavenotbeenexamined forindependentstudy highschools.possibledirectionsinclude classesingrades9 12in abouthalfofcore investigationsofstudent independentstudyhigh academicperformance schoolsweretaughtby andofgraduation,dropout,exitexamination, ahigherpercentagethan highlyqualifiedteachers, transfer,andcollegegoingratesaswellasa highschoolsor inothernontraditional cost benefitanalysisof traditionalhighschools independentstudyhigh

18 10 examining independent STudy high SchoolS in california newprimarydata collectioneffortsusing surveysandinterviews couldofferperspective ondistrictreasonsfor includingfull time independentstudy asaschooloption, motivationsforenrolling inindependentstudy highschools,andthe roleofparentsand teachersinnon site basedinstruction schools,especiallyrelatedto effortstoclosetheachievement gap. Otherpossibleresearchareas includedescribingindependent studyhighschoolmissionsand educationphilosophiesandhow theyrespondtolocalandregional studentneeds,examininghowindependentstudyhighschoolsare organizedtoserveindependent studystudents,comparingschool characteristicsbycharterschool status,anddocumentinghow independentstudyhighschools supportstudentsatriskofschoolfailure. Newprimarydatacollectioneffortsusingsurveys andinterviewscouldofferperspectiveonsuch issuesasdistrictreasonsforincludingorexcluding full timeindependentstudyasahighschooloption, studentmotivationsforenrollinginindependent studyhighschools,andtheroleandexperiencesof parentsandteachersinnon site basedinstruction. Asthestate sdatacollectionsystemsareupgradedtoincludeindividualstudentandteacher data,therewillbenewopportunitiestoconduct longitudinalstudiesandtomoreaccuratelyand comprehensivelydescribepart andfull time independentstudyinalltypesofpublicschool.it willalsobepossibletoassesswhetheracademic performanceimproveswhenstudentsenrollin independentstudy.

19 appendix a. data SourceS, methodology, and limitations 11 appendixa datasources,methodology, andlimitations Datasources Thisappendixdiscussesthedatasourcesused inthestudy,explainsinfurtherdetailhowthe analyseswereperformed,andlaysoutthestudy s limitations. Thereisvirtuallynoresearchaboutschoolsin whichmostorallstudentsareenrolledinfulltimeindependentstudy.alternativeeducation studiesthatdrawonexistingresearchdonot mentionindependentstudyhighschools(aron 2006;RuzziandKraemer2006;Lehr,Lanners, andlange2003;langeandsletten2002;young 1990).Toidentifyrelevantstudies thatis, published,peer reviewedstudiesthatspecifically addressindependentstudyhighschools asearch ofallarticlessince1990wasconductedusingthe keywords independentstudy and( highschool or secondaryeducation )ineducator sreference Complete,EducationResearchComplete,AcademicSearchPremier,CSA/SageSocialSciences fulltext,proquest,andproquestdissertations andtheses.inaddition,websitesoforganizations andagenciesinvolvedinalternativeeducation werescannedforpublishedreportsorarticles,bibliographiesandreferencelistsfromreviewsofthe alternativeeducationliteraturewerereviewed,and sixalternativeeducationleaderswerecontacted forrecommendations.thisprocessidentifiedno peer reviewedpublicationsthataddressindependentstudyhighschools.totheextentthepublicationscitedinthisreportaddressindependent study,theydosoonlyasanalternativeinstructionalstrategyusedinothertypesofschool. Dataforthestudycomefrompublicandwebbasedsourcesandwereusedtoprepareseveral datasets:amergedschool levellongitudinal datasetfor2001/ /07totrackenrollmentin grades9 12andschool,teacher,andcourse level datasetsthatprovidedinformationonschooland studentcharacteristicsandteacherqualifications forallcaliforniapublicschoolsenrollingstudents ingrades9 12in2006/07. QualitativedatasourceswerenarrativeinformationfromthelatestavailableSchoolAccountability ReportCardandotherweb baseddescriptive materialabouteachindependentstudyhighschool. School, teacher, course level datasets.datawere drawnfromthecaliforniabasiceducationaldata System,anindependentstudydatabasemaintainedbytheEducationOptionsOffceofthe CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation(California DepartmentofEducation2008d);theCalifornia DepartmentofEducation spublicschoolsdatabase(californiadepartmentofeducation2008e); thecaliforniagrowthacademicperformance Indexdatafile(CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation2008c);andtheCommonCoreofDataofthe U.S.DepartmentofEducationNationalCenterfor EducationStatistics(2007). TheCaliforniaBasicEducationalDataSystemisa statewide,annuallyupdateddatabasethatcollects dataprimarilyonstaffandstudentdemographicsandonenrollmentforallpublicschoolsand districtsincalifornia.ofspecificinterestforthis studyweredatafromtheschoolinformation Form,whichcollectsschool levelstudentenrollmentdata,includingdataonfull timeenrollment inindependentstudyandenrollmentbygrade, race/ethnicity,andgender(californiadepartment ofeducation2008b).californiabasiceducational DataSystemenrollmentdataweredownloaded for2001/ /07.Alsoofinterestweredata fromtheprofessionalassignmentinformation Form,whichcollectsdataoncertificatedstafffrom countyoffcesofeducationandschooldistricts (CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation2008a).The formcontainsdataonteachingstaffcharacteristics byuniquerecordidentificationandcounty districtschoolcodeaswellascoursedatabyassignment codeforeachteacher.theteacher levelandcourseleveldataweredownloadedfor2006/07. TheEducationOptionsOffceoftheCalifornia DepartmentofEducationmaintainsadatabaseof

20 12 examining independent STudy high SchoolS in california timedatawerecollectedforthisstudy,the2005/06 reportswerethemaindatasource.ifaschoolac countabilityreportcardwasnotavailableforboth yearsorifthenarrativeinaschoolaccountability ReportCardwasincomplete,otherinformationon theschool swebsitewasexamined.qualitativedata wereunavailablefor7ofthe231independentstudy highschoolsidentifiedinthisstudy. allschoolsthatenrollk 12studentsinfull time independentstudy(californiadepartmentofeducation2008d).thedatabasedrawsfrommultiple datasources:thecaliforniabasiceducationaldata System,confirmatoryformssenttoschoolstoverify independentstudyenrollment,andcaliforniadepartmentofeducationstaffexpertiseandknowledge abouttheschools.becausethedatabasedrawsfrom multiplesourcesandnotjustthecaliforniabasic EducationalDataSystem,itsindependentstudyenrollmentdatamaydifferfromdataintheCalifornia BasicEducationalDataSystem.Forschoolsthathave independentstudystudents,enrollmentdatawere takenfromtheindependentstudydatabase. TheCaliforniaDepartmentofEducation spublic SchoolsDatabaseisanannuallyupdatedlistof California spublicschools,schooldistricts,and countyoffcesofeducation(californiadepartment ofeducation2008e).itprovidedinformationon schooladdresses,yearofopening,charterstatus, andhighschooltype. Dataonsocioeconomicallydisadvantagedstudents,Englishlanguagelearnerstudents,students withdisabilities,andstudentsinmigranteducationcamefromcalifornia sgrowthacademic PerformanceIndexdatafilein2006/07(California DepartmentofEducation2008c). TheCommonCoreofDataoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducationNationalCenterforEducation Statistics(2007)provideslocaleinformation(urban, suburban,rural)onallschoolsanddistricts.this studyuseddatafromthe2005/06commoncoreof Datatoreportonthepresenceofindependentstudy schoolsinurban,suburban,andruraldistricts. School level, web based qualitative data. Thestudy alsocollectedstudentpopulationdatafromthemost recentschoolaccountabilityreportcardavailableinspring2008.schoolaccountabilityreport Cardsareannualreportsproducedbyeachpublic schooltodescribeitsschool,teacher,andstudent characteristicsandprogresstowarditsacademic goals.sincemostschoolshadnotyetreleasedtheir 2006/07SchoolAccountabilityReportCardatthe School leveldatafromthecaliforniadepart mentofeducation spublicschoolsdatabase,the CaliforniaDepartmentofEducationindependent studydatabase,andthecaliforniabasiceduca tionaldatasystemschoolinformationformwere mergedusingthecounty district schoolcodefor 2001/ /07todocumentenrollmenttrends forgrades9 12inCaliforniapublicschools, separatingfull timeindependentstudyenrollment fromothertypesofenrollment.inthedatasetused foranalysis,ahighschool sindependentstudy enrollmentwascappedatthetotalenrollmentfor grades9 12,plusanyungradedsecondarystudents (thatis,studentsforwhomtherewasnoidentificationastogradelevelotherthangrades9 12). Adultenrollmentwasexcluded.Thiscomputation resultedinaslightdecreaseinreportedenrollment inindependentstudyduring2001/ /06(a 0 0.5percentdecrease,dependingontheyear)and a2.4percentdecreasein2006/07,mainlydueto reportingdiscrepanciesinoneschool. Quantitativeanalysis Allpublicschoolswithgrades9 12intheCaliforniaBasicEducationalDataSystemwereincluded inthisanalysisexceptrecordscodedas inthesystemstartingin2006/07,whichwere excludedbecausetheyaccountforstudentsin publicspecialeducationwhoreceiveservicesfrom nonpublic,nonsectarianschoolscertifiedbythe CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation.The2006/07 CaliforniaBasicEducationalDataSystemdata included422suchrecords. Quantitativeanalysiswasconductedforschool type,enrollment,andlocale;studentcharacteristics;andteachercharacteristics.

21 appendix a. data SourceS, methodology, and limitations 13 School type.californiapublicschoolswith grades9 12wereclassifiedintothreetypes independentstudyhighschools,othernontraditionalhighschools,andtraditionalhighschools basedontheindependentstudyenrollment numbersfromthedatasetusedforanalysis.some 231schoolswereidentifiedashaving75percent ormoreofstudentsingrades9 12enrolledin full timeindependentstudyin2006/07anddesignatedindependentstudyhighschools.(schools correspondingtononvoluntaryplacements specificallycommunitydayschoolsandjuvenilehall schools wereexcludedfromthistotal.)the1,251 publicschoolsin2006/07thatenrolledthegeneral studentpopulationingrades9 12weredesignated astraditionalhighschools.andthe1,033remainingschoolsin2006/07weredesignatedasother nontraditionalhighschools agroupthatincludedcontinuationschools,communityschools, communitydayschools,andotherschoolsthatthe statereportsinthecaliforniabasiceducational DataSystemthatwereneitherindependentstudy highschoolsnortraditionalhighschools(seetable B4inappendixBforacompletelistofnontraditionalschoolcategories). School enrollment.thepercentageofstudentsin grades9 12enrolledinfull timeindependent studywascomputedforeachschoolasthenumber ofstudentsingrades9 12infull timeindependentstudydividedbythetotalnumberofstudents enrolledingrades9 12intheschool. Foreachyearfrom2002/03to2006/07enrollment figuresfromthelongitudinalschool leveldataset wereusedtocomputehowmuchchangehadoccurredsince2001/02inthreetypesofgrades9 12 enrollment:thenumberoffull timeindependent studystudentsenrolledinindependentstudyhigh schools,thenumberoffull timeindependent studystudentsenrolledinothertypesofhigh school,andthenumberofstudentsnotenrolledin independentstudy.thechangewasexpressedasa percentageof2001/02totalenrollment. School locale.schoollocalewasdefinedbased onthe2005/06commoncoreofdatadistrict definitions(u.s.departmentofeducation,nationalcenterforeducationstatistics2007). Togeneratetheurban,suburban,andruralsubgroupsusedinthisstudy,thefollowingcategories weregrouped: Urban:largecityormidsizecity. Suburban:urbanfringesoflargecity,urban fringesofmidsizecity,orlargetown. Rural:smalltownandrural,outsideametropolitancore basedstatisticalarea,orrural, insideamicropolitancore basedstatistical area. Student characteristics.sevenstudentcharacteristicswereconsideredinthestudyusingtwo estimatingtechniques. Percentage of students by grade level, race/ ethnicity, and gender.throughtheschool InformationForm,theCaliforniaBasic EducationalDataSystemcollectsstudent enrollmentbygradelevel,race/ethnicity,and gender(californiadepartmentofeducation 2008b).Thepercentageofstudentsforeach variableforeachschooltypewascomputedas thetotalnumberofstudentsineachsubgroup ingrades9 12dividedbythetotalnumberof studentsingrades9 12inthecorresponding highschooltype.race/ethnicitycategorieson theschoolinformationformwereamericanindianoralaskanative;asian;pacific Islander;Filipino;HispanicorLatino;African American,notHispanic;White,notHispanic; andmultipleornoresponse.forthisstudy Asian,PacificIslander,andFilipinowere categorizedasasian/pacificislander. Percentage of socioeconomically disadvantaged students, English language learner students, students with disabilities, and students in migrant education subgroups.becausedata forthesesubgroupswerenotavailablefrom thecaliforniabasiceducationaldatasystem,

22 14 examining independent STudy high SchoolS in california thisreportusesthesamemethodologyasthat (CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation2008a). usedbythestateinestimatingthepercent Foreachhighschooltypethepercentageof ageofthesesubgroupsforthestate sschool teacherswithfullcredentialswascomputed AccountabilityReportCards( asthenumberofteacherswithfullcredentials ca.gov/ta/ac/sa/def07enrlgroup.asp).based dividedbythetotalnumberofteachersinthe ondatafromthe2006/07growthacademic correspondinghighschooltype.analysiswas PerformanceIndexdatafile,thepercentageof restrictedtoteachersofcoreclassesingrades studentsidentifiedinthosesubgroupsequals thenumberofstudentsineachsubgroup includedintheacademicperformanceindex Percentage of teachers by authorized teaching dividedbythenumberofstudentsenrolledon area.thestaffcharacteristicsfileinthecalithefirstdayoftesting(californiadepartment forniabasiceducationaldatasystemprofesofeducation2008c).sincedatawerenotavail sionalassignmentinformationformindiablebygradelevel,thesepercentageswereof catedwhethereachteacherwasauthorizedto thetotalschoolenrollment. teachelementary(multiplesubject),general secondary,subject specificsecondary,orother Teacher characteristics.fourteachercharac areas(californiadepartmentofeducation teristicswereconsideredinthestudy:highest 2008a).Otherteachingareasnotclassified academicdegreeobtained,percentageofteachers bygraderangeinthestaffcharacteristicsfile withfullcredentials,percentageofteachersby includedspecialeducation,readingspecialist/ authorizedteachingarea,andpercentageofcore certificate,primarylanguageinstruction, classesingrades9 12taughtbyhighlyqualified Englishlanguagedevelopment,specially teachers. designedacademicinstructioninenglish, adulteducation,andspecialdesignatedsub Highest academic degree obtained. TheProfes jects(thatis,drivereducation,drivertraining, sionalassignmentinformationformstaff ROTC,basicmilitarydrill,aviationflight, databasecontainsavariablethatliststhe orgroundinstruction).foreachhighschool highestlevelofeducationattainmentofeach typethepercentageofteachersbyauthorized teacherincalifornia.therearesixvaluesfor teachingareawascomputedasthenumberof thevariable:doctorate,master sdegreeplus teachersauthorizedinanareadividedbythe 30ormoresemesterhours,master sdegree, totalnumberofteachersinthecorresponding bachelor sdegreeplus30ormoresemes highschooltype.analysiswasrestrictedto terhours,bachelor sdegree,andlessthan teachersofcoreclassesingrades9 12with bachelor sdegree.togeneratethedoctor fullcredentials. ate,master sdegree,bachelor sdegree,and lessthanbachelor sdegreesubgroups,these Percentage of core classes in grades 9 12 taught categoriesweregroupedbasedondiplomas; by highly qualified teachers.in2005/06data additionalsemesterhoursofeducationexpe becameavailableinthecourse leveldataset riencewerenottakenintoaccount.analysis oftheprofessionalassignmentinformation wasrestrictedtoteachersofcoreclassesin FormaboutcompliancewiththeNoChild grades9 12. LeftBehindActof2001(CaliforniaDepart mentofeducation2008a).teachersidenti Percentage of teachers with full credentials. fiedwhethereachassignmentwasacore ThestaffcharacteristicsfileintheCalifornia class(yes,elementary;yes,secondary;orno) BasicEducationalDataSystemProfessional andwhethertheywerehighlyqualifiedto AssignmentInformationFormindicated teachit(yes,basedoneducationandtesting; whetherateacherheldafullcredential yes,basedonhighobjectiveuniformstate