Stakeholder engagement to address environmental issues in French Alpine tourist resorts

Transcription

1 MSc in Environmental Decision Making Stakeholder engagement to address environmental issues in French Alpine tourist resorts This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the MSc in Environmental Decision Making.

2 Abstract Winter tourism resorts in the French Alps are important not only to the local, but also to the national economy, however they face growing risks, particularly related to increased competition and environmental issues, such as climate change which can affect snow reliability. Despite these risks, the majority of resorts maintain business as usual strategies, with many planning long-term investments in snow-related infrastructure and tourist accommodation. In addition, the winter sports industry has various impacts on the environment, such as CO 2 emissions from visitor journeys to and from the resort. For external organisations wishing to engage with French Alpine resorts on environmental and sustainability issues, a clear understanding of the key stakeholders is necessary to enable them to target their activities and resources effectively. Research on stakeholders in French Alpine resorts has been largely theoretical, rather than responding to the needs of environmental and other organisations wishing to engage with these actors. The research involved interviews with actors in two case study resorts and a focus group of experts to consider the applicability of the results to other French mountain resorts. A typology of resorts was developed to put the two case studies in context. Based on these analyses, recommendations are made for environmental organisations wishing to engage with mountain actors. A stakeholder model based on systems theory is also proposed to help external actors identify the stakeholders involved in an issue and assess their degree of influence over the decision-making process in the resort. The model can represent both formal power or influence, which can be established relatively easily, and informal influence, although this is more difficult to identify and quantify. The research also examined the perspectives and motivations of actors in the two mountain resorts, to help external organisations understand and communicate more effectively with these actors.

3 Contents Page Figures Tables Glossary Acknowledgements v vi vii ix Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background to the issue in French Alpine resorts Justification for the research Aims and Objectives Scope of the research Outline of the dissertation 6 Chapter 2 Research Definition 2.1 The practical issue Existing relevant knowledge Research questions 14 Chapter 3 Methodology 3.1 Methods and techniques selected Justification Research procedures Ethical considerations 19 Chapter 4 Analysis and results 4.1 Typology of French mountain resorts Summary of data collected in case studies and focus group Analysis of stakeholders Development of the stakeholder model Analysis of stakeholder perceptions and motivations Interpretation in relation to research questions Interpretation in relation to the aim 38 iii

4 Chapter 5 Conclusions 5.1 Conclusions about the research questions Conclusions about the research aim Further work Implications of the research Lessons learned 41 References 42 Appendices Appendix 1 Typology of French Mountain Resorts 44 Appendix 2 Interview Plan 51 Appendix 3 Interview Schedule 55 Appendix 4 Example of interview responses 56 Appendix 5 Focus Group agenda 66 iv

5 Figures Figure 2.1 Fassin s Stakeholder model of the firm 10 Figure 2.2 Cattelin s representation of the network of actors in a mountain resort 10 Figure 2.3 Tuppen s representation of the principal actors of winter sports resorts 11 Figure 4.1 Representation of typology of French Alpine resorts 22 Figure 4.2 Model of the formal decision making process in a French commune 26 Figure 4.3 Stakeholder model of Resort A 31 Figure 4.4 Stakeholder model of Resort B 32 Figure 4.5 Analysis of issues identified by interviewees 33 v

6 Tables Table 4.1 Summary of interviews conducted 24 Table A1.1 Source information for typology of French mountain resorts 48 vi

7 Glossary Un adjoint ANMSM l autorité organisatrice CIPRA France commerçant Une commission la commune la commune support le département France Montagnes Grennelle de l Environnement loi montagne la mairie MITRA Deputy to the mayor, the most important elected councillors after the mayor, with responsibility for key areas such as town planning and finance Association Nationale des Mairies des Stations de Montagne (National Association of Mayors of Mountain Resorts) Organising/ managing authority, the body responsible for managing the mountain resort The French arm of the Commission Internationale pour la Protection des Alpes (the International Commission for the Protection of the Alps), a pan-alpine NGO which promotes sustainable development in the Alps ( Retailer; shopkeeper Working group within the commune, presided by a deputy (adjoint), to work on specific issues such as town planning, marketing of the resort and education. It comprises other councillors as well as experts and interested parties, depending on the preferences of the mayor. Lowest level of administrative control in France, governed by a mayor and local council, roughly equivalent to the English parish. When referring to the decision-making body, it is often synonymous with la mairie or la municipalité Supporting commune, the commune within which the mountain resort is based Roughly equivalent to the English county, falling between the regional authority and local authority An association of the main French mountain tourism actors (primarily ski resorts), whose objective is to promote the French mountains within France and abroad The Environment Round Table, instigated by Nicolas Sarkozy, with the aim of defining the key points of government policy on ecological and sustainable development issues for the coming five years, through discussions involving the State, unions, employers, NGOs and local authorities. la loi relative au développement et à la protection de la montagne (the law for the development and protection of mountain areas) law number 85-30of 9 January 1985 The town council or local council, including the mayor, local council and all council services. Often synonymous with la commune or la municipalité Mission d Ingénierie Touristique Rhône Alpes, the Rhone-Alps regional tourism development body vii

8 Mountain Riders la municipalité Plan Neige régie SEM SNTF A Savoie-based NGO focused on sustainable development in ski resorts Town or local council, often synonymous with la commune or la mairie Literally Snow Plan, a French government policy in the 1970s to develop new ski resorts in virgin areas A state-owned organisation. In this research it refers principally to the context of ski slope management and lift operations which are directly owned and operated by the autorité organisatrice. This is typically the commune, in which case the régie is under the control of the mayor. société d économie mixte, a semi-public company in which the public partner is often the commune but may be the departmental or regional authorities Syndicat National des Téléphériques de France, association which represents French ski lift operators viii

9 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and thank: All the actors of the two case-study resorts who generously gave their time and their views in the interviews; Ms Meria Thomas for kindly offering to help type up the interview transcripts; Ms Véronique Peyrache-Gadeau, Ms Christine Tissot, Mr Alain Colson and Mr Louis- Marie Vivant for their time and their ideas, contributed in the focus group; Mr Pierre Bouland of the Mountain Institute, University of Savoie, for supporting my research activities and allowing the focus group to take place at the Institute; Mr Gabriel Guallino of the Ecole Supérieure de Commerce, Chambéry for his contribution in developing the typology; Professor Judy Clark for her valuable advice and constant encouragement throughout the year; and Mr David Thomas, Mr Louis Rutter and Mrs Brenda Rutter for their precious emotional and proof-reading support. ix

10 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background to the issue in French Alpine resorts In France, tourism, especially winter tourism, is vital to the economies of the départements 1 situated along the Alps. It accounts for approximately 50% of the GDP of Savoie and more than 16% of its employment (Observatoire des Territoires de la Savoie, 2010) and 12% of employment in neighbouring Haute-Savoie (Conseil Générale de Haute Savoie, 2007). The 2008/2009 season saw 58.6 million skier-days in France, of which 22.3 million were in Savoie and 12.6 million in Haute-Savoie, compared with 31.7 million in Switzerland, 56.9 million in Austria and 57.4 million in the USA (SNTF, 2009), underlining the global importance of the French Alps as a winter sports destination. Moreover, whilst other Alpine countries have developed successful summer or all-seasons tourism, most French Alpine resorts remain heavily dependent on winter sports, making them particularly vulnerable to environmental and climate changes. Empirical evidence suggests that climate change is already affecting conditions in the Alps. Alpine glaciers are retreating at an alarming rate and snowfall is becoming less reliable than in the past (EEA, 2009). The European Environment Agency observes that the alpine climate has changed significantly during the past century, with temperatures increasing more than twice the global average. This makes alpine mountains especially vulnerable to changes in the hydrological cycle and decreases in snow and glacier cover, which are already occurring. [Bold in original] (EEA, 2009: p9). The French winter-sports industry faces deep uncertainty regarding future snow conditions (Cattellin, 2008), with lower-lying ski areas deemed to be particularly vulnerable (OECD, 2007). The Livre Blanc du Climat en Savoie 2, referring to the impact of climate change on winter sports in Savoie, states the increase in temperatures will have differing impacts on the skirelated tourism economy. Ski areas at low and medium altitudes (below 1600m) are more particularly threatened by the fact that their snow cover will be more and more at risk, in terms of thickness as well as duration. 3 (Livre Blanc, 2010: p.94) Meanwhile from an economic perspective, whilst the number of skier-days continues to increase in small resorts, growth in 1 The département is roughly equivalent to the English county, falling between the regional authority and local authority. 2 White book on Climate in Savoie, a scientific study of the impacts of climate change on the department of Savoie, published in May Original quote: le réchauffement des températures impactera de manière différenciée l économie touristique liée au ski. Les domaines skiables de basse et moyenne altitudes (inférieures à m) sont plus particulièrement menacés du fait de leur enneigement qui sera de plus en plus aléatoire, tant en épaisseur que dans sa durée

11 the larger resorts has stagnated (SNTF, 2009). Furthermore, there is evidence that classic downhill skiing is no longer the sole focus of tourists, but one of a range of activities they wish to pursue (Tuppen 2000). The development of new competitively-priced winter-sports destinations across the world and the growth of winter sun holidays have also greatly increased the competitive pressures on French winter-tourism resorts (Tuppen 2000, Cattellin 2008). Despite many uncertainties surrounding the future viability of winter sports tourism in the French Alps, the majority of resorts continue to invest in long-term ski-focused infrastructure (ski lifts and artificial snow-making) and tourist accommodation. Indeed in response to the climate change risks highlighted above, Artificial snowmaking remains the dominant adaptation strategy (OECD, 2007: p.2), despite the fact that this may not be a long term option as beyond a certain [temperature] threshold snow-making will simply not be viable (ibid.). This technology-based, business as usual response supports CIPRA France s 4 (2010: slide 5) view of the typical large French ski resort as a commercial machine. According to CIPRA France, these resorts are characterised by a lack of building control policies; an economy based on new construction revenue; constant growth in the number of beds and the capacity of the ski lifts; and a quest for international competitiveness. Being competitive means offering more kilometres of ski slopes than other resorts and guaranteeing good snow with artificial snow-making or by extending the ski area higher up the mountain (ibid.). Montgenèvre, Vars and Ste Foy Tarentaise all have current plans to extend their ski areas into virgin valleys, while Les 2 Alpes, Alpe d Huez and Chamrousse are among the resorts planning new high-altitude reservoirs to provide water for artificial snow-making (ibid.). Such major infrastructure developments cause direct environmental impacts such as loss of natural habitat, changes in mountain eco-systems and the resultant impacts on biodiversity. At a regional level, the Inter-regional framework for the planning and development of the Alps massif 5, drawn up in 2005, promotes the preservation of natural landscapes and local cultures through sustainable planning and development policies. Based on this framework, the Territorial Directive for the development of the northern Alps 6 promotes inter alia the redevelopment of existing ski areas, instead of creating new ones, and limits on the construction of new accommodation and infrastructure. However the Directive is opposed by the ANMSM 7 (the national association of mayors of ski resorts), which claims it will halt the 4 CIPRA France is the French arm of the Commission Internationale pour la Protection des Alpes (the International Commission for the Protection of the Alps), a pan-alpine NGO which promotes sustainable development in the Alps ( 5 Le Schéma Interrégional d aménagement et de développement du massif alpin 6 La Directive Territoriale d Aménagement des Alpes du Nord 7 Association Nationale des Mairies des Stations de Montagne - 2 -

12 development of ski resorts in France, by reducing their competitiveness and limiting their ability to respond to trends in snow-based leisure activities (ibid). Informal discussions with mountain actors have also highlighted deep mistrust between natureprotection groups such as Mountain Wilderness 8 and FRAPNA 9, which are considered extreme ecologists and mountain actors who seek to develop the mountain. These organisations appear to favour opposition and veto rather than cooperation with local people to achieve their aims, resulting in the hostile reaction towards them. On a micro-level however, the ANMSM, in partnership with Mountain Riders 10, launched the National Sustainable Development Charter for Mountain Resorts 11, which aims to help resorts reduce their environmental impact across a range of criteria such as energy and water use and transport, and requires them to establish a committee of local stakeholders to develop sustainable strategies. This initiative recognises that winter sports tourism has a high impact on the environment, attracting tourists who arrive for short stays by plane and car, often putting pressure on water and other local services and using significant amounts of energy, in the hospitality offering of the resort and in the ski area. These differences in perspectives at the macro and micro level can be explained by the economic importance of the winter sports industry in France outlined above. The economic and social stakes, such as the employment of local people and even the survival of some mountain communities, are significant, although so potentially are the environmental risks. These issues highlight the complex nature of French mountain resorts and explain the different perspectives of stakeholders which may vary depending on the issue at stake. The T863 Course team (2006: p.75) define stakeholders as those who affect (determine) a decision or an action (active stakeholders) and those affected by this decision (passive stakeholders) ; SLIM (2004: p.1) defines stakeholders as those who have a stake, a real, material interest, from their perspective, in the situation or resource under consideration. Stakeholder engagement or stakeholder participation are promoted as keys to the success of initiatives aimed at mitigation against (i.e. reduction of) or adaptation to environmental impacts such as climate change, water shortage or biodiversity loss. The EEA (2009: p.10) observes: Effective adaptation processes therefore depend a great deal on the people involved and their motivations, as well as organisational factors such as stakeholder participation processes or 8 An international association In defence of mountain, the world over, Mountain Wilderness was created by mountaineers to protect wild mountain areas, with a focus on human experience of wilderness. 9 The Rhone-Alps Federation for the Protection of Nature (Fédération Rhône-Alpes de Protection de la Nature) aims to reconcile territorial development with nature protection A Savoie-based NGO focused on sustainable development in ski resorts 11 Charte Nationale en faveur du Développement Durable dans les Stations de Montagne - 3 -

13 cooperative structures. Considerable research has been conducted on stakeholder participation, which describes the methods of involving stakeholders in the decision-making process. This can range from simple provision of information via newsletters or announcements in the media to fully engaging stakeholders in collective decision-making. In this research, stakeholder engagement refers to higher levels of active stakeholder participation, for example workshops, focus groups or community advisory groups. One stakeholder-focused adaptation initiative is ClimAlpTour 12, a European trans-national project, which aims to propose climate change adaptation strategies for tourist resorts across the Alpine Arc. The success of this project will depend largely on the commitment of stakeholders in its pilot sites and their openness to change. In France, despite ongoing discussion of diversification strategies over recent years, most resorts remain dependent on winter tourism, suggesting the need for more effective stakeholder engagement. Organisations such as CIPRA France and Mountain Riders are seeking to change strategies within French mountain resorts, on both the macro and micro level, by engaging with key stakeholders. Understanding the complex stakeholder landscape is essential to achieve these goals, however evidence suggests this understanding remains incomplete. Informal discussions with organisations including Mountain Riders and MITRA 13 (the Rhone-Alps region tourism development body) reveal demand for a clear picture of stakeholders in mountain resorts, to identify formal and informal (power) relationships, perspectives and motivations. Whilst much valuable research has been conducted on stakeholders in mountain resorts, it is largely theoretical and there remains a gap between this research and the practical needs of those seeking to engage with these actors. This research is expected to be applicable to other French communes, which face similar political and socio-economic dynamics and environmental risks. 1.2 Justification for the research The research aims to respond to the practical needs of organisations seeking to engage with and influence stakeholders in French alpine resorts. It is expected that the proposed recommendations on engaging different stakeholders and the proposed stakeholder model will assist organisations in resource-allocation decisions, by enabling them to identify the principal influencers (those with power to influence) and the principal stakeholders to be influenced (the key decision-makers). Extension of the model to show the position of each stakeholder with 12 Climate Change and its impact on Tourism in the Alpine Space ( 13 Mission d Ingénierie Touristique Rhône Alpes - 4 -

14 regard to a particular issue will highlight which stakeholders are allies (those sharing the organisation s position) and which are opposed and therefore need still to be convinced. This will allow better collaboration with supporting stakeholders and more accurate targeting of action towards influential but opposing stakeholders. Stakeholder engagement is increasingly promoted as a tool for sustainable development and environmental decision making (Bayley and French, 2007; Luyet et al, 2005; Webler et al, 2001), therefore it is expected that an increasing number of organisations will seek to engage stakeholders in mountain resorts and in other contexts, on social as well as environmental issues. The model and the recommendations should be of value to numerous organisations in planning stakeholder engagement strategies, targeting activities and allocating resources. 1.3 Aims and Objectives The aim of this research is to provide recommendations for organisations seeking to engage stakeholders in the decision-making processes of French Alpine resorts to address more effectively the environmental and sustainability challenges faced by the resort. To achieve this aim, the objectives of the research are to: 1. Study two resorts in the French Alps, using interviews and secondary research, to understand: the relationships between different groups of stakeholders and their influence on each other; what measurable factors (governance, social, political, personal and historical) can be identified and translated into standard questions for constructing the stakeholder model; and the perspectives and motivations of key stakeholders. 2. Consider elements of stakeholder theory and systems theory as well as the interview responses to construct a practical, visual model to assess the stakeholder landscape in any French mountain resort. 3. Hold a focus group of local experts to develop further the model and the recommendations for stakeholder engagement in these resorts. 4. Identify the limitations of such recommendations and the potential difficulties in engaging stakeholders in environmental decision-making in mountain resorts. 1.4 Scope of the research The research focuses on ways to identify stakeholders and evaluate their degree of influence - 5 -

15 on formal decision-making processes. It investigates the formal governance structure in French mountain resorts, which is considered valid for other small French communes though less applicable to larger administrative areas in France or to other countries. Rather than focus on one specific environmental issue, the research examines the overall stakeholder landscape in a French mountain resort from the point of view of environmental or sustainability organisations wishing to engage with it. The research examines the perspectives and motivations of stakeholders in a general sense and not in relation to a specific issue and therefore does not consider the impact of stakeholders perspectives on the outcome or feasibility of any potential action. No examination is made of the different methods and techniques for stakeholder engagement or participative decision-making. 1.5 Outline of the dissertation Chapter 2 defines the practical issue in French Alpine resorts, considering their administration and organisation in terms of stakeholder groups as well as the environmental issues existing in resorts today. This is followed by a review of existing literature on stakeholders in French resorts and in other situations and on different approaches to stakeholder analysis including systems theory. Six research questions are proposed to respond to the research gap identified. Chapter 3 provides an explanation of the research methodology, which included secondary research to develop a typology of French Alpine resorts and two cross-sectional case studies involving face to face interviews with actors and a Focus group. The choice of these research methods is justified and a detailed account of the research procedures provided. The results of the analysis are developed in Chapter 4, which looks first at the typology of French mountain resorts, then analyses the key actors in the case study resorts. This analysis is further developed into the stakeholder model. The perspectives and motivations of actors in these resorts is also examined. Finally the analyses are interpreted in relation to the research questions and to the research aim. Some final conclusions are drawn in Chapter 5 on the extent to which the research fulfilled its aim and responded to the research questions. The chapter ends with an evaluation of the broader context of the research and of the effectiveness of the methods used

16 Chapter 2 Research definition 2.1 The practical issue Much existing research on stakeholders in French Alpine resorts begins with a review of the key political and legislative initiatives which have shaped the governance of the resorts. The loi montagne 14 (the law for the development and protection of mountain areas) of 9 January 1985 conferred on the communes or groups of communes in which mountain resorts are situated (the 'commune support' 15 ) the role of autorité organisatrice 16, giving them the overall responsibility for the management and governance of the resort in addition to their responsibilities to the commune (Cattellin, 2008; Gerbaux et al, 2007). Three options are identified for the autorité organisatrice to meet its responsibilities, the most important of which being the management of the ski area. This involves two distinct activities: operation of the ski lifts (classed as a public transport service in France) and management of the slopes (planning, maintenance and security) (Cattellin, 2008; Gerbaux et al, 2007; Marcelpoil and Boudieres, 2006). The options are: Direct management where the autorité organisatrice directly manages the ski lifts and slopes itself through a régie (state-owned organisation) Indirect public management/ Partial delegation where the autorité organisatrice delegates certain responsibilities to an external party (private or public), who has to agree to abide by the rules of a public service, often through a société d économie mixte or SEM (semi-public organisation) ; Indirect private management/ Total delegation where the autorité organisatrice delegates some or all responsibilities to an external private party with no obligations of public service. The choice of management structure determines the relationship of the two most important stakeholders in the resort the autorité organisatrice, often the local mayor, and the ski lift operator. The form of this relationship significantly influences that of other stakeholder relationships in the resort. Marcelpoil and Boudières (2006) also highlight the importance of the Plan Neige 17 in defining French Alpine resorts. This government policy from 1970 to 1975 involved selecting highaltitude virgin sites with excellent snow conditions and tourism potential, where self-contained 14 la loi relative au développement et à la protection de la montagne (law number 85-30) 15 Supporting community 16 Organising/managing authority 17 Literally, Snow Plan - 7 -

17 resorts were purpose-built from scratch. According to the Committee of the Alps 18 The Plan Neige of the 1970s moved winter tourism from a cottage-industry to a veritable ski industry. The high mountain became a commercial good through a few international-scale sites. 19 (Comité de Massif des Alpes, 2006: p.9). Some of the most well-known resorts were created 'ex nihilo' including Les Arcs and La Plagne, requiring expropriation of land and creating hostility among local people from the outset (Marcelpoil and Boudières, 2006). The Committee of the Alps adds This industrialisation of winter sports is today coming up against the limits of its own collateral damage in terms of the environment and real estate pressures. 20 (Comité de Massif des Alpes, 2006: p.72) Marcelpoil and Boudières (2006) use Cumin s (1970) classification to refer to resorts created through the Plan Neige as 'third generation' resorts. First generation resorts are those which developed around existing villages, second generation resorts were created from nothing in the period between WW2 and the Plan Neige, while fourth generation resorts are those emerging after 1978 in the more sympathetic village-resort model. These historical influences have lead to a variety of organisational structures in French Alpine resorts, which have shaped the relationships between today's stakeholders. It is argued they form the basis of the stakeholder landscape and therefore of the proposed stakeholder model. The complex formal and informal relationships between stakeholders in French Alpine resorts can lead to a lack of cooperation and coordination in dealing with issues that affect the resort. As Tuppen (2000: p.337) notes, The various actors may have different goals, motivations and resources, yet the successful resolution of the problems with which resorts have been faced recently implies the need for both substantial and concerted action. Further complications may arise through modifications to the roles of different actors over time and the emergence of new forces influencing development. It is not surprising, therefore, that effecting change can be slow and difficult. As environmental adaptation and mitigation policies, such as the French government s Grennelle de l Environnement and the National Sustainable Development Charter for Mountain Resorts, gain momentum, organisations such as CIPRA France and Mountain Riders are increasingly seeking to engage with French Alpine resorts. So too are other bodies such as MITRA and France Montagnes 21, whose aims are to develop and promote the resorts. To be 18 Le Comité de Massif des Alpes 19 Original quote: Le plan neige des années 1970 fait passer le tourisme hivernal du stade de l artisanat à celui d une véritable industrie du ski. La haute montagne devient un bien marchand par quelques sites de dimension internationale. 20 Original quote : Cette industrialisation des sports d hiver rencontre aujourd hui les limites de ses «dégâts collatéraux» en matière d environnement et de pression foncière. 21 An association of the main French mountain tourism actors (primarily ski resorts), whose objective is to promote the French mountains within France and abroad

18 effective, these organisations need to work closely with local stakeholders and therefore need a clear understanding of who the stakeholders are, how they inter-relate and what their perspectives and motivations are. It is argued that awareness of environmental issues among individuals is growing faster than political and legislative changes and indeed may be the driver of such changes. In addressing environmental problems in French Alpine resorts, it therefore appears particularly important to identify and involve all groups of stakeholders to ensure that valuable potential support is not missed. The research outlined above focused on the theoretical analysis of resorts and stakeholders, while the practical need for a clear, generally applicable model of the stakeholder landscape remains unaddressed. Organisations continue to lack the necessary information to target their action accurately. This information gap can limit their ability to focus on the key influencers, collaborate with those already sympathetic to the issue and frame their arguments appropriately. This may result in human and financial resources being wasted and sub-optimal outcomes of initiatives undertaken. 2.2 Existing relevant knowledge Fassin (2009) observes that stakeholder theory has its roots in corporate management, in which there are various definitions. He defines a stakeholder as any individual or group that maintains a stake in an organisation in the way that a shareholder possesses shares (Fassin, 2009: p.116). Bayley and French widen the definition beyond the corporate domain to anyone who may be or believe that they may be impacted by an issue or decision (Bayley and French, 2007: p.196). The issue may arise in any situation, thus stakeholder analysis is increasingly applied to community as well as corporate situations. In his corporate stakeholder model, Fassin (2009) introduces the concepts of stakewatcher and stakekeeper alongside stakeholder to define the different relationships of actors to the firm and develops the stake model (Figure 2.1) to represent these relationships. In the context of the firm, stakeholder refers to the internal constituents such as shareholders and employees who have a real positive interest in the firm; stakewatchers refers to pressure groups who protect the interests of real stakeholders; and stakekeepers refers to independent regulators who have no stake but have influence and control. Whilst Fassin s stake model with the firm at its centre is not immediately applicable to the case of mountain resorts, the identification of different roles in relation to the stake add an interesting dimension for consideration in the development of the present stakeholder model

19 Figure 2.1: Fassin s Stakeholder model of the firm Source: Fassin (2009), p.124 Cattellin (2008) examines methods of coordination and inter-organisational networks in mountain resorts in terms of competitive advantage. She defines the tourist resort as an organisation in competition with other organisations, i.e. competing tourist resorts. Seen in this perspective, Fassin s company-focused analysis may be more relevant. Société de gestion des remontées mécaniques Centrale de réservation Agences immobilières Commerçants d articles de sports Mairie Office de tourisme Hôtels Ecoles de Ski Français Restaurants Figure 2.2: Cattellin s representation of the network of actors in a mountain resort Source: Cattellin (2008), p

20 Cattellin provides a detailed list of stakeholders of French mountain resorts, which will be used as the basis for the present stakeholder analysis. She also presents a graphical representation of the stakeholder network in French mountain resorts (Figure 2.2) but does not attempt to show the formal governance structures, the power relationships and asymmetries between stakeholders. A valuable stakeholder model (Figure 2.3) is presented by Tuppen (2000) who identifies many internal and external stakeholders and illustrates them using a systems map-inspired approach. Tuppen identifies the main forces within the resort and discusses briefly their limitations and motivations, providing insights into these stakeholders and their inter-relationships. He identifies three main stakeholders the mayor, whose motivations include creating jobs and raising local tax income, not least to pay for the additional costs of providing services to tourists (sewage treatment, waste collection, etc); the tourist office, whose objectives are promoting the resort and devising new ways to bring in tourists, but which often lacks financial resources; and the lift company, which has often invested heavily in the resort, giving it considerable influence over tourism policies. Figure 2.3: Tuppen s representation of the principal actors of winter sports resorts Source: Tuppen (2000), p.338 Tuppen discusses the problems and difficulties faced by French Alpine resorts, from environmental risks (snow reliability) to financial and economic factors. He refers to a two-tier structure with high-altitude resorts which attract investment, private operators and high visitor

21 numbers at one extreme, and low-altitude resorts which have difficulties financing infrastructure investment and face greater risks of snow unreliability at the other. This structure may be valuable in considering how the present stakeholder model should be developed to be generally applicable to all French alpine resorts. Marcelpoil and Gerbaux (2004) promote the concept of governance ( gouvernance ) to analyse the operation of French Alpine resorts and the relationships between actors. They adopt Le Galès definition of governance as the set of arrangements and formal and informal relationships between public and private interests on the basis of which decisions are made and put into practice 22 (Marcelpoil, 2002: p.191). Marcelpoil and Gerbaux also use a systemsmap to represent the primary stakeholders within a resort, though do not develop their representation to consider power relationships. Gerbaux et al (2007) distinguish four spheres of stakeholders in mountain resorts: political (e.g. the mayor, elected councillors), economic (hoteliers, retailers), civil (residents) and client (tourists) spheres. Whilst their work does not attempt to develop a model of these spheres, they provide insights on specific aspects relating to each, highlighting their complexity and inter-relatedness. Again, the concept of governance is used to analyse mountain resorts. As well as Le Galès definition, they cite another: a process of coordination of actors, social groups and institutions to achieve collectively discussed and defined goals in uncertain, fragmented environments 23 (Gerbaux et al, 2007: p.34) which again highlights the importance of informal decision-making processes in the analysis of stakeholders and their interrelationships. Gerbaux et al also refer to the resort as a system and propose the notion of Systèmes Touristiques Locaux (STL) 24 as a method for analysing local tourism management. Marcelpoil and Boudières (2006) approach the concept of governance through the analysis of organisational proximity, which refers to the formal structures between and within organisations and the degree of autonomy or control they imply, and cognitive proximity, which refers to the shared knowledge and experiences between actors, allowing them to communicate with and understand each other. These ideas are related to the formal and informal governance structures existing in the resorts and contribute to the analysis of the complex inter-relationships between stakeholders in a resort. They argue that where cognitive proximity exists, actors tend to work more closely together: in some resorts the economic actors can get closer to each other on the basis of the same cognitive reference point and 22 Original text: l ensemble des arrangements et relations formels et informels entre intérêts publics et privés à partir desquels sont prises et mises en œuvre les décisions 23 Original text: un processus de coordination d acteurs, de groupes sociaux, d institutions pour atteindre des buts discutés et définis collectivement dans des environnements fragmentés, incertains. 24 Local Tourism Systems

22 benefit from a certain power, and thus influence the future of the resort 25 (Marcelpoil and Boudières 2006: para. 43). Understanding of these informal relationships between actors is necessary in developing a valid model of stakeholders and the power relationships between them. The importance of the stake is highlighted in the SLIM 26 project (2004), which examines examples of stakeholder participation exercises related to water management in Europe, including French case studies. It contrasts the position of a stakeholder with a citizen or a consumer. A citizen is concerned about the public interest and the good of the community, a consumer about self interest and the interests of the family, while the stakeholder role is determined by an interest in the stake and by the interests claimed by others. Thus the interaction and interdependence between stakeholders are highly important and differentiate stakeholder engagement from deliberative platforms such as steering committees. SLIM notes that awareness of stakeholders and stakeholdings leads to governance questions, such as how to recognise which stakeholders and stakeholdings should be taken into account in the decision-making process (SLIM 2004). This research does not identify a specific stake, but looks at the overall decision-making process and environmental issues in the resort. All persons in the resort businesses, citizens, elected representatives, second home owners and so on can therefore been deemed to have an interest in these processes and issues, so in this research the term stakeholder refers to all actors within or outside the resort who affect or are affected by the decision-making of the resort. SLIM (2004) promotes Stakeholder Analysis (SA) to provide increased clarity and guidance in governance dilemmas. SA involves 1) drawing up a table or map of stakeholders considered primary, intermediate and key, 2) assessing stakeholders importance with regard to the issue and their relative influence, 3) identifying assumptions about how stakeholders might affect relationships, outcomes or the viability of the proposed activity. SLIM refers to the emphasis placed by systems practitioners on the agency of stakeholders i.e. their capability to act. SA is considered to provide a valid basis for the research proposed. The concept of agency also relates closely to the objectives of the research to analyse the capacity of stakeholders to influence a decision. The SLIM project s French case studies are also relevant as they demonstrate that stakeholder participation activities can succeed within the French political and administrative framework. 25 Original text : dans certaines stations, des acteurs économiques peuvent se rapprocher, sur la base d un même référentiel cognitif et disposer d un certain pouvoir et ainsi orienter le devenir de la station 26 Social Learning for the Integrated Management and Sustainable Use of Water at Catchment Scale (

23 As discussed, systems theory can offer a valuable approach to analysing stakeholders and their relationships. A systems map offers a snapshot of a system at a certain moment in time, identifying components in the system and in the system environment (T863 Course team, 2006). Furthermore, a systems map appears to offer a useful way of defining the key groups of stakeholders within mountain resorts and linking groups of stakeholders or demonstrating spheres of influence. A systems map can communicate to others the basic structure of the system you are describing (T863 Course team, 2006: p.36), which corresponds to the aim of this research to highlight key stakeholders and illustrate power relationships. 2.3 Research questions In the light of the literature review, the following questions were identified in order to address the research problem presented above: 1. What groups of stakeholders hold the real power and influence in French Alpine resorts? 2. What formal and informal power relationships exist between the different groups of stakeholders of French Alpine resorts and how can these be defined in a general way to be relevant to all such resorts? 3. How effectively can these formal and informal power relationships between the stakeholders be represented visually, in a form that can be adapted to each resort using a systems map? 4. What specific, generally-applicable questions can be identified to enable others to use the map to derive a valid picture of the stakeholder relationships in other resorts? 5. What are the perspectives and motivations of the key groups of stakeholders? 6. What recommendations can be made to increase stakeholder participation in community decisions which impact the environment so that more sustainable strategies are adopted? Questions 1, 2 and 5 relate to the first research objective, to understand the different stakeholder groups, the relationships between them and their perspectives and motivations. Questions 1, 2, 3 and 4 specifically address the second objective to develop a practical, visual model of the stakeholder landscape. Questions 1-5 will be further considered in the focus group, the third research objective and all contribute to answering Question 6, which relates to the research aim to provide recommendations for organisations wishing to engage with stakeholders to address environmental issues in the resort

24 Chapter 3 Methodology 3.1 Methods and techniques selected An analysis of public records and other secondary material was carried out to develop a typology of French Alpine resorts, which is intended to enable the identification of different types or groups of resorts sharing similar characteristics. One type of resort was selected for detailed study in order to provide specific recommendations relevant to resorts of this type. Empirical primary research was collected, using cross-sectional case studies to conduct a Stakeholder Analysis, examining the perspectives, motivations and inter-relations of the different stakeholder groups in two resorts of the selected type. The case studies involved the following techniques: Secondary research on the formal governance structures - to provide the initial structure of the stakeholder model for each resort as well as the formal context for understanding informal social and power relationships (Research question 1) Semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders - to develop further the formal governance structures, explore the social and power relationships (informal governance structures) between stakeholders and understand their perspectives and motivations (Research questions 1, 2, 5) A focus group of local experts was then held to seek their views on the stakeholder model and the perspectives and motivations of stakeholders, developed from the interviews and the secondary research. The experts were also asked to evaluate the proposed recommendations for more effective stakeholder engagement, drawn from the interviews and from stakeholder theory. (All research questions but particularly 3-6) The data was analysed using qualitative methods, based on theories of grounded analysis. The interview responses and focus group discussions were analysed to identify recurrent themes, from which observations and conclusions were drawn. 3.2 Justification A case study is described as an empirical (that is, practical) inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon with its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. (Yin (2002) quoted in T802 Methodology and Techniques, 2007: p.7). This method was

25 considered the most appropriate as the aim of the research was to use various techniques to analyse the practical decision making process and stakeholder relationships in mountain resorts. By contrast, the survey method involves collecting data about a set of cases selected from a defined population with the aim of constructing a data set from which conclusions about the population can be reached (T802 Methodology and Techniques, 2007). Given the limitations of T802 it was considered that a survey of a higher number of resorts would provide more superficial, less valuable information. A longitudinal study was rejected as the aim of the research was to investigate the stakeholder relationships and decision making processes in the two resorts, at the present time. The exemplar type was also considered inappropriate as the research did not aim to examine the application of a theory in a particular setting (T802 Methodology and Techniques, 2007). Given the nature of the research, qualitative research methods were considered more valuable than quantitative research. While quantitative research methods can be fast and provide a wide coverage of the range of situations, they are not very effective in understanding processes or the significance that people attach to actions... (Easterby Smith et al, 2003: p.42) Qualitative research has the ability to look at how change processes over time, to understand people s meanings, to adjust to new issues and ideas as they emerge and to contribute to the evolution of new ideas (ibid). The disadvantages of qualitative data collection however are that it takes a lot of time and resources, the data can be difficult to analyse and interpret and that it may be considered subjective and so not scientifically valid (Easterby Smith et al, 2003). Semi-structured interviews were preferred as they use a list of themes and questions to be covered which give structure to the responses, although questions can be omitted or added and the order changed depending on the context encountered in each interview. They provide more flexibility than structured interviews, which use questionnaires based on a predetermined, standardised set of questions, and allow easier analysis of responses than unstructured interviews where the interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about any aspects related to the topic (Saunders et al, 2003). Semi structured interviews also provide the opportunity to probe answers and build on responses and may also lead the discussion into previously unconsidered areas which may be relevant to the research questions (Saunders et al, 2003). However, interaction between the interviewer and interviewee opens up the possibility of interview bias. Easterby Smith et al (2003: p.93) note there is a very real concern about interviewers imposing their own reference frame on the interviewees, both when the questions are asked and when the answers are interpreted. The research was particularly vulnerable to interview bias as the researcher s British reference frame was not necessarily aligned with the

26 reference frame of the French interviewees, to whom the concept of stakeholder participation was largely unknown. Similarly, in carrying out the interviews in French, concepts covered in earlier studies in the UK had to be translated, increasing the risk of nuances being lost or of concepts being misunderstood by interviewees. It was accepted that qualitative research using semi-structured or in-depth interviews will not be able to be used to make generalisations about the entire population (whatever this may relate to in the context of the research topic) where this is based on a small and unrepresentative number of cases. This will be the situation in a case study approach. (Yin (1994), quoted in Saunders et al, 2003: p.253) The focus group was proposed to address this issue by seeking to add experts insights to improve the applicability of the research to other French Alpine resorts. Grounded analysis is defined by Saunders et al (2003: p.479) as a research strategy in which theory is developed from data generated by a series of observations or interviews principally involving an inductive approach, that is as a result of the observation of empirical data (ibid). This method was considered most appropriate given the objective to use interviews with stakeholders to understand the relationships between them, their perspectives and motivations. 3.3 Research procedures The development of the typology of French Alpine resorts was hampered by difficulties in obtaining complete data. Given the constraints of the research, the typology was limited to the resorts listed in the Mountain Riders Eco-Guide , which covers over 70% of the market in terms of skier days (Mountain Riders, 2009). The list was refined to include only those resorts in the Alps. Further data was obtained from government documents, published material, research institute and internet sources, details of which are provided with the typology in Appendix 1. The two case-study resorts were initially selected from the four French pilot sites used in the ClimAlpTour analysis (see p.3), as working relationships with actors in these sites were already established. The criteria used to identify the pilot sites in the ClimAlpTour project were considered relevant for the present research. These were: Signatory of the National Sustainable Development Charter for Mountain Resorts (see p.3) Contrasting geographical and climatological conditions, i.e. altitude and reliability of snow; Differing market focuses local, national and international; Differing tourism strategies relative importance of summer or all-seasons tourism;