DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No. 4788 Does Immgrto Iduce Ntve Flght from Publc Schools? Evdece from Lrge Scle Voucher Progrm Chrster Gerdes Februry 2010 Forschugssttut zur Zukuft der Arbet Isttute for the Study of Lbor
Does Immgrto Iduce Ntve Flght from Publc Schools? Evdece from Lrge Scle Voucher Progrm Chrster Gerdes SOFI, Stockholm Uversty, SULCIS d IZA Dscusso Pper No. 4788 Februry 2010 IZA P.O. Box 7240 53072 Bo Germy Phoe: +49-228-3894-0 Fx: +49-228-3894-180 E-ml: z@z.org Ay opos expressed here re those of the uthor(s) d ot those of IZA. Reserch publshed ths seres my clude vews o polcy, but the sttute tself tkes o sttutol polcy postos. The Isttute for the Study of Lbor (IZA) Bo s locl d vrtul tertol reserch ceter d plce of commucto betwee scece, poltcs d busess. IZA s depedet oproft orgzto supported by Deutsche Post Foudto. The ceter s ssocted wth the Uversty of Bo d offers stmultg reserch evromet through ts tertol etwork, workshops d cofereces, dt servce, project support, reserch vsts d doctorl progrm. IZA egges () orgl d tertolly compettve reserch ll felds of lbor ecoomcs, () developmet of polcy cocepts, d () dssemto of reserch results d cocepts to the terested publc. IZA Dscusso Ppers ofte represet prelmry work d re crculted to ecourge dscusso. Ctto of such pper should ccout for ts provsol chrcter. A revsed verso my be vlble drectly from the uthor.
IZA Dscusso Pper No. 4788 Februry 2010 ABSTRACT Does Immgrto Iduce Ntve Flght from Publc Schools? Evdece from Lrge Scle Voucher Progrm Recet studes pot to postve correlto betwee ethc heterogeety due to mmgrto d the propesty of optg out from publc schools for prvte ltertves. However, mmgrto cross regos s hrdly exogeous, whch obstructs ttempts to revel cusl mechsms. Ths pper explores chges the mmgrt populto Dsh mucpltes 1992-2004, perod mrked by substtl flux of refugees, where sttesposored plcemet polcy restrcted ther tl choce of resdece. Besdes such demogrphc chges, for more th hudred yers Demrk hs llowed prets to eroll ther chldre to so clled free schools,.e. schools tht re prvtely operted. Tke together, ths provdes uque opportuty to determe f there hs bee tve flght from publc schools to free schools. Results from ths study dcte crese tve Des propesty to eroll ther chldre free schools s the shre of chldre wth mmgrt bckgroud becomes lrger ther mucplty of resdece. The effect s most proouced smll d medum szed mucpltes, whle t seems bset lrger mucpltes. Oe explto for the ltter holds tht resdetl segregto wth lrger mucpltes mkes choce of prvte ltertves less ttrctve. JEL Clssfcto: H7, I28, J15, J78, R5 Keywords: school choce, mmgrto, prvte schools Correspodg uthor: Chrster Gerdes Swedsh Isttute for Socl Reserch Stockholm Uversty SE 106 91 Stockholm Swede E-ml: Chrster.Gerdes@sof.su.se
1 Itroducto I fluetl study Betts d Frle (2003) coed the expresso tve flght, thereby deotg the tedecy of tve bor Amercs to bdo publc schools for prvte ltertves followg crese mmgrto shres ther home commutes. Tht study ws the frst to focus o the mpct of mmgrto o school choce, thereby extedg the lterture tht so fr mly hd focused o the terply of morty groups d school choce, such s the shre of Afro-Amercs or Hspcs, see for exmple Frle d Resch (2001). The preset study ms to study f there s evdece of tve flght somewht dfferet settg due to ts focus o Dsh mucpltes. For more th cetury, Demrk prvtely operted schools hve bee ltertve to regulr publc schools. Accordg to recet fgures from the Mstry of Educto, bout 13% of chldre the ge group 5-16 tteded prvtely operted schools Demrk. Noteworthy s tht these so clled free schools re recogzed d ettled to govermet fcg regrdless of the deologcl, relgous, poltcl or ethc motvto behd ther estblshmet, see Dsh Mstry of Educto (2008). I prctce ths mes tht free schools receve predetermed mouts of tx-moey for every pupl they eroll. Stted dfferetly, whle most Wester coutres ccess to other eductol forms th regulr publc schools hs bee restrcted to cert groups, Demrk the opto of choosg mog dfferet eductol trcks hs bee ccessble for lrger prts of ts populto for log perod of tme. Such coexstece of publc d prvtely operted school ltertves uder the roof of tx fuded eductol system provdes sold bse for study o tve flght. I prtculr, ths follows from tht lrge scle mmgrto hs bee rther ew cdet Demrk, meg tht ccess to prvtely operted schools were opto log before mgrto becme ssue Demrk. Ths fclttes to determe cusl mpcts of processes th wht would be possble f school choce d lrge scle mmgrto would hve emerged smulteously. 2
There re severl resos motvtg study lookg t evdece for tve flght. Frst, s Betts d Frle (2003) pot out, egtve effect of mmgrto o school ttedce rtes could weke the support for tx fced educto s prets mght be uwllg to cotrbute to publc schools by mes of txes t the sme tme s they py fees for ltertve wys of educto (p. 989): If prets wth reltvely hgh socoecoomc sttus decde to eroll ther chldre prvte schools s result of mmgrto voter support for publc schools my erode. 1 Secod, the ssue of tve flght lso reltes to studes tht m to evlute the mpct of free choce o eductol outcomes. 2 Most studes cocered wth the cosequeces of school choce re ddressg eductol outcomes, ot lest to exme the scope for effcecy gs rsg from competto betwee schools. However, whe lookg t eductol chevemets of pupls dfferet schools t s mportt to resolve the mechsms tht uderle decsos o school choce per se. I prtculr, f there would be cresed tedecy of bdog publc schools followg flux of pupls wth dfferet ethc bckgroud, ths would questo oe uderlyg ssumpto mde by dvoctes of free school choce, mely tht prets re prmrly cocered wth eductol stdrds. 3 By ddressg the tve flght ssue wth voucher bsed eductol system (expled more detl the ext secto), ths study reltes to lrge lterture o the effectveess of 1 Dottor d She (2009) provde poltcl-ecoomc model s to the wy low-sklled mmgrto could ffect school choces d wekeg support for publc educto. 2 Most studes vlble drw tteto to the US, where some hve looked t prvte schools, whle others hve studed so clled chrter schools. The ltter emerged the begg of the 1990s some US sttes s ltertve to publc schools. Chrter schools re ofte strted for the purpose of ttrctg cert morty groups to keep studets school (Ted d Weher, 2004, p. 1112). 3 See Rothste (2006) d Urquol (2005), rsg the ssue of chldre sortg to dfferet schools o grouds other th school effcecy, whch blut the mpct of school choce o eductol outcomes. Oe motve school choce could be to esure oe s offsprg to tted schools tht re le wth the prets relgous detty. See Cohe-Zd (2006) for theoretcl model d emprcl work o such mechsm. 3
school vouchers for eductol outcomes; see e.g. Ldd (2002) d refereces gve there. 4 A thrd fctor to motvte ths study regrds the spect of tegrto of mmgrt groups to the host coutry by mes of ts eductol system. Not the lest, educto wll precodto ther propesty to ssmlte d tegrte to the lbor mrket. See e.g. Clrk d Ldley (2009) for recet study o the mpct of pre-lbor mrket ssmlto the UK. I ther study, Betts d Frle look t the chges prvte school ttedce rtes wth 132 metropolt res usg US Cesus dt for the yers 1980 d 1990. 5 The preset study hs smlr pproch the wy t looks t chges occurrg over tme cross regos. Oe dvtge here s tht ll yers 1992 to 2004 re cluded, rther th oly two yers of observto. I ddto, the flux of pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud to dfferet res hs to some extet bee determed by exogeous evets, s wll be show subsequet sectos. Ths llows for lyss well suted for exmg the terply of school choce d mmgrto. 6 Oe drwbck of ths study comprso wth the oe by Betts d Frle (2003) s tht the ggregted dt used here does ot llow for the cotrol of dvdul-level chrcterstcs, such s prets educto d household come. As to ts emprcl pproch, ths study s comprble to Hseh d Urquol (2006) the wy t 4 See lso Gbbos et l. (2008) for dscusso d refereces o theoretcl expltos o possble mechsms volved. As they pot out, there re two m rgumets for effcecy gs due to school choce. The frst holds tht more competto wll eforce schools to dopt/mprove techg techologes. The other rgumet holds tht free choce wll led to better mtches s pupls wll sort to schools bsed o eductol prefereces d eeds. 5 About 85% of those erolled prvte schools ther smple tted relgous (.e. ctholc) schools. 6 Betts d Frle ddress edogeety ssues by usg IV-estmtos, where ther strumet for demogrphc chges 1980 to 1990 s the shre of mmgrts the yer 1980. Due to the rther smll smple sze of 132 metropolt res, these IV-estmtes re ot very precse d therefore rther urelble. 4
focuses o mucpltes s proxes for eductol mrkets (p.1486). They ddress both eductol chevemets s well s sortg s the cosequeces of the troducto of school vouchers Chle. 7 The m result from the preset study pot the sme drecto s the Betts d Frle (2003) study, revelg crese the umber of tve pupls erolled o-publc schools followg flux of mmgrts. Wht c expl the postve elstctes mmgrto shres d prvte school ttedce rtes Demrk? Betts d Frle (2003) put forwrd rgumets tht relte to rtol behvor, s well s rrtol prefereces. The prevous pot bulds o the vew tht techers my hve to focus more o chldre tht requre specl tteto, so tht overll eductol stdrds mght fll s more mmgrt chldre eter the clss. 8 A smlr rgumet would be tht more school resources hve to be drected towrds mmgrt groups. Also, school s ethc composto mght work s dctor for school qulty whe there re o other esly ccessble mesures t hd, such s test scores. I cse there would be more objectve formto o school qulty, the 7 Ther results pot to sortg log socoecoomc les, however, they do ot fd mprovemets vrous outcome vrbles o school chevemets (sortg log ethc les s ot ddressed). Ther results re cosstet wth Culle et l. (2005), who look t the outcome of ope erolmet rules to Chcgo publc schools. A recet study by Böhlmrk d Ldhl (2007) looks t the effect of the troducto of free schools Swede 1992. There m focus s o eductol outcomes, but they lso report results o sortg. They fd postve correlto betwee the frcto of mmgrts mucplty d erollmet to free schools,.e. pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud show lrger propesty to eroll to such schools th tve Swedes. 8 A study by Gould, Lvy d Pserm (2009) sttes egtve effect s to the presece of mmgrts elemetry schools for the chces of pssg mtrculto exms Isrel. Other studes tht hve looked t the terply of ethc heterogeety d school performce dd ot fd smlr egtve correltos; see e.g. Agrst d Lg (2004) d Gury (2004). 5
mportce of ethc dversty mght receve less weght, s clmed by Ted d Weher (2004). The pper ufolds s follows. I the ext secto I dscuss some spects regrdg the Dsh school system, especlly the sttutol set-up of ts free school system. Ths s followed by theoretc dscusso o mesurg prvte school ttedce rte o the ggregted level, s well s some descrptves o school choce. Secto 4 presets the dt d the outcomes from regresso estmtos. Secto 5 cocludes. 2 The Dsh (free) school system Demrk pples system of e yers of compulsory educto (.e. ot compulsory schoolg), for everyoe the ge group 6-16. By defult, chldre re ssged to folkeskole,.e. the locl prmry d lower secodry school. A specl feture of the Dsh eductol system s the possblty of ttedg teth form subsequet to e yers of compulsory educto. Oe motve for ttedg other yer t the elemetry school s to get more tme to prepre for upper secodry educto. 9 The upper secodry educto system cludes both cdemclly oreted progrms for studets tht wt to cotue to hgher educto, s well s voctolly oreted progrms for those who ted to eter the lbor mrket fter fshg e yers of compulsory school. 9 Ths opto hs bee used by bout 58% (1992) to 37% ( 2004) of the studets levg grde 9. A smll umber of schools lso offer 11th grde opto. Besdes, pupls ged 14 to 18 c tted so clled cotuto schools (efterskole),.e. schools tht m to buld brdge from elemetry schools to secodry educto, d whch ejoy complete freedom of currculum, see Johso (1997). These schools re ot cluded the estmtos. For more detled descrpto of the eductol system Demrk see Dsh Mstry of Foreg Affrs (2008). 6
Oe wy of mplemetg school choce s to fud schools bsed o the ctul umber of pupls erolled. I prctce, such system c be relzed by troducg school vouchers,.e. fxed mout of publc moey s pd to schools for ech pupl erolled. I more opemrket verso, both publc d prvtely operted schools compete wth ech other. For exmple, such system hs bee ppled Swede sce the erly 1990s. I Demrk, o the other hd, utl 2004 pupls were ssged to the publc school erest to ther home. I theory prets could pply for other publc schools, but such requests hd to fd pprovl by locl uthortes d the schools cocered. However, durg ll yers there hs bee the opto of regsterg chldre to prvtely operted school. I the Dsh cotext the oto prvte schools geerlly refers to so clled free schools (frskole). These schools re grted stte llowces, but re operted by prvte ettes, such s pret coopertves, prtes, relgous groups or other o-govermetl orgztos. 10 To some extet free schools re comprble to chrter schools, yet there re some dstct dffereces. 11 Frst, cotrst to chrter schools, free schools levy fee of c 15-20% of the eductol cost o the prets. Secod, free schools hve bee rel opto over severl decdes cross the whole coutry d re well-estblshed feture of the Dsh school system, offerg lrge vrety of eductol progrms to choose from. As c be see from Tble A1 ppedx, the use of free schools hs bee rther commo rrespectve of mucplty sze. Also, cotrst to chrter schools, free schools re llowed to choose mog ts pplcts, ccordg to Aderse (2008). 10 There re smll umber of prvte schools tht mly rely o tuto fees, but they oly mke mor feture of the Dsh eductol system, so the focus ths study s o free schools. 11 For more detls d ccout of studes o chrter schools see Hushek et l. (2007). They descrbe chrter schools s hybrds of publc d prvte sttutos tht llow depedet developmet d decso-mkg log wth publc fcg d stte ccoutblty for performce (p. 824). I cotrst to prvte schools, morty groups, especlly Afro-Amercs, re over-represeted chrter schools. 7
O two mjor ccouts the Dsh educto system comply wth stdrd requremets for free school choce. Frst, there s o-mes tested ltertve to publc schools; secod, the school bords re gve leewy the wy they ted to ccomplsh the prescrbed eductol objectves. Vouchers re grted o uversl bse d erolmet to free schools s ot restrcted by mucpl boudres. I prxs, ths mes tht free schools re lrgely fced by stte govermet grts,.e. bout 80 to 85% of costs re stte fuded, whle the remg mout s fced by tuto fees pd by the prets. 12 As result free schools re ffordble ltertve for lrger prt of the populto. There re severl restrctos d requremets for rug free schools. Accordg to the Mstry of Educto (2008), there hve to be cert umber of pupls (t lest twelve) erolled ll grdes from 1 to 7, d free schools must ot be owed by prvte dvdul or ru for prvte proft. There lso re cert oblgtos terms of qulty stdrds, especlly s to techg Dsh, Eglsh d mthemtcs, whch hs to comply wth demds set by the cetrl govermet, smlr s those pplyg for publc schools. Whle free schools re fuded ccordg to the umber of pupls erolled, publc schools regulrly do ot hve ther budget ted to the umber of pupls. 13 The log trdto of provdg de fcto voucher system Demrk hs ttrcted some reserch o the reltve dvtge/dsdvtge of prvte versus publc schoolg terms of eductol performce. Aderse (2008), usg dt for 2003, foud tht overll there re 12 I 2006 the opertol costs pd by the stte govermet mouted to 41,000 dkr (per yer), d the fee pd by the prets ws 9,000 dkr o verge. The locl govermets rembursed the stte by pyg 31,000 dkr for ech pupl. See Prvte Schools Demrk, Dsh Mstry of Educto, http://www.eg.uvm.dk/ 13 Accordg to Aderse (2008), some mucpltes pply forml rule of fudg publc schools ccordg to the umber of pupls erolled, but prxs ths does ot seem to be very strctly dmstered polcy. 8
o sgfct dvtges for pupls ttedg prvte over publc schools. 14 Actully, f oe tkes ccout of soco-ecoomc sttus, pupls ttedg free schools hd feror eductol outcomes regrdg exmto scores mthemtcs d wrtte Dsh th comprble groups ttedg publc schools. Oe explto for tht result holds tht prets choose free schools for other resos th scholrly qulty, for exmple o the grouds of relgous fflto. A relted study by Schdler Rgvd (2009) ddresses the ssue of tve flght. As Aderse (2008) she uses dvdul dt for the yer 2003. Focusg t the school level wth the rego of Copehge, her results pot to tht tve Des re more lkely to opt out locl publc schools the lrger the shre of pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud the school dstrct. Ths holds true eve fter cotrollg for fmly, mucplty d school chrcterstcs, such s prets educto, test scores d techer/studet rtos. 3 Coceptul frmework d descrptves I ths secto I m to exemplfy how mmgrto could ffect prvte school ttedce rtes by mes of smple model. It looks t the outcomes of processes, rther th dscussg the mechsm uderlyg them. Due to ts strghtforwrd comprtve sttc predctos, the model provdes bse of referece for subsequet emprcl estmtos. Strtg by defg the mmgrto shre d s the umber of mmgrts d tve bor studets respectvely dvded by the populto (defed s mmgrts plus tve bor), the overll ttedce rte for prvte schools c be chrcterzed s the sum of the ttedce rte for both groups s follows () ( 1 ) 14 Other studes o the effect of prvte school o eductol chevemets Demrk drw smlr coclusos; see Nestd, 2004, d Schdler Rgvd, 2008. 9
Here the sub-dex demrctes ttedce rtes for tves d mmgrts respectvely. From () oe c determe the mrgl mpct of mmgrto o the overll ttedce rte 1 ) (1 ) ( () 1 Equto () sttes the elstcty of prvte schools ttedce wth respect to the mmgrto rte. As ext step, let s cosder the reltve ttedce rte cross groups to be ler s follows () k Ths s syg tht the verge ttedce rte for pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud s ssumed to be k tmes tht for pupls of tve descet. Combg () d () oe receves the followg: (v) 1) ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 k k k k The lst relto llows for some smple comprtve sttc results. I cse the ttedce rte s smlr cross groups,.e. k=1, the =0, syg tht there s o chge the overll ttedce rte rrespectve of the sze mmgrto shre. O the other hd, f k>1 [k<1], the >0 [ <0], syg tht overll ttedce rte for prvte educto would crese [decrese] by crese, followg chge the demogrphc composto cross mucpltes. I the ext subsecto I look t emprcl evdece o the sze of k. 3.1 Summry sttstcs o prvte school ttedce rte To tt uderstdg o the sze of the reltve ttedce rte k Tble 1, me vlues s to ttedce rtos for pupls wth tve Dsh prets d for pupls wth prets from coutres outsde the Wester hemsphere re show. The umbers oly clude chldre 10
schools from grde 8 to grde 11,.e. pupls ttedg upper prmry/lower secodry educto. As lredy poted out Secto 2, grde 10 d 11 re optol. 15 As regresso estmtos ths study re bsed o fgures reltg to the mucplty level, summry sttstcs re clculted by tkg ech mucplty s oe observto. For comprso lso fgures o the dvdul level re show. Whe comprg fgures o the dvdul d mucplty level the dffereces re lrger for pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud. To cert extet ths outcome s cused by the fct tht my chldre of foreg bckgroud re lvg mjor cty res. 16 The propesty of ttedg prvte school for pupls of mmgrt descet s bout 0.37 to 0.8 tmes tht of pupls wth tve Dsh bckgroud, vryg by yer d level of comprso; see the two rows oted by k Tble 1. There clerly s cresg tred prvte school ttedce rtes s regrds tve Des. Ths holds true both t the mucplty s well s the dvdul level, whle t s bout costt o the dvdul level mog chldre orgtg from coutres outsde Wester-Europe d OECD coutres, d decresg o the mucplty level. The ltter could be expled by the plcemet of ewly rrvg refugees smller mucpltes. I prtculr, the sgfct drop prvte school ttedce rtes o the mucplty level tht took plce betwee the yers 1993 d 1996 (see pel B, frst row) could to some extet be cused by the flux of lrge group of 15 Betts d Frle (2003) mke dstcto o pupls ttedg hgh schools d those elemetry schools. They rgue tht the mpct of mmgrto should be lrger hgh schools, s elemetry schools re coverg smller resdetl dstrcts,.e. prets c eser esure ther preferred peer groups due to resdetl segregto. Dffereces the umber of school dstrcts t the prmry d secodry level hve bee utlzed by Urqol (2005), for the purpose of dsetglg mechsms of socoecoomc d/or rcl strtfcto. 16 By clcultg me vlues o the mucplty level, lrger ctes receve less weght th wht ther populto sze would mply. 11
refugees from Bos-Herzegov tht were plced 1994 d 1995. See ext Secto for dscusso of the plcemet polcy Demrk. Tble 1. Attedce prvte schools relto to publc schools Chldre wth prets from coutres outsde Wester- Europe d OECD coutres Chldre wth tve Dsh prets 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 Pel A Prvte school ttedce rte over the whole of Demrk. Idvdul level 0.094 0.085 0.097 0.104 0.095 0.096 0.124 0.132 0.144 0.151 0.152 0.159 k 0.757 0.647 0.673 0.690 0.622 0.603 Pel B Prvte school ttedce rte over the whole of Demrk. Mucplty level Chldre wth prets from coutres outsde Wester- 0.085 0.078 0.057 0.056 0.052 0.056 Europe d OECD coutres Chldre wth tve Dsh prets 0.106 0.117 0.131 0.139 0.140 0.151 k 0.797 0.670 0.435 0.403 0.374 0.370 Note: Fgures clculted ccordg to Demrk Sttstcs: U19. Clcultos bsed o the umber of pupls erolled grde 8 to 11. Pupls erolled efterskole re ot cluded. d rego As c be see from Fgure 1, the reltve sze of the shre dffers sgfctly wth respect to mucplty sze. As emtes from equto (v), the lrger s, the more egtve s the elstcty, gve tht k<1. 17 If oe compres the reltve chges over tme over 17 For 2005 the rto k s.34 for smller mucpltes,.35 for medum szed mucpltes d bout.50 for lrger mucpltes. The prvte school ttedce rtes the sme yer for mmgrts (.e. ) reds.05,.05 d.085 respectvely. There s cosderble vrto cross mucpltes. For exmple, for the cty of 12
mucpltes s show Fgure 1, the log term crese occurs to be slghtly steeper for mucpltes wth more th 20 thousd hbtts, whle the pth of chge looks rther smlr for medum szed d smller mucpltes. Fgure 1. Shre of Des ged 6 to 16 wth bckgroud outsde Wester coutres Mucpltes ccordg to umber of dult hbtts 0.05.1.15 1990 1995 2000 2005 Yer <10 thousd 10-20 thousd >20 thousd Note: Fgures ccordg to Sttstcs Demrk. BEF3: Populto by re d coutry of org, t 1st Jury ech yer. Irrespectve of mucplty sze, there clerly s crese the morty group shre over tme. Ths mples tht gve the prvte school ttedce ptters outled bove, oe should expect to fd egtve effect o overll prvte school ttedce rte s result of demogrphc chge the locl populto followg from flux of pupls of foreg org. I cotrst, f the estmted elstcty of prvte school ttedce wth respect to mmgrto s postve, tht would dcte chge the clto to tted prvte Copehge the verge prvte school ttedce rte s bout 0.27 d 0.15 for tve Des d those of foreg descedet, respectvely. 13
schools by tself. Actully, from Tble 1 oe c see tht there s smll, but cosstetly cresg tred prvte school ttedce rte for chldre wth tve Dsh prets over the perod 1992 to 2004. I the regresso estmtos the elstcty wll be estmted for the totl ttedce rte ccordg to equto (), s well s seprtely for tve Des d chldre wth mmgrt bckgroud from coutres outsde the EU d OECD. A umber of covrtes re cluded to dsclose the et mpct of lrger shre of pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud o school choce. Stted more formlly, cse estmtos revel postve elstcty ths would dcte relto s follows (v) f (), f () 0 0 4 Dt d Estmtos The dt used for ths study s provded by Sttstcs Demrk. It cludes detled formto o the soco-ecoomc d demogrphc stuto cross mucpltes. The estmtos the bsele set up wll clude ll Dsh mucpltes over the perod 1992 to 2004. Durg tht perod there hve bee totl of 275 mucpltes Demrk, dstrbuted over 14 coutes. I ther study Betts d Frle (2003) re cotrollg for school qulty by mkg use of two mesures,.e. publc school expedtures per pupl ( the metropolt re) d pupl/techer rto publc d prvte schools (o the stte level), respectvely. As for the preset study there s o formto o pupl/techer rtos, whle publc school expedtures per pupl hve bee mputed bse o mucplty expedture for publc schools (folkeskole), see ote to Tble A1 ppedx. I ddto, I clude locl tx rte s covrte s 14
pproxmto for mucpltes posto o educto. 18 I subsequet estmtos prces for sgle-fmly houses re cluded. Ths ddresses tht publc school qulty could be cptlzed house vlues, see Bruer d Imzek (2008), d Cell et l. (2008) for studes dscussg such mechsms. Yet, cse mmgrto hs drect effect o house prces, ths would defe other pth by whch mmgrto mght ffect prvte school ttedce rtes. 19 Cotrols for come d uemploymet rtes re cluded to ddress tht less prosperous regos the demd for prvte schoolg mght be lower. Other cotrols regrds verge educto level wth mucpltes s households wth hgher educto level hve show to be more cled to opt for prvte schools, see e.g. Betts d Frle (2001). To hold costt for commo tme treds yer dummes re cluded, whle structurl dffereces cross mucpltes eter the regresso model by mes of mucplty fxedeffects. For exmple, these ccout for dffereces ccess to locl trsport fcltes, proxmty to sttutos of hgher educto, or eve the sze of the locl relgous commuty. 4.1 Immgrto d plcemet of refugees to Dsh mucpltes Wth the rrvl of wve of mmgrts t the begg of the 1980s, publc uthortes expereced problems provdg refugees wth pproprte ccommodto. For tht reso plcemet polcy ws troduced 1986 ccordg to whch ew rrvls were to be 18 The Dsh govermetl system grts cosderbly leewy to locl govermets to decde o locl tx rtes d the wy tx moey s spet. Educto ccouts for m prt the locl budgets; see e.g. Gerdes (2009). 19 The effect of mmgrto o housg prces s stll ope to debte. For refereces o some studes doe for the US, see Crd (2007). A study by Byer et l. (2007) cocludes tht rce s ot cptlzed housg prces s sortg bsed o rce would be suffcet to stsfy self-segregtg prefereces. 15
dspersed over the whole of Demrk. 20 It ws teded to couterct the tedecy of mmgrts to move to metropolt res. By d lrge, the polcy led to tht refugees were dstrbuted to lrge d medum-szed mucpltes. From 1995, s cosequece of the lrge flux of refugees from Bos-Herzegov, the m crtero for ssgg refugees becme vlblty of housg. Ths polcy chge resulted tht lso smller mucpltes were forced to ccept refugees. From Fgure 1 oe c see the dstct crese the shre of chldre wth prets orgtg from coutres outsde the Wester hemsphere tht took plce 1995/1996. Most proouced s the effect smller-sze mucpltes. Oce they hd bee grted sylum, refugees were free to move wherever they wted. However, there were cetves ot to chge the tl locto, t lest ot before completg 18-moth troductory perod. Refugees complyg wth the polcy could expect help from locl uthortes fdg pproprte housg d chld dy cre. From Jury 1999 the dspersl polcy becme more restrctve s refugees rsked losg the specl troducto llowce form of socl ssstce beeft f they decded to move wth three-yer perod. Exmto of the pre-1999 plcemet polcy foud tht bout hlf of the plced refugees chose to sty, whle the other hlf moved further to other mucplty, preferbly to res wth hgher proporto of ther coutryme; see Dmm (2009). Her results pot to tht youger, sgle persos were most lkely to move from the ssged mucplty. O the mucplty level, the most mportt fctors for the decso to move or ot were the proporto of co-tols, populto sze, uemploymet rtes d ccess to publc housg cross mucpltes. 21 20 For more formto regrdg the wy the plcemet polcy ws ccomplshed see Gerdes (2009) d refereces gve there. 21 Access to prvte schools cross mucpltes hs ot bee cosdered s fctor plcemet of refugees. 16
4.2 Results Estmtos re doe log-log settg, whch llows sttg relto of depedet d depedet vrbles elstctes, thereby coectg to the model outled Secto 3. Mucplty fxed-effects re cotrolled for by pplyg wth trsformto of vrbles. As every mucplty s treted s oe eductol mrket, o weghts re used here, followg the exmple of Hseh d Urquol (2006). 22 The model reds s follows: l '[ x x ] [l S ls ] ( e e ) 2, wth IID0, l mt m. mt m. mt m. mt m. e. mt ~ e The depedet vrble mt sttes the prvte schools ttedce rte mucplty m yer t, x re covrtes d S s the shre of pupls of ge 6-16 wth prets from mt mt coutres outsde Wester Europe d OECD coutres. 23 As to the defto of the depedet vrble, t s bsed o the umber of chldre from ech mucplty ttedg free school wth or outsde the mucplty they were lvg. The detfyg ssumpto mesurg the effect of chge demogrphc composto wth mucpltes o prvte school ttedce rtes s tht ll relevt spects determg the outcome vrble re cught by the cluded covrtes, so tht the codto o observble ssumpto pples, E 0. Oe cocer regrds edogeety of the vrble of terest,.e. syg tht S e X mt mt mt the bs tht would occur f households chose to move to other mucplty for the purpose of erollg ther chldre to schools wth preferred peer groups, see e.g. Ldd (2002) d Bfulco et l. (2009). To ddress such cocers, some estmtos (ot show) the umber of chldre the ge group 6 to 16 tht left mucplty ech yer hs bee cluded s ddtol covrte. Overll, such cotrol dd ot hve y sgfct mpct. 22 I ppedx results form estmtos weghted for populto sze re show, see Tble A3. 23 Ths s bout smlr to the ge group used Betts d Frle (2003),.e. they use s ther mesure of mmgrto pupls ged 7-16. They motvte ths choce by the fct tht redstrbuto of school resources due to mmgrto wll ffect ll grdes, eve those ttedg hgh school. 17
At the outset, elstctes re preseted where ll mucpltes eter to the model, see colums (1) to (4) the followg tbles. For the purpose of llowg for closer vew o uderlyg mechsms, colums (5) to (7) estmtos re subdvded wth respect to the populto sze of mucpltes. 24 I the ppedx chges vrbles for the yers 1992 to 2004 re show. The results Tble 2 revel postve elstctes, dctg rse of 2.5 to 4.5% the shre ttedg free schools whe doublg the shre of pupls of foreg descedet; see colums (1) to (4). Comprg colum (1) d (2) Tble 2, the coeffcet regrdg the shre of chldre from coutres outsde the EU d OECD s somewht ffected by cluso of covrtes such s uemploymet rtes, locl tx rtes, publc school expedtures, populto sze d the shre of people wth hgher educto, but t s stll sgfctly postve. Whe cludg cotrol for house prces the mucpltes, see colum (3), the mpct of chge the shre of mgrts o prvte school ttedce rtes becomes somewht smller d sgfct. The ltter result could be due to tht house prces mght be ffected by mmgrto. As other mesure to test for omtted vrbles tht mght ffect the estmte of terest, cotrols for regol specfc tme treds hve bee cluded. Amog others, such test c be motvted by the fct tht polces regrdg upper secodry educto re settled o the regol level. I the estmtos such cotrols re creted by terctg 14 regol dummes wth 13 yer dummes. As c be see from Tble 2, colum (4), extedg the model such wy hs some mpct, ot the lest o the coeffcet estmtes regrdg 24 All stdrd errors re robust to rbtrry wth-mucplty serl correlto d heteroskedstcty. Icluded covrtes re wekly depedet,.e. correlto dmshes over tme. I such stuto fxed effects re preferred to frst dfferece estmtos. See Wooldrdge (2002), p. 302 for dscusso. 18
housg prces. However, the coeffcet estmte s to the shre of pupls from coutres outsde Wester Europe or OECD creses. Tble 2. Depedet vrble: Log of prvte school ttedce rte (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) All All All All Smll Medum Lrge Log shre of 0.0458 0.0331 0.0249 0.0343 0.0292 0.0491-0.0290 mmgrt chldre (0.0181)* (0.0181)* (0.0178) (0.0187)* (0.0221) (0.0488) (0.0923) * ged 6-16 Log uemploymet -0.0800-0.1041-0.0326-0.0471-0.0152 0.0018 rte (0.0627) (0.0643) (0.0702) (0.0878) (0.1440) (0.0876) Log come 1.3437 1.3291 0.9409 0.2924 0.5614 0.7929 (0.4851)* (0.4845)* (0.4693)* (0.6997) (0.9765) (0.8579) ** ** * Log locl come 0.4889 0.3567-0.5041-0.1049-1.6865-1.0283 tx (0.5107) (0.5036) (0.5598) (0.9419) (0.9148)* (0.7493) Log publc school 0.4482 0.4375 0.3821 0.8459 0.4452 0.1686 expedture /pupl (0.1847)* (0.1828)* (0.1824)* (0.1671)* (0.1326)* (0.2096) * * * ** ** Log dult populto -1.2934-0.9072-0.9085-0.1719-4.5227-1.8495 (0.7109)* (0.7162) (0.7883) (0.9946) (2.2533)* (1.7236) * Log shre of hgher -0.5531-0.5459-0.1611 0.3911 0.2063-0.5157 educted (0.3630) (0.3687) (0.3919) (0.5162) (0.6804) (0.7385) Log housg prces -0.2701-0.0528-0.0959-0.3340 0.3957 (0.1322)* (0.1390) (0.1622) (0.4129) (0.3523) * Regol treds cluded No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Observtos 3378 3378 3373 3373 2116 685 572 # of mucpltes 275 275 275 275 178 53 44 R-squred 0.070 0.090 0.093 0.241 0.255 0.486 0.481 Note: Clustered stdrd errors pretheses. * sgfct t 10%; ** sgfct t 5%; *** sgfct t 1%. All estmtos cotrol for mucplty fxed effects d clude tme dummes. Whe lookg t the smller mucpltes,.e. those wth less th 10 thousd hbtts, see colum (5), the coeffcet becomes somewht smller th the overll smple. Results re somewht dfferet f oe turs to medum szed mucpltes, s c be see from colum (6). Here the effect of mmgrto o prvte school ttedce rte becomes lrger. 19
For mucpltes wth more th 20 thousd hbtts the elstcty turs out egtve, see colum (7). The pproch for ths lyss s to tret every mucplty s oe eductol mrket. As sestvty test, Tble A3 ppedx shows estmtos whe estmtos re weghted by populto sze, overll revelg elstctes slghtly lrger th the bsele set-up show Tble 2. Tble 3. Depedet vrble: Log of prvte school ttedce rte. Pupls wth prets bor Demrk (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) All All All All Smll Medum Lrge Log shre of 0.0506 0.0382 0.0300 0.0387 0.0350 0.0512-0.0501 mmgrt chldre (0.0182)* (0.0181)* (0.0178)* (0.0187)* (0.0221) (0.0479) (0.0928) ** * * ged 6-16 Log uemploymet -0.0864-0.1103-0.0402-0.0525-0.0193-0.0137 rte (0.0618) (0.0634)* (0.0693) (0.0866) (0.1434) (0.0793) Log come 1.2627 1.2455 0.8184 0.2090 0.5304 0.7010 (0.4857)* (0.4845)* (0.4639)* (0.6960) (0.9813) (0.8908) ** * Log locl come 0.5463 0.4123-0.4348-0.0699-1.7764-0.5221 tx (0.5115) (0.5048) (0.5579) (0.9404) (0.9437)* (0.7693) Log publc school 0.4256 0.4148 0.3561 0.8326 0.3758 0.1263 expedture /pupl (0.1854)* (0.1834)* (0.1826)* (0.1689)* (0.1520)* (0.1878) * * ** * Log dult populto -1.3463-0.9611-0.9986-0.4041-4.6669-0.7357 (0.7069)* (0.7082) (0.7807) (0.9857) (2.2667)* (1.6556) * Log shre of hgher -0.5097-0.5002-0.1115 0.4239 0.2727-0.6675 educted (0.3614) (0.3666) (0.3869) (0.5072) (0.7015) (0.7188) Log housg prces -0.2699-0.0602-0.1013-0.3351 0.2590 (0.1312)* (0.1399) (0.1650) (0.4095) (0.4008) * Regol treds cluded No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Observtos 3376 3376 3371 3371 2114 685 572 # of mucpltes 275 275 275 275 178 53 44 R-squred 0.084 0.105 0.107 0.259 0.272 0.494 0.495 Note: Clustered stdrd errors pretheses. * sgfct t 10%; ** sgfct t 5%; *** sgfct t 1%. All estmtos cotrol for mucplty fxed effects d clude tme dummes. 20
Tble 3 d Tble 4 preset results seprtely for chldre wth tve bor prets d chldre of foreg cestry. For the group of pupls wth tve bor prets (see Tble 3), the results re rther smlr to those foud for the ggregted group Tble 2. Overll the coeffcet for the shre of chldre ged 6-16 from coutres outsde the Wester hemsphere re lrger Tble 3 th Tble 2, whle t becomes smller (.e. more egtve) for mucpltes wth more th 20 thousd hbtts. The results for the group of pupls wth prets from coutres outsde the EU d OECD re rther dfferet, see Tble 4. A flux of pupls ged 6-16 of foreg org leds to cosderble decrese prvte school ttedce rtes. The explto closest t hd s tht ewly mmgrted chldre by defult were put to publc rther th free schools t tme of rrvl. I ddto, s most of the ewly rrved refugees hd rther low comes, frequetly mde up of mes tested socl ssstce, free schools hve bee out of rech eve f they would hve bee preferred choce. The reduced umber of observtos (.e. mucpltes) Tble 4 s due to the fct tht severl (smller) mucpltes ether there re o chldre of foreg descedet ttedg grde 8 to grde 11, or they dd ot tted free schools so tht the depedet vrble becomes mssg vlue due to the logrthmc trsformto. 25 25 Ths mples tht smple selecto s lkely to cofoud results preseted Tble 4. As the results for the group of pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud re ot m ssue ths study, I wll ot ddress such spects the remder of the pper. As to estmtos Tble 2 d Tble 3 there lso s reducto of observtos due to mssg vlues oe or severl vrbles,.e. the pel uderlyg the estmtos s ot blced. I sestvty estmto dummy vrble hs bee cluded tkg the vlue oe f tht mucplty hs bee mssg for some yer(s). Such cotrol dd ot hve y mjor mpct o the vrble of terest. As other flsfcto test, the curret vlue s to the shre of mmgrt pupls mucplty hs bee substtuted by subsequet yer s equvlece. The coeffcet estmtes loose power d sgfcce, whch stregthes tht 21
Tble 4. Depedet vrble: Log of prvte school ttedce rte. Pupls wth prets from coutres outsde the EU d OECD (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) All All All All Smll Medum Lrge Log shre of -0.5735-0.5386-0.5451-0.5296-0.4002-0.4621-0.3428 mmgrt chldre (0.0896)* (0.0871)* (0.0894)* (0.0906)* (0.1123)* (0.2549)* (0.4733) ** ** ** ** ** ged 6-16 Log uemploymet 0.2226 0.2151 0.1945 0.6442 0.0057 0.5257 rte (0.1824) (0.1817) (0.2173) (0.2748)* (0.5464) (0.3993) * Log come -0.8841-0.8833-1.5892-2.6549-6.3001-2.6108 (1.3454) (1.3482) (1.4794) (1.9885) (3.8602) (2.9448) Log locl come -3.1555-3.1456-4.4709-3.0391-2.0544-3.6449 tx (1.2961)* (1.2969)* (1.3589)* (4.5348) (2.2805) (2.7840) * * ** Log publc school 0.0241 0.0123-0.0150 0.1621 0.5068-0.1311 expedture /pupl (0.2244) (0.2239) (0.2337) (0.2800) (0.3143) (0.4992) Log dult populto -2.9413-2.8949-6.6196-0.5972-1.0282-13.6864 (1.9422) (1.9327) (2.3142)* ** (3.0645) (6.2818) (5.5923)* * Log shre of hgher -0.8698-0.8639-1.0466 0.6931-1.4702 1.4481 educted (1.0394) (1.0496) (1.2375) (1.6918) (1.7842) (1.9952) Log housg prces -0.0591 0.4310 0.0002-0.1152 1.6731 (0.3489) (0.4226) (0.5712) (0.8467) (0.8537)* Regol treds cluded No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Observtos 1227 1227 1225 1225 410 301 514 # of mucpltes 208 208 207 207 117 46 44 R-squred 0.141 0.167 0.169 0.322 0.742 0.615 0.444 Note: Clustered stdrd errors pretheses. * sgfct t 10%; ** sgfct t 5%; *** sgfct t 1%. All estmtos cotrol for mucplty fxed effects d clude tme dummes. 4.3 Dscusso d summry of results Before dscussg the outcomes of regresso estmtos, word of cuto should be serted. Whe redg the estmtes I presuppose tht the prvte schools tht tve Des re choosg for ther chldre hve lower shre of pupls wth mmgrt bckgroud th the mesured effects the bsele estmtos s rel effect rther th rtfct of uobserved treds or other fctors. Results re vlble o request from the uthor. 22
the publc school they opt out from. From the dt t s ot possble to observe to wht extet ths holds true or ot, but overll ths s resoble supposto ccordg to the fgures o ttedce rtes preseted Tble A1 d A2. 26 The results preseted the prevous secto pot to postve ssocto betwee creses the shre of pupls from coutres outsde Wester Europe or OECD d erolmet rtes to prvtely operted schools. To ssess the mgtude of the estmtes, bck-of-theevelope clcultos dcte tht oe stdrd devto crese betwee 1992 d 2004 the shre of chldre wth prets comg from coutres outsde the EU d OECD (.e. 64-percet chge, correspodg to chge of bout 2.1 percetge pots, s clculted o the verge shre wth the perod 1992 to 2004) results crese prvte school ttedce rte of bout 2.2 percet. 27 Ths correspods to bout 0.3 percetge pots s clculted o the verge shre the perod 1992 to 2004. Hece, o verge crese of 2.1 percetge pots the Shre of chldre wth prets comg from coutres outsde the EU d OECD yelds crese the prvte school ttedce rte of 0.3 percetge pots. 28 Though ths pots to rther moderte effect, t suggests tht tve flght hs bee preset Demrk. 26 A smlr rgumet s mde Betts d Frle (2003) d Frle d Resch (2002). 27 As clculted by multplyg the rto of stdrd devto d me chge the shre of mmgrt chldre ged 6-16 wth prets from coutres outsde the EU d OECD for ll mucpltes (see colum (1) Tble A2) d the coeffcet estmte from Tble 2, colum (4),.e..021/.033 * 0.0343. 28 For ther smple of 132 mucplty res, Betts d Frle (2003) estmte 0.34 percetge pot crese prvte secodry schools ttedce rte for tves followg crese of 1.06 percetge pots mmgrt shres the ge group 7 to 16 for the perod 1980 to 1990. Notce tht Betts d Frle look t prvte school ttedce rtes of tve US-Amercs, ot ttedce rtes cludg mmgrts. These re thus more comprble wth the outcomes show Tble 3. 23
Some fctors could hve cofouded determg the true elstctes. For exmple, ths regrds the fct tht some prets could hve succeeded sedg ther chldre to other publc school, spte the drectve rule of erolmet by plce of resdece. To the extet ths hs hppeed, t most lkely would push the elstcty dowwrds. Ths follows from tht optg for free school tht cse oly wll preset oe out of two optos to select preferred peer group, reducg free schools mrgl vlue for stsfyg demds o sortg. Aother spect cocers tht umber of oce plced refugees moved wy from ther ssged mucplty. The most commo ptter ws to move from smller mucpltes to plces wth lrger umber of persos shrg the sme ethc bckgroud. Wht s the lkely mpct of such sortg for the foud elstctes? As see from Tble 1, pupls from mmgrt fmles more ofte tted publc schools. Accordgly, reducto the umber of chldre the ge group 6 to 16 belogg to fmles of oce plced refugees wll decrese the umber of pupls erolled publc schools tht mucplty, cusg the shre of (remg) pupls ttedg prvte schools to become lrger smply s mere compostol effect. Such mechsm suggests egtve relto betwee the shre of pupls from coutres outsde Wester Europe or OECD d erolmet rtes to prvtely operted schools, d, g, wll push the elstcty dowwrds. Tke together ths mples tht the preseted elstctes most lkely should be red s lower bouds. As lredy poted out, the outcomes vry otcebly cross mucpltes whe splttg the smple by populto sze. I prtculr, the effect ppers to be lrgest medum szed commutes. To some extet ths mght be the result of better ccess to prvte schools 24
such mucpltes. 29 However, ths rgumet would led us to expect to fd eve hgher elstctes for lrger mucpltes. Oe explto tht ths s ot the cse could be resdece segregto, rgumet lso put forwrd by Betts d Frle (2003). By mes of sortg to dfferet eghborhoods (.e., school dstrcts) wth the sme mucplty, prets wll get mx of peers they prefer for ther chldre,.e. they do ot hve to opt for prvte schools. 30 Cosstet wth tht hypotheses, for Demrk t hs bee foud tht mmgrts from coutres outsde Wester Europe or OECD coutres re overrepreseted cert suburbs of the lrger ctes (see e.g. Schdler Rgvd, 2007). 5 Coclusos From the preset study t s ot possble to determe wht exctly les behd prets cosdertos whe choosg schools, so the foud correltos c s lkely be ttrbuted to rtol spects s outled the troducto, s well s (rrtol) prejudces gst mmgrt groups. The ltter spect gs support by the result tht pupls ttedg free schools Demrk do ot pper to perform very well s to ther eductol outcomes, s dscussed prevously. Ths suggests tht prets prtly re choosg schools for ther chldre o other grouds th mere eductol qulty. Amog others, such outcomes questo those who dvocte free school choce for the reso of chevg better eductol stdrds. I cse prets mke ther choces bsed o other grouds th school qulty, oe m requremet for chevg productvty gs wll ot be met. 29 Accordg to Aderse d Serrtzlew (2007), 2001 bout oe-thrd of the mucpltes Demrk dd ot hve prvte school wth ther boudres, whle bout oe-thrd hd just oe. The verge umbers of publc d free schools ech mucplty were 6 d 2, respectvely. 30 Ths terpretto s le wth the m fdg Urquol (2005), syg tht crese school dstrct vlblty reduces erollmet to prvte schools t the sme tme s t ffects chldre s peer groups wth respect to both rce d pretl educto, p. 1310. 25
Irrespectve of cuses, the fdgs ths pper pot to strtfcto of school creers log ethc d socl les. Ultmtely, ths questos the role of schools s chel for tegrto d s mes for provdg equl opportutes for subsequet cdemc creers s well s dvdul chces o the lbor mrket. To cert extet the outcomes reveled ths study c be ttrbuted to the very desg of the voucher progrm tht hs bee ppled Demrk, such s the tuto fees chrged or the opto for free schools to pck pplcts. Irrespectve such detls, due to ts trsc chrcter s oe of the few coutres pplyg lrge scle voucher progrm, the Dsh eductol system provde ddtol evdece to clms tht school choce hs cosderble mpct terms of sortg, whle postve mpct o educto stdrds seems rther questoble. 26
Refereces Aderse, Smo Clmr d Søre Serrtzlew. 2007. The Uteded Effects of Prvte School Competto, Jourl of Publc Admstrto Reserch d Theory, Vol. 17: 335 356. Aderse, Smo Clmr. 2008. Prvte Schools d the Prets tht Choose Them: Emprcl Evdece from the Dsh School Voucher System, Scdv Poltcl Studes, Vol. 31, pp. 44 68. Agrst, J.D. d Lg, K. 2004. Does school tegrto geerte peer effects? Evdece from Bosto s Metco Progrm, Amerc Ecoomc Revew, Vol. 94, pp. 1613 1634. Byer, P., F. Ferrer d R. McMll. 2007. A Ufed Frmework for Mesurg prefereces for Schools d Neghborhoods, Jourl of Poltcl Ecoomy, Vol. 115, pp. 588 638. Betts, J. R. d R. W. Frle. 2003. Does Immgrto Iduce Ntve Flght from Publc Schools to Prvte Schools?, Jourl of Publc Ecoomcs, Vol. 87, pp. 987 1012. Betts, J. R. d R. W. Frle. 2001. Explg Ethc, Rcl, d Immgrt Dffereces Prvte School Attedce, Jourl of Urb Ecoomcs, Vol. 50, pp. 26 51. Bfulco, Robert, Ldd Hele F., d Ross, Stephe L. 2009. Publc school choce d tegrto evdece from Durhm, North Crol, Socl Scece Reserch, pp. 71 85. Bruer, Erc J. d Jefer Imzek. 2008. Tebout choce d uversl school vouchers, Jourl of Urb Ecoomcs, Vol. 63, pp. 253 279 Böhlmrk, Aders d Mkel Ldhl. 2007. The Impct of School Choce o Eductol Performce, Segregto d Cost: Swedsh Evdece, IZA Dscusso Pper No. 2786. Crd, Dvd. 2007. How Immgrto Affects U.S. Ctes, CReAM Dscusso Pper N. 11/07, Lodo UK. Cell, Stephe Regg, Ferrer, Ferdo V. d Rothste, Jesse, 2008. The Vlue of School Fcltes: Evdece from Dymc Regresso Dscotuty Desg, NBER Workg Pper No. w14516. Clrk, Ke d Joe Ldley. 2009. Immgrt ssmlto pre d post lbour mrket etry: evdece from the UK Lbour Force Survey, Jourl of Populto Ecoomcs, Vol. 22, pp. 175 198. Cohe-Zd, Dy. 2006. Preservg relgous detty through educto: Ecoomc lyss d evdece from the US, Jourl of Urb Ecoomcs Vol. 60, pp. 372 398. Culle, J., B. Jcob d S. Levtt. 2005. The Impct of School Choce o Studet Outcomes: A Alyss of the Chcgo Publc Schools, Jourl of Publc Ecoomcs, Vol. 89, 729 760. Dsh Mstry of Educto. 2008. Prvte Schools Demrk, http://www.eg.uvm.dk/~/med/fles/eglsh/fct%20sheets/080101_fct_sheet_prvte_schools.shx Dsh Mstry of Foreg Affrs. 2008. The Dsh eductol system d socety, http://www.studydemrk.dk/studet-lfe/bout-demrk-1/dsh-eductol-system-d-socety Dmm, A. P. (2009), Ethc Eclves d Immgrt Lbour Mrket Outcomes: Qus Expermetl Evdece, Jourl of Lbor Ecoomcs 27, 281 314. Dottor, Dvde d She, I-Lg. 2009. Low-Sklled Immgrto d the Expso of Prvte Schools, IZA Dscusso Pper No. 3946. Frle, Robert W. d Alexdr M. Resch. 2002. Is there Whte Flght to prvte schools? Evdece from the Ntol Eductol Logtudl Survey, Revew of Ecoomcs d Sttstcs, Vol. 84, pp. 21 33. 27
Gerdes, Chrster. 2009. The Impct of Immgrto o the Sze of Govermet: Emprcl Evdece from Dsh Mucpltes, APSA 2009 Toroto Meetg Pper. Avlble t SSRN: http://ssr.com/bstrct=1450327 Gbbos, Stephe, Stephe Mch d Olmo Slv. 2008. Choce, Competto d Pupl Achevemet, Jourl of the Europe Ecoomc Assocto, Vol. 6, pp. 912 947. Gould, Erc D. Vctor Lvy, M. Dele Pserm. 2009. Does Immgrto Affect the Log-Term Eductol Outcomes of Ntves? Qus-Expermetl Evdece, Vol. 119, pp.1243 1269. Gury, J. 2004. Desegregto d blck dropout rtes, Amerc Ecoomc Revew, Vol. 94, pp. 919 943. Hushek, Erc A., Joh F. K, Steve G. Rvk d Gregory F. Brch. 2007. Chrter school qulty d pretl decso mkg wth school choce, Jourl of Publc Ecoomcs Vol. 91, pp. 823 848. Hseh, Chg-T, d Mguel Urquol. 2006. The Effects of Geerlzed School Choce o Achevemet d Strtfcto: Evdece from Chle s Voucher Progrm, Jourl of Publc Ecoomcs Vol. 90, pp. 1477 1503. Johso, Joyce Dwdde. 1997. Wht Is Efterskole? Aul AEE Itertol Coferece Proceedgs. http://www.erc.ed.gov/ericdocs/dt/ercdocs2sql/cotet_storge_01/0000019b/80/15/12/c.pdf Ldd, Hele F. 2002. School Vouchers: A Crtcl Vew, Jourl of Ecoomc Perspectves, Vol. 16, pp. 3 24. Nestd, Peter. 2004. Do prvte schools mprove the qulty of mucpl schoolg? The cse of Demrk, Pper for presetto t the EPCS Aul Meetg, Berl, Aprl 15 18, 2004. Rothste, Jesse M. 2006. Good Prcpls or Good Peers? Pretl Vluto of School Chrcterstcs, Tebout Equlbrum, d the Icetve Effects of Competto mog Jursdctos, Amerc Ecoomc Revew, Vol. 96, pp. 1333 1350. Schdler Rgvd, Betrce. 2007. Lvg d Lerg Seprtely? Ethc Segregto of School Chldre Copehge, Urb Studes, Vol. 44, pp. 1329 1354. Schdler Rgvd, Betrce. 2008. Prvte School Dversty Demrk's Ntol Voucher System, Scdv Jourl of Eductol Reserch, Vol. 52, pp. 331 354 Schdler Rgvd, Betrce. 2009. School Choce, Uversl Vouchers d Ntve Flght from Locl Schools, Europe Socologcl Revew, do:10.1093/esr/jcp024. Ted, K.L., d Weher, G.R. 2004. Rcl/ethc dversty d cdemc qulty s compoets of school choce, Jourl of Poltcs, Vol. 66, pp. 1109 1133. Urquol, Mguel. 2005. Does School Choce Led to Sortg? Evdece from Tebout Vrto, Amerc Ecoomc Revew, Vol. 95, pp. 1310 1326. Wooldrdge, Jeffrey M. 2002. Ecoometrc Alyss of Cross Secto d Pel Dt, Cmbrdge, MA: MIT Press 28
Appedx Tble A1. Summry Sttstcs: Mes vrbles 1992 (Stdrd devtos pretheses). Mucplty level. Mucpltes Smple prvte school ttedce rte.113 (.099) Populto < 10,000.109 (.112) Populto 10,000 20,000.110 (.073) Populto > 20,000.133 (.062) prvte school ttedce rte, pupls wth Dsh bor prets.114 (.099).109 (.112).112 (.075) 138 (.065) prvte school ttedce rte, 1 pupls wth prets from.077 (.203).103 (.265).046 (.151).061 (.060) coutres outsde the EU d OECD shre of chldre ged 6-16 wth prets from coutres outsde 0.018 (.030) 0.007 (.010) 0.025 (.037) 0.055 (.041) the EU d OECD uemploymet rte.065 (.016).067 (.016).061 (.017).061 (.014) verge household come 104587.90 (21121.040) 99695.52 (19785.730) 113779.10 (23802.090) 113419.70 (16239.840) locl come tx rtes 28.800 (2.783) 28.683 (3.292) 28.585 (1.511) 29.536 (1.080) publc school expedture per pupl ( thousd dkr) 2 39.650 (75.568) 40.402 (93.243) 35.679 (9.714) 41.394 (21.461) dult populto 14717.180 (30401.910) 5975.233 (1919.659) 13565.600 (2192.104) 51866.820 (64634.970) shre of hgher educted.092 (.036).082 (.023).105 (.050).115 (.041) housg prces ( thousd dkr) 480.376 (174.379) 411.322 (114.496) 558.359 (175.151) 668.932 (199.178) Note: 1 Relevt observtos for 183 (88) out of 275 (178) ll ( smll) mucpltes; 2 publc school expedtures per pupl hve bee clculted by pproxmtg the totl umber of pupls ccordg to the umber of pupls ttedg grde 8 d 9, ssumg tht the umbers ttedg grde 1 to 7 hve bee of smlr sze. O verge ths should be see s resoble pproxmto, s see by the fgures o umber of pupls ttedg folkeskole for the yer 2007. 1. clss 2. clss 3. clss 4. clss 5. clss 6. clss 7. clss 8. clss 9. clss 55 798 54 847 54 215 55 402 54 733 56 849 55 679 53 295 47 938 Source: Demrk Sttstcs, U194. 29
Tble A2. Summry Sttstcs: Mes of dffereces vrbles betwee 1992 d 2004 (Stdrd devtos pretheses). Mucplty level. All Mucpltes Smple Δ prvte school ttedce rte.024 (.055) Populto < 10,000.026 (.064) Populto 10,000 20,000.017 (.036) Populto > 20,000.024 (.036) Δ prvte school ttedce rte, pupls wth Dsh bor prets.028 (. 057).029 (.065).022 (.038).030 (.037) Δ prvte school ttedce rte, pupls wth prets from -.017 (.203) -.046 (.264) -.005 (.151).025 (.054) coutres outsde the EU d OECD Δ shre of chldre ged 6-16 wth prets from coutres.033 (.021).026 (.012).036 (.024).054 (.029) outsde the EU d OECD Δ uemploymet rte -.034 (.012) -.035 (.012) -.031 (.012) -.032 (.010) Δ verge household come 51834.62 (13400.3) 51309.51 (14468.79) 52772.74 (11673.97) 52814.4 (10751.52) Δ locl come tx rtes 3.378 (4.727) 3.457 (5.229) 3.428 (4.831) 2.995 (1.102) Δ publc school expedture per pupl ( thousd dkr) 29.364 (35.874) 31.236 (42.934) 27.931 (10.804) 23.656 (21.129) Δ dult populto 317.993 (1873.139) 42.911 (941.945) 159.717 (1801.825) 1633.977 (3575.101) Δ shre of hgher educted.0317198 (.014).029494 (.012).0321431 (.013).040 (.020) Δ housg prces ( thousd dkr) 624.359 (425.792) 482.914 (242.940) 744.192 (460.532) 1042.091 (606.868) 30
Tble A3. Depedet vrble: Log of prvte school ttedce rte. Estmtos s Tble 2, but weghted by dult populto sze. Log shre of mmgrt chldre ged 6-16 Log uemploymet rte (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) All All All All Smll Medum Lrge 0.0616 (0.0187)* ** 0.0408 (0.0181)* * -0.0528 (0.0524) Log come 1.6005 (0.4668)* ** Log locl come -0.0994 tx (0.4040) Log publc school 0.1938 expedture /pupl (0.1609) Log dult populto -1.2218 0.0326 (0.0181)* -0.0694 (0.0549) 1.6365 (0.4763)* ** -0.1920 (0.3838) 0.1869 (0.1612) 0.0445 (0.0187)* * -0.0050 (0.0634) 1.3237 (0.4403)* ** -0.6798 (0.4325) 0.1590 (0.1640) 0.0375 (0.0231) -0.0680 (0.0978) 0.1219 (0.7509) 0.2330 (1.0233) 0.6742 (0.2042)* ** 0.3824 0.0443 (0.0519) -0.0207 (0.1481) 0.4378 (1.0615) -1.7182 (0.9039)* 0.4340 (0.1329)* ** -4.4375-0.0129 (0.0941) 0.0381 (0.0948) 0.7947 (0.7732) -1.5774 (0.7064)* * 0.0919 (0.2124) (0.6657)* -1.0865 (0.6479)* -0.8627 (0.8066) (0.9193) (2.2765)* -1.4009 (1.7252) Log shre of hgher -0.7291-0.6615-0.4286 0.2727 0.2829-0.2724 educted (0.2206)* (0.2347)* (0.3511) (0.5436) (0.7184) (0.7265) ** ** Log housg prces -0.1398-0.0345-0.1539-0.4023 0.3964 (0.1184) (0.1525) (0.1721) (0.4500) (0.3315) Regol treds cluded No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Observtos 3378 3378 3373 3373 2116 685 572 # of mucpltes 275 275 275 275 178 53 44 R-squred 0.070 0.090 0.093 0.241 0.255 0.486 0.481 Note: Clustered stdrd errors pretheses. * sgfct t 10%; ** sgfct t 5%; *** sgfct t 1%. All estmtos cotrol for mucplty fxed effects d clude tme dummes. 31