DEFINING RACE AND ETHNICITY RACE & ETHNICITY JENNIFER L. GRAVES, M.A. Race a group or population that shares a set of genetic characteristics and physical features Has been applied to people with similar physical features (Whites), religion (Jews), or the entire human species (human race). There is no such thing as pure race due to generations of migration, intermarriage, and adaptations to different physical environments. Sociologists treat race like a social construct. Redfield (1958): Race is a human invention. Omi & Winant (1994): Race is a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflict and interests by referring to different types of human bodies. Despite its socially constructed nature, race is powerful and controlling. DEFINING RACE AND ETHNICITY Ethnic Groups groups that are set off to some degree from other groups by displaying a unique set of cultural traits (like language, religion, or diet) Members perceive themselves as members of a community. Everyone has an ethnic identity of some kind. The federal definition of ethnicity looks simply at Hispanic vs. Non-Hispanic. Ethnicity, like race, serves as a basis of social ranking. Increasingly the terms race and ethnicity are conflated. PATTERNS OF INTEGRATION PATTERNS OF INTEGRATION Ethnocentrism the belief that one s own group values and behaviors are right and even better than all others Important for solidarity and loyalty. But can lead to believe certain groups are inferior (aka racism) and to discriminate against them. Discrimination Individual Discrimination actions against minority group members by individuals Ex: Avoiding Contact, Physical or Verbal Attacks Institutional Discrimination practiced by the government, social institutions, and organizations Ex: Segregation, Exclusions, Expulsion (Details on next slide!) Segregation the physical and social separation of ethnic or racial groups Ex: Pre-Civil Rights USA Jim Crow Laws Explicit segregation is now illegal. But segregation still occurs in neighborhoods, schools, and personal relationships. Exclusion the practice of prohibiting or restricting the entry or participation of groups in society Ex: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 Expulsion the removal of a group by direct force or intimidation Ex: Expulsion of blacks from the South after the Civil War. 1
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON INEQUALITIES BASED ON RACE AND ETHNICITY Believe that differences between racial and ethnic groups are largely cultural. The solution, then, is assimilation a process where minority group members become part of the dominant group, losing their original distinct group identity. Ex: Melting Pot Gordon s 7 Stage Model (1964) of Assimilation Cultural change of cultural patterns Structural interaction with members of the dominant group Marital - intermarriage Identification developing a sense of national identity Attitude Receptional absence of prejudiced thoughts Behavioral Receptional absence of discrimination Civic absence of value and power conflicts FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE Assimilation is believed to allow a society to maintain equilibrium by ensuring all members of society adopt one dominant culture. Criticisms of Assimilation: Assumes social integration is a shared goal. Assumes members of the minority group are willing to assume the dominant group s identity and culture. Assumes that the dominant culture is the one and only preferred culture. Assumes that assimilation is the same experience for all groups. Pluralism -- where each racial or ethnic group maintains its own culture and/or a separate set of social structures and institutions -- is another means of achieving racial-ethnic stability. Ex: Switzerland Many Nationalities Many Religions 4 Official Languages CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE Conflict theorists focus on how the dynamics of racial and ethnic relations divide groups while maintaining a dominant group. Relationships are seen as based on power, force, and coercion rather than consensus. Ethnocentrism and racism are the tools that maintain the status quo by dividing individuals along racial and ethnic lines. DuBois: One of the first theorists to note the connection between racism and capitalist-class oppression. Ex: Economic exploitation of immigrant laborers. Some conflict theorists see conflict as mutual rather than emanating from one dominant group. Bonacich (1972): Theory of Ethnic Antagonism Ethnic antagonism emerges from a labor market split along ethnic and class lines. Conflict occurs between three classes: Businesses or Employers Higher Paid Labor Cheap Labor Conflicts: Businesses attempt to maintain a cheap workforce. Higher paid workers attempt to maintain their position. Cheap laborers attempt to advance their position. The conflict between the laborers is beneficial to capitalist business owners. 2
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE Feminist theory focuses on the experience of women and other marginalized groups in society. The intersection of multiple systems of oppression race, class, and gender is important here. Patricia Collins Black Feminist Theory points out that black women do not lead parallel lives to white women, but different lives and are actually oppressed by white women Race is a social construct that we learn through social interactions. The meaning and values for these categories are provided by our social institutions, families, and friends. Interactionists have studied how people are raced, looking at how race is not a category but a practice. In other words, race is an element of our social performances. And this performance can lead to the bestowal of power and privilege. Ultimately race, despite its socially constructed nature, is very real for most people. CONSEQUENCES OF RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY INCOME AND WEALTH INCOME AND WEALTH Race and income are inextricably linked in our society. Census data show that Black households had the lowest median income in 2008 ($32,218). This represents just 62% of the median income of Whites ($55,530). Asians had the highest median income ($65,637). The earnings gap between Blacks and Whites is attributable to a variety of things. Such as? Years of Discrimination Low Educational Attainment High Unemployment Underemployment Wealth is also divided unevenly among different races. Blacks possess between $8 and $19 of wealth for every $100 possessed by Whites. Whites have nearly 12 times as much median net worth as Blacks ($43k vs. $3.7k). Home ownership is one form of wealth. 74.9% of White households own. 47.5% of Black households own. 48.9% of Hispanic households own. 3
EDUCATION 1954: Brown vs. Board of Education ended de jure racial segregation in public schools by making it illegal Reaction to the ruling was mixed, especially in the South. However de facto racial segregation segregation that is the result of other processes instead of official policies -- remains. Example: Schools Educational attainment varies by face. Hispanic students have the lowest educational achievement rates. Asians have the highest. Details on the next slide. HEALTH IMMIGRATION Race impacts health in several ways. Such as? Stress Decreased Services Decreased Medications Decreased Hospital Procedures The disparity is two-fold. Access to Health Care Minorities are more likely to be uninsured. Quality of Health Care Research shows minorities receive poorer quality care than non-minorities. Some blame this disparity on inherent prejudices that view the poor as unworthy and thus undeserving of good health. Immigration leaving one s country of origin to move to another Most US families have a history of immigration. And immigration has always been rife with controversy. Regulating immigration became a federal responsibility in 1875. Everyone Quota System Preference System US has the most open immigration policy in the world. Most immigrants re motivated by economic concerns. Labor Migration the movement from one country to another for employment 2007: 37.3M foreign-born people in the US 12.5% of 1 out of 8 Concentrated in 5 States: California, New York, Texas, Florida and New Jersey Majority of immigrants today are from Mexico. IMMIGRATION THE IMMIGRANT EXPERIENCE Migrants can enter a country in multiple ways. Front Door Permanent Settlers Side Door Temporary Visitors and Workers Back Door Irregular or Illegal Migrants Focus of political and economic debate. 1/3 Immigrants 4% of US Population Mostly Hispanic Bush proposed comprehensive immigration reforms. Tightening border security. Creating a class of workers without amnesty. Highly criticized. Obama also proposed CIRs. Shifting focus from workers to employers. The experience of many immigrants is filled with challenges and problems. The most recent wave of immigrants have low educational attainment. 34% have <HS Diploma Has enormous implications for social and economic integration. Low Income: 15.2% of immigrants lived in poverty in 2006. Lack of Health Insurance: Illegal immigrants are ineligible for Medicaid and legal immigrants must wait 5 years. Reliance on Social Assistance Programs Immigrant labor is concentrated in construction, cleaning and maintenance, production, and farming. These works are especially susceptible to abuse, stress, and unsafe working conditions. Immigration has been shown to have a negative effect on the waves of native-born Americans in low-paying, low-skilled occupations. 4
ENCOURAGING DIVERSITY AND MULTICULTURALISM RESPONDING TO RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITIES Many programs have targeted racism and prejudice. Difficult to fight because they are complex phenomena with individual, cultural, and structural components. Korgen et al. (2003): Colleges could help! Counter the effects of earlier educational segregation by encouraging interaction among diverse people and groups. Institute course requirements that encourage the examination of diversity. Eliminate unfounded prejudices and stereotypes. Business leaders can also play a role and will be helped since their business depends on it. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION VOICES IN THE COMMUNITY Affirmative Action a policy implements to improve minority access to occupations and educational opportunities Has been a contentious issue. History 1965: LBJ signed an order that required government contractors to take affirmative action toward prospective minority employees in all aspects of hiring and employment. Required specific, proactive steps to ensure equality. Established EEOC. Gender was included in 1967. 1969: Nixon initiated the Philadelphia Plan. Set minimum levels of minority participation on federal construction projects. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION AA gradually extended into other areas beyond the federal government including admissions programs in higher education and private employers. Critics Opponents believe such policies encourage preferential treatment of minorities, giving them an unfair advantage. AKA Reverse Discrimination Some also say AA hasn t worked and just stigmatizes those who benefit from the policies. Proponents Only through AA can we address the historical societal discrimination minorities have experienced. Point to accomplishments. SUMMARY 5
SUMMARY Definitions of Race & Ethnicity Socially Constructed Nature of R & E Patterns of Racial/Ethnic Interaction Prejudice and Discrimination Impact of R & E Income & Wealth Education Health Special Case: Immigrants Encouraging Multiculturalism Affirmative Action 6