CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PREFACE FOREWORD Table of Other Primary Legal Sources Nigerian Statutes International Treaties Resolutions and Declarations Other United Nations Reports and Documents ii iii v xxvii xxvii xxix xxxi xxxiii CHAPTER ONE: HISTORY AND SCOPE OF NIGERIAN ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 1 1. Background 1 2. Definition of Key Concepts 5 1. What is the Environment? Eco-centric and Anthropocentric Views on the Environment 5 2. What is Environmental Law? 12 3. Development of Environmental Law in Nigeria 13 1. Pre-1988 Environmental Laws and Regulations 14 A. The Kanji Lake National Park Act of 1979 15 B. The Criminal Code Act of 1916 15 C. The Land Use Act of 1978 16 D. The River Basins Development Authorities Act of 1987 18 E. The Endangered Species (Control of International Trade and Traffic) Act of 1985 19 F. The Territorial Waters Act of 1967 20 G. The Exclusive Economic Zone Act of 1978 21 H. The National Water Resources Institute Act of 1985 21 I. The Factories Act of 1987 22
J. Hides and Skins Act of 1942 22 K. The Petroleum Products and Distribution (Anti-Sabotage) Act of 1975 23 L. The Petroleum Act of 1969 24 M. The Oil in Navigable Waters Act of 1968 24 N. The Oil Pipelines Act of 1956 25 O. The Associated Gas Reinjection Act 1979 25 2. Post-1988 Environmental Law Regulation in Nigeria: The Koko Dumping Incident as a Turning Point 28 3. Post-1988 Environmental Laws 30 A. The Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provision) Decree 42 of 1988 30 B. The Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act 9 FEPA Act ) (Now repealed) 31 C. The National Environmental Standards Regulatory and Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act of 2007 33 D. The Environmental Impact Assessment Act of 1992 36 E. The Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Act 37 F. The Hydrocarbon Oil Refineries Act 38 G. The Sea Fisheries Act of 1992 38 H. The Inland Fisheries Act of 1992 38 I. National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act 2006 38 J. Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Act of 1991 39 K. The Nigerian Mining Corporation Act 40 L. The Quarantine Act 40 M. The Agriculture (Control of Importation) Act 40 N. The Animal Disease (Control) Act of 1988 41
O. The Civil Aviation (Repeal and Reenactment) Act of 2006 42 P. The Water Resources Act of 1993 42 Q. The Federal National Parks Act of 1991 42 R. The Niger-Delta Development Commission (Establishment) Act ( NDDC Act ) of 2000 43 4. The Evolution of the National Policy on the Environment 43 5. Conclusion 45 CHAPTER TWO: SOURCES OF NIGERIAN ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 46 1. Introduction 46 2. Sources of Nigeria s Environmental Law 46 1. International Law 46 1. History of International Environmental Law 46 2. Sources of International Law on the Environment 53 A. International Conventions/Treaties 53 B. Customary International Law 56 C. General Principles of Law 58 D. Judicial Decisions and Teachings of Highly Qualified Publicists 62 E. Other Sources of International Law 63 3. Application of International Environmental Law in Nigeria 65 2. Common Law as a Source of Nigerian Environmental Law 65 1. Negligence 66 2. Nuisance 66 3. Trespass 67 4. Strict Liability 68 3. Nigerian Statutes and Laws 69 1. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 69
2. National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act (NESREA) 70 4. Case Law 72 1. The Social and Economic Rights Action Centre and the Centre for Economic and Social Rights v Nigeria 72 2. Gbemre v Shell Petroleum and Development Company Ltd 74 3. Umudje v Shell B.P. Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria 75 4. Adediran & Anor v Interland Transport Ltd 75 5. Braide v Adoki 76 6. Abiola v Ijoma 76 5. Conclusion 76 CHAPTER THREE: LAW ON AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL 77 1. Introduction 77 2. What is Air Pollution 77 3. The International Legal Framework for the Prevention and Regulation of Air Pollution 79 1. Transboundary Air Pollution 79 1. The 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution ( the LRTAP or the Convention ) 80 2. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP Convention) 82 2. Protection of the Ozone Layer 84 1. The Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer ( the 1985 Convention ) 85 2. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 86 3. Climate Change 87 1. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) 89
2. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( Kyoto Protocol ) 92 4. African Regional Initiatives to Address Air Pollution 97 1. The West and Central Africa Regional Framework Agreement on Air Pollution ( the Abidjan Agreement of 2009 ) 97 5. Domestic Application of International Law on Air Pollution in Nigeria and the Nigerian Legislation on Air Pollution Control 98 1. Domestication and Application of International Treaties 98 2. Provisions of the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act 2007 ( NESREA Act ) and its regulations 100 3. The Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry in Nigeria ( EGASPIN ) 103 6. Conclusion 103 CHAPTER FOUR: LAW ON WATER POLLUTION AND CONTROL 104 1. Introduction: Meaning, Nature and Categories of Water Pollution 104 2. Marine Pollution 105 1. The International Framework on the Regulation of Marine Pollution 106 1. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) 107 2. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973/78 ( MARPOL ) 110 3. Protocols to the MARPOL Convention 112 3. Pollution of Freshwater Sources 112 1. General International Declarations and Resolutions on the Right to Water 114 2. The 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses ( International Watercourses Convention ) 115 4. Domestic Application of International Law and Nigerian 118
Laws that Regulate Marine and Freshwater Pollution 1. Domestication and Application of International Treaties on Water 119 2. Provisions of the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act 2007 ( NESREA Act ) and its regulations 119 3. The Territorial Waters Act of 1967 124 4. The Oil in Navigable Waters Act of 1968 125 5. The Water Resources Act of 1993 126 6. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973, 1978 and Protocol (Ratification and Enforcement) Act 2007 126 5. Conclusion 127 CHAPTER FIVE: LAW ON CHEMICALS AND HAZARDOUS WASTES 128 1. Introduction 128 2. What are Hazardous Wastes? 128 3. Historical Reasons and Need for Regulation 129 4. The International Framework for the Regulation of Hazardous 131 1. The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal ( the Basel Convention ) 131 2. The Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade ( the Rotterdam PIC Convention ) 134 5. Africa s Regional Initiatives on Regulations of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes 137 1. The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import Into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa ( The Bamako Convention ) 138 6. Domestic Application of International Law and Nigerian Laws that Regulate Hazardous Wastes Freshwater Pollution 140 1. Domestic Application in Nigeria 140 2. The Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provision) Decree 141
42 of 1988 3. The National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act 2007 ( NESREA Act ) 142 4. The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (Ratification and Enforcement) Act of 2005 142 7. Conclusion 143 CHAPTER SIX: ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN THE NIGER DELTA 144 1. Introduction 144 2. Oil Production in the Niger Delta 144 3. Sources and Impacts of Environmental Challenges in the Niger Delta 148 1. Oil Spillage 148 A. Environmental Impacts of Oil Spills 149 B. Loss of Business Profits and Subsistence Rights 151 C. Forced Displacements and Loss of Property 153 D. Health Risks 154 E. Loss of Life and Wrongful Deaths 155 F. International Liability Issues 156 G. Clean-up Obligations and Costs 157 2. Gas Related Pollution: Gas Flaring 157 3. Effluent and Waste Discharges 160 4. Laws and Institutions for Environmental Protection in the Niger Delta 162 1. General Environmental Laws Applicable to the Niger Delta 163 A. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 163 B. The Petroleum Act 1969 and its Regulations 163 C. The Environmental Guidelines For the Petroleum Industry in Nigeria ( EGASPIN ) 164 D. National Environmental Standards and 165
Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act (NESREA) E. The Environmental Impact Assessment Act 166 F. The Petroleum Industry Bill, 2012 ( PIB ) 167 2. Laws that Specifically Address the Environmental and Developmental Challenges of the Niger Delta 169 A. The Repealed Oil Mineral Producing Area Development Commission Act of 1992 ( OMPADEC Act ) 169 B. The Niger Delta Development Commission Act of 2000 ( NDDC Act ) 170 C. National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act 2006 ( NOSDRA Act ) 170 3. Regulatory Institutions 172 A. The Federal Ministry of the Environment (MOE) 172 B. National Environmental Standards and Enforcement Agency (NESREA) 172 C. The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) 173 D. The Ministry of Petroleum Resources 173 E. The Department of Petroleum Resources 173 F. The Department of Gas 175 4. Conclusion 175 CHAPTER SEVEN: INTRODUCTION TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING PROCESS 177 1. Introduction 177 2. Environmental Impact Assessment 177 1. Some Basic Features of Environmental Impact Assessments 178 2. International Framework on Environmental Impact Assessment 179 A. United Nations Environment Program Goals and Principles of Environmental Impact Assessments 181 B. The Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context ( the Espoo Convention ) 181
3. Environmental Impact Assessment in Nigeria 186 A. The Environmental Impact Assessment Act ( EIA Act ) 186 B. The Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry in Nigeria ( EGASPIN ) 191 3. Conclusion 193 CHAPTER EIGHT: ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS IN NIGERIA: PIOUS WISHES OR A REALITY? 195 1. Introduction 195 2. The Concept of Environmental Rights 195 3. Constitutionalizing Environmental Rights 201 4. International Framework on Human and Environmental Rights 206 1. Human Rights Instruments 206 A. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 206 B. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 207 C. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 208 D. The Draft Declaration of Principles on Human Rights and the Environment ( 1994 Draft Declaration ) 209 E. The Convention on the Rights of the Child 210 2. Environmental Law Instruments 211 A. Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment 211 B. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 211 C. 1982 World Charter for Nature ( WCN 1982 ) 212 D. The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters of 1998 ( the Aarhus Convention ) 212 5. The African and Nigerian Framework on Human and Environmental Rights 214 1. The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights 215
2. Domestic Application in Nigeria 215 6. Conclusion 217 CHAPTER NINE: INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 219 1. Introduction 219 2. Development of Multilateral Environmental Agreements ( MEAs ) 220 3. Fundamental Principles of International Environmental Law 222 1. Principle of Cooperation 222 2. Common but Differentiated Responsibility Principle (CBDR) 225 3. Principle of Prevention 226 4. Precautionary Principle 227 5. The Polluter-Pays Principle (PPP) 229 6. Environmental Governance 233 A. Access to Information (ATI) 236 B. Public Participation 239 C. Access to Justice 242 4. Other Global Environmental Issues 243 1. Desertification 243 A. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought/and or Desertification, particularly in Africa ( the Drought Convention ) 245 2. Biodiversity and Conservation of Species 248 A. The Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD ) 251 B. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity ( the Cartagena Protocol ) 256 C. The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing to the Convention on Biological Diversity ( the Nagoya Protocol ) 257 3. Wetlands 259 A. The Convention on Wetlands of International 259
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (the Ramsar Convention) 4. Migratory Species 261 A. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( the Bonn Convention ) 261 5. Endangered Species 262 A. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) 262 6. Protection of Cultural Heritage 266 A. The UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ( the World Heritage Convention ) 266 5. International Environmental Institutions and Structures 268 1. United Nations Environment Program ( UNEP ) 269 2. Non Governmental Organizations ( NGOs ) 270 6. Conclusion 273 CHAPTER TEN: FUTURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS IN NIGERIA: TOWARDS A GREEN ECONOMY 274 1. Introduction 274 2. The Green Economy Paradigm: A Background 274 3. Importance of a Green Economy : No Longer an Option but a Necessity 278 4. Aspects of the Green Economy 282 1. Renewable Energy 282 2. Green Buildings 285 3. Green Transportation 285 4. Water Management 286 5. Sustainable Waste Management 287 5. Legal and Institutional Pathways to a Green Economy in Nigeria 287 1. Construction of a Coherent National Energy Reform Policy 288 2. Removing Barriers to Technology Transfer and Investments 289
3. Fostering Intergovernmental Linkages and Coordination 290 4. Monitoring, Evaluation and Adjustment 291 5. Promoting Research and Development 292 6. Conclusion 293 APPENDIX: The National Environmental Standards Regulatory and Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act of 2007 295 INDEX 316