PS-4.1 Explain the role of bonding in achieving chemical stability. All of the noble gases are chemically stable A noble gas electron configuration (an outside energy level with 2 or 8 electrons) is chemically stable and that all atoms would be more stable if they had these electron configurations. Helium atoms are stable atoms with two electrons in the outside energy level Atoms of the other noble gases (neon, argon, krypton and radon) are stable atoms with eight electrons in the outside energy level.. When atoms bond chemically, they do so to become more stable. Having the outside energy level full or complete like noble gases is more stable than other electron arrangements. To achieve stability metals may lose electrons and nonmetals may gain electrons producing ions which form ionic bonds. Group 1 and Group 2 metals lose electrons so that their outside energy level is complete or full, forming a stable electron structure like a noble gas. Positively charged ions. Group 16 and Group 17 nonmetals tend to gain electrons so that their outside energy level is complete or full, forming a stable electron structure like a noble gas. They become negative ions because there are more electrons (-) than protons (+). Oppositely charged ions attract each other to form ionic bonds. Nonmetal atoms bond with each other by sharing electrons to obtain an electron situation like one of the noble gases and, therefore, become stable. This type of bonding is called covalent bonding. PS-4.2 Explain how the process of covalent bonding provides chemical stability through the sharing of electrons. Nonmetals may gain electrons through ionic bonding or share electrons through covalent bonding to become more stable. Two nonmetal atoms share electrons in order to become more stable A molecule formed is more stable than the individual atoms. Examples: Water: oxygen shares two pairs of electrons, one pair with each of two hydrogen atoms, forming one covalent bond with each. This gives the oxygen atom eight outer energy level electrons and each hydrogen atom, two outer energy level electrons. All of the atoms in the molecule are stable since they each have a number of electrons equal to the nearest noble gas. 1 / 8
Examples of dot diagrams, pictorial diagrams, or verbal descriptions. Example of Electron Dot Diagrams nitrogen hydrogen Ammonia atom atom molecule Covalent bonds Example of Pictorial Diagrams 2 / 8
Example of a Written/Verbal Description An atom of hydrogen has one electron in its outer-most energy level. Two electrons are required for hydrogen to have a stable outer-most energy level. An atom of chlorine has seven electrons in its outer most-energy level. Eight electrons are required for chlorine to have a stable outer-most energy level. A molecule of hydrogen chloride forms when the one electron in the outer-most energy level of a hydrogen atom, and one of the electrons in the outer-most energy level of the chlorine atom are shared. The shared electrons occupy both the outer energy level of the chlorine atom and the outer energy level of the hydrogen atom. In the resulting molecule, the hydrogen atom has two electrons in its outer most energy level, (the original hydrogen electron and the electron it is now sharing from the chlorine atom) and the chlorine atom has eight electrons in its outer most energy level, (the original seven chlorine electrons and the electron it is now sharing from the hydrogen atom). The sharing of two electrons (one from each atom) is called a covalent bond. PS-4.3 Illustrate the fact that ions attract ions of opposite charge from all directions and form crystal lattices. Metal atoms tend to lose electrons to become stable and that metals in groups 1 and 2 can most easily achieve a stable electron configuration by losing electrons to obtain an electron situation like the closest noble gas. Nonmetal atoms tend to gain electrons. For example: Group 16 atoms have two electrons less that the closest noble gas on the periodic table and six electrons in the outside energy level. They become stable by gaining two electrons so that its outer energy level becomes like the closest noble gas. The atom becomes an ion with a 2- charge because it now has two more negative electrons (-) than positive protons. Ionic bonds form when positively charged metal ions attract negatively charged nonmetal ions due to the attraction between oppositely charged particles. Positively and negatively charged ions surround each other and pack together as closely as possible to form an ionic crystal. The ions cluster in a ratio that will cancel the net charge of the ions. Show examples of ionic crystals or recognize examples of ionic crystals. Examples may be in the form of pictorial diagrams, or verbal descriptions or electron dot formulas. For example Sodium atoms lose one electron each to form sodium ions; Chlorine atoms gain one electron each to form chloride ions. 3 / 8
These oppositely charged ions then attract each other in a one to one ratio to form a crystalline arrangement of many ions. Sodium chloride can be represented as follows: Sodium chloride or as a Pictorial diagram: PS-4.4 Classify compounds as crystalline (containing ionic bonds) or molecular (containing covalent bonds) based on whether their outer electrons are transferred or shared Ionic Crystals Ionic crystals consist of metals bonded to nonmetals. Positive metal ions and negatively charged nonmetal ions pack together as closely as possible in a crystal lattice to form an ionic crystal. Examples of ionic crystals may include: sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium fluoride (CaF 2 ), and potassium iodide (KI). Molecular Substances Molecular substances often consist of nonmetals. Nonmetals share electrons in covalent bonds to become stable. Covalently bonded compounds are called molecules. Examples: hydrogen gas (H 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), water (H 2 O), and sugar (C 6 H 12 O 6 ). 4 / 8
PS-4.5 Predict the ratio by which the representative elements combine to form binary ionic compounds, and represent that ratio in a chemical formula. Predict the charge of the ions on atoms in Groups 1, 2, 16, and 17. Group 1 metals form 1+ ions, Group 2 metals form 2+ ion, Group 16 nonmetals form 2- ions, Group 17 nonmetals form 1- ions. A chemical formula indicates the ratio of atoms in a molecule or an ionic compound. The formula tells what elements are in the substance using symbols, and The formula indicates the number of atoms of each element in a unit of the substance using subscripts. Know the meaning of the symbols (identify the element) and subscripts (tell how many of each element) in a chemical formula. Compounds do not have a net charge. Write balanced chemical formulas for binary ionic compounds. ( Criss cross the charges) PS-4.6 Distinguish between chemical changes (including the formation of gas or reactivity with acids) and physical changes (including changes in size, shape, color, and/or phase). Chemical Changes A chemical change occurs when there is a change in the arrangement of the atoms involved so a different substance with different properties is produced. Evidence of a chemical change: o the formation of a new gas.. The reaction of a substance with an acid Active metals react with acids. Acids react with bases to form water and a salt (neutralization reaction).. Color change may be evidence that chemical change has occurred. Metal tarnishing or rusting Physical Changes A physical change is a change in matter from one form or appearance to another but does not involve a change in the identity of a substance. Physical changes occur a new substance is not produced. A substance may change size, such as being broken into smaller pieces, A substance may change in shape, such as being bent or stretched, A substance may expand or contract due to a temperature change. Color change may indicate a physical change. When different colors of paint, crayon, or food coloring are mixed together a mixture is formed and the color changes. No rearrangement of the atoms occurs. You still have the same substances that you started with they are just mixed together. This is a physical change. Phase changes (freezing, melting, evaporation, sublimation, etc.) are physical changes. 5 / 8
PS-4.7 Summarize characteristics of balanced chemical equations (including conservation of mass and changes in energy in the form of heat that is, exothermic or endothermic reactions) A chemical equation uses chemical formulas and symbols to show the reactants and the products in a chemical reaction. A balanced chemical equation represents the process of a chemical reaction where atoms are rearranged but not created or destroyed. The equation shows that the same atoms that existed before the chemical reaction (in the reactants) are still there after the reaction (in the products). Mass is conserved; the law of conservation of mass states that the mass of all substances that are present before a chemical change equals the mass of all the substances that are remaining after a chemical change. There is always an energy change when a chemical reaction occurs. If heat is given off it is called an exothermic reaction. This type of reaction releases heat to the area around the reaction, so this area will become warmer. If heat is absorbed it is called an endothermic reaction. This type of reaction takes heat from the area surrounding it, so the area around the reaction will become cooler. PS-4.8 Summarize evidence (including the evolution of gas; the formation of a precipitate; and/or changes in temperature, color, and/or odor) that a chemical reaction has occurred. When a chemical reaction occurs, there is some observable evidence, but evidence that a chemical reaction has occurred should be weighed carefully. Evidence is not proof. It is the combination of evidences that give validation for a chemical or physical change. When bubbles form, it may be evidence that a chemical reaction has occurred and that a new gas has been formed. An example of this is adding an active metal such as zinc to a hydrochloric acid solution. Hydrogen gas will evolve. This is evidence that a chemical reaction has occurred. Bubbles could also be evidence that boiling, which is a physical change, is occurring. When a precipitate forms, it could be evidence that an insoluble solid has formed and fallen out of solution. This is a chemical reaction. An example of this is adding a solution of silver nitrate to a solution of sodium chloride, a white precipitate of silver chloride is formed. It could also be true that some of a substance that was dissolved has fallen out of solution because of a change in conditions. This is a physical change. In all chemical reactions there is an energy change. When paper burns, heat and light are given off, an exothermic change. This would be evidence that a chemical reaction has occurred. Many physical changes also involve an energy change. For instance, melting is an endothermic change. Color change can be an evidence for a chemical change. When iron rusts or when silver tarnishes, it changes color. This is a chemical change. Color change can also be due to physical factors such as a change in the way light is shining on an object or the mixing of different colors of paint. This is not a chemical change. An odor being given off is often evidence that a chemical reaction has occurred. 6 / 8
When ammonium carbonate is heated the odor of ammonia gas can be detected. This is a chemical reaction. Odor can also occur because molecules are evaporating from the surface of a substance, which is a physical change. PS-4.9 Apply a procedure to balance equations for a simple synthesis or decomposition reaction. Each substance has a formula showing its composition A balanced equation represents a chemical reaction that rearranges atoms but does not create or destroy them. For each element, the number of atoms on the reactant side must equal the number of atoms on the product side. Coefficients indicate the number of units of each material that is involved in a reaction. Subscripts are used to write the formula for a substance; the coefficient in front of the formula is then used to balance the equation after the formulas are written correctly. Only change coefficients to balance the atoms in the equation for a simple synthesis reaction (two or more reactants combine to form one product) or decomposition reaction (a single reactant is broken apart into two or more products). Example of a balanced synthesis reaction equation: (The coefficients are underlined in this example.) 4 Al + 3 O 2 2 Al 2 O 3 Example of a balanced decomposition reaction equation: 2 NaCl 2 Na + Cl 2 (If the coefficient is one, the number 1 is often not written down, such as Cl 2, and the coefficient is understood to be one.) PS-4.10 Recognize simple chemical equations (including single replacement and double replacement) as being balanced or not balanced. A single replacement (displacement) reaction is a reaction in which one element takes the place of another element in a compound. For example: Zn + 2 HCl ZnCl 2 + H 2 A double replacement (ionic exchange) reaction is a reaction in which there is an apparent exchange of atoms or ions between two compounds. For example: FeS + 2 HCl H 2 S + FeCl 2 7 / 8
A balanced equation represents a chemical reaction that rearranges atoms but does not create or destroy them. For each element, the number of atoms on the reactant side must equal the number of atoms on the product side. PS-4.11 Explain the effects of temperature, concentration, surface area, and the presence of a catalyst on reaction rates. Chemical reactions occur when the particles of the reactants collide with sufficient energy to react. Factors that affect reaction rate are as follows: Temperature: When the temperature increases, the rate of a chemical reaction increases. The average kinetic energy of the molecules of reactants increases with increased temperatures and a greater number of the molecules will be moving faster. Since more of the particles are moving faster and fewer of the particles are moving slowly, there will be more total collisions between particles and more collisions can a mean faster reaction rate. More of the reactant particles will be moving faster and will, therefore, have enough energy to produce successful collisions and the reaction will proceed faster. Concentration: When reactants are more concentrated, the rate of a chemical reaction can increase. When reactants are more concentrated, it means there are more particles per unit volume. Because there are more particles in a given volume, there is a greater chance that reactant particles will collide. More collisions can mean a faster reaction rate. Surface Area: When the surface area of reactants increases, the reaction rate increases. Only the particles at the surface of a sample of reactant can collide with particles of other reactants. If the same mass of reactants is broken into smaller pieces, there is greater surface area. With many more particles on the surface, there is a greater chance for collisions to occur, and the chemical reaction will proceed faster. Catalyst: A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction without being permanently changed itself. The presence of a catalyst will speed up a chemical reaction. Catalysts can lower the amount of energy needed to start a reaction (activation energy). Since the energy needed for successful collisions is less, there will be more successful collisions, and the chemical reaction will proceed faster. 8 / 8