Mechanical Heat Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste.

Mechanical Heat Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste www.defra.gov.uk

Contents Preamble 1 1. Introduction 2 2. How it works 3 3. Markets and outlets for the outputs 7 4. Track record 13 5. Contractual and financing issues 16 6. Planning and permitting issues 18 7. Social and perception issues 24 8. Cost 25 9. Contribution to national targets 26 10. Further reading and sources of information 28 11. Glossary 29 Prepared by Enviros Consulting Limited on behalf of Defra as part of the New Technologies Supporter Programme. We acknowledge support from the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra), the Department of Communities & Local Government (DCLG), the Environment Agency (EA) and BeEnvironmental Ltd. This Document has been produced by Enviros Consulting Limited (Technical Advisors) on behalf of Defra to provide assistance to Local Authorities and the waste management market generally through awareness raising of the key municipal waste management options for thediversion of BMW from landfill. The Document has been developed in good faith by the Advisors on behalf of Defra, and neither Defra not its Advisers shall incur any liability for any action or omission arising out of any reliance being placed on the Document by any Local Authority or organisation or other person. Any Local Authority or organisation or other person in receipt of this Document should take their own legal, financial and other relevant professional advice when considering what action (if any) to take in respect of any waste strategy, initiative, proposal, or other involvement with any waste management option or technology, or before placing any reliance on anything contained therein. Any interpretation of policy in this document is that of Enviros and not of Defra or DCLG. Crown copyright, 2007 Cover image courtesy of Fairport Engineering

Preamble This Waste Management Technology Brief, updated in 2007, is one of a series of documents prepared under the New Technologies work stream of the Defra Waste Implementation Programme. The Briefs address technologies that may have an increasing role in diverting Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) from landfill. They provide an alternative technical option as part of an integrated waste strategy, having the potential to recover materials & energy and reduce the quantity of MSW requiring final disposal to landfill. Other titles in this series include: An Introductory Guide to Waste Management Options; Mechanical Biological Treatment, Advanced Biological Treatment, Advanced Thermal Treatment, Incineration; Renewable Energy and Waste Technologies, and Managing Outputs from Waste Technologies. The prime audience for these Briefs are local authorities, in particular waste management officers, members and other key decision makers for MSW management in England. It should be noted that these documents are intended as guides to each generic technology area. Further information can be found at the Waste Technology Data Centre, funded by the Defra New Technologies Programme and delivered by the Environment Agency (www.environmentagency.gov.uk/wtd). These Briefs deal primarily with the treatment and processing of residual MSW. Information on the collection and markets for source segregated materials is available from Defra and from ROTATE (Recycling and Organics Technical Advisory Team) at the Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP). These waste technologies can assist in the delivery of the Government s key objectives, as outlined in The Waste Strategy for England 2007, for meeting and exceeding the Landfill Directive diversion targets, and increasing recycling of resources and recovery of energy. The Defra New Technologies Demonstrator Programme has provided nine projects aimed at proving the economic, social and environmental viability (or not) of a selection of waste management technologies. For information on the demonstrator projects see the Defra website or email Wastetech@enviros.com. 1

1. Introduction Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is waste collected by or on behalf of a local authority. It comprises mostly household waste and it may include some commercial and industrial wastes. Historically, the quantity of MSW has risen year on year 1, presenting a growing problem for local authorities particularly as legislation, which limits (by implication 2 ) the amount of mixed MSW that can be sent to landfill, becomes more stringent over time. This legislation also stipulates the requirement for pre-treatment of waste before it is sent to landfill. One of the guiding principles for European and UK waste management has been the concept of a hierarchy of waste management options, where the most desirable option is not to produce the waste in the first place (waste prevention) and the least desirable option is to dispose of the waste with no recovery of either materials and/or energy. Between these two extremes there are a variety of waste treatment options that may be used as part of a waste management strategy to recover materials (for example furniture reuse, glass recycling or organic waste composting) or generate energy from the wastes (for example through incineration, or digesting biodegradable wastes to produce usable gases). At present more than 62% of all MSW generated in England is disposed of in landfills 3. However, European and UK legislation has been put in place to limit the amount of biodegradable municipal waste (BMW) sent for disposal in landfills 4. A key driver for this focus on biodegradable waste is to reduce the uncontrolled release of greenhouse gas emissions to atmosphere. The diversion of this material is currently one of the most significant challenges facing the management of Municipal Solid Waste in the UK. There are a variety of alternative waste management options and strategies available for dealing with BMW to limit the residual amount left for disposal to landfill. The aim of this guide is to provide impartial information about the range of technologies referred to as Mechanical Heat Treatment (MHT). These technologies are pre-treatment technologies which contribute to the diversion of MSW from landfill when operated as part of a wider integrated approach involving additional treatment stages. They are part of a range of new alternatives currently being assessed and investigated through the New Technologies work stream of Defra s Waste Implementation Programme. Further details about the new technologies featured in this report are available from Waste Technology Data Centre: www.environment-agency.gov.uk/wtd The technologies described in this Brief - Mechanical Heat Treatment - have a limited track record worldwide. The aim of this document is to raise awareness of this type of technology and present the most current information regarding their implementation. This guide is designed to be read in conjunction with the other Waste Management Technology Briefs in this series and with the case studies provided on Waste Technology Data Centre. Other relevant sources of information are identified throughout the document. 1 This is now showing signs of slowing down and in some areas waste arisings are falling, and indeed in 2005/6 there was a 3% fall nationally. However, this may be partly explained by other factors occurring in that particular financial year. 2 Targets pertain to the biodegradable fraction in MSW 3 Results from WasteDataFlow http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/wastats/bulletin.htm 4 The Landfill Directive, Waste and Emissions Trading Act 2003 and Landfill Allowances Trading Scheme Regulations 2

2. How it works 2. Main How Heading it works This section gives an overview of the principles of Mechanical Heat Treatment (MHT) processes, i.e. technologies that use thermal treatment in conjunction with mechanical processing. Alternative waste management technologies which use other (higher temperature) thermal treatment processes are dealt with in separate Briefs in this series: Advanced Thermal Treatment and Incineration. 2.1 Aim of the Processes Mechanical Heat Treatment is a relatively new term 5. It is used to describe configurations of mechanical and thermal, including steam, based technologies. The generic purpose of these processes is to separate a mixed waste stream into several component parts, to give further options for recycling, recovery and in some instances biological treatment. The processes also sanitise the waste, by destroying bacteria present, and reduce its moisture content. 2.2 History of the Processes The most common system being promoted for the treatment of MSW using MHT is based around a thermal autoclave (see Table 1). Autoclaving has been used for many years to sterilise hospital and surgical equipment using the action of steam and pressure. This technology is also in common use for the sanitisation treatment of some clinical wastes, and for certain rendering processes for animal wastes, prior to sending to landfill. However its application to MSW is a recent innovation and there is limited commercial experience on this feedstock material. A second type of MHT system is a nonpressurised heat treatment process, where waste is heated in a rotating kiln prior to mechanical separation. Table 1: Heat Treatment Options Heat Treatment process Description Type 1: Autoclaving batch, steam processing in a vessel under the action of pressure Type 2: Continuous heat treatment in a vessel, not under the action of pressure waste is subjected to steam under pressure, followed by mechanical sorting and separation of the sterilised waste waste is dried using externally applied heat, followed by mechanical sorting and separation of the sanitised waste Details of the Process Figure 1 illustrates the various stages in the process, and some possible options for dealing with the outputs. 5 Throughout this guide the term Mechanical Heat treatment is used; the Waste technology Data Centre chooses to use the term Physical Treatment to describe the same type of technology 3

2. How it works Figure 1: Mechanical Heat Treatment Schematic MSW Mechanical Preparation & Heat Treatment Mechancial Separation Rejects to landfill Recyclables; metals, plastics, glass Floc/fibre Biological treatment Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) Recycling application Compost like output 2.3 Mechanical Preparation Some processes carry out a basic initial screening process to remove any large items from the waste stream unsuitable for further processing in the system; for example, large metal objects, rubble or particularly bulky items such as carpets. Several processes shred the waste to homogenise the particle size. The waste is then loaded into the heat treatment vessel. In some systems waste is loaded into the heat vessel in a raw form, however in such instances there is usually some mechanical abrasion tool within the heat chamber (e.g. blades / helix) to break up the waste. 2.4 Heat Treatment All MHT processes use heat and/or steam treatment, which may or may not be applied under pressure. The treatment vessel is loaded with waste and either an autoclave or continuous process is used as follows: the autoclave process is a batch process, so the vessel is sealed. Steam is injected into the vessel, wetting the waste. Pressure is applied in the range of 5-7 bar, and the vessel is rotated to mix the waste. These conditions are maintained for up to one hour, after which the pressure is released, and the contents emptied from the vessel. an alternative heat treatment process, which usually accepts shredded waste, is a continuous process. This means the waste continuously passes through the vessel as it is treated. Water is added to the waste to give a pre-determined moisture content. The vessel is under atmospheric pressure, and the waste is rotated as a hot air stream 4

2. How it works passes through the vessel. The residence time of the waste in the vessel is generally up to 45 minutes, after which the treated waste is removed for mechanical separation. causes most heat and moisture contained within the waste to vaporize, and so a further drying stage prior to materials separation is not usually required. The aim of the autoclave process is to cook the waste, and has the following effect on the waste: biodegradable materials, including paper and card, are broken down into a fibre; glass bottles and tins have their labels removed as the glue disintegrates under the action of the heat; plastics are softened, and labels are removed. Certain types of plastics are deformed by the heat, but remain in a recognisable state, whereas other plastics soften completely forming hard balls of dense plastic. The resulting outputs from this heat/steam processing are relatively clean hard recyclables (tins, glass and plastics with no labels and most of the food waste removed) a fibrous material from the breakdown of paper, card and green/kitchen waste constituents, and a reject fraction. Both systems apply temperature in the range of 120-170 o C, which is sufficient to destroy bacteria present in the waste. This has benefits in terms of storage, transport and handling of the outputs as they are sanitised, and are free from the biological activity that may give rise to odour problems. There is also a significant volume reduction of the waste. 2.5 Heat/Steam Efficiency MHT processes using steam and pressure usually release the pressure in the vessel via a condenser, to trap and recycle water within the process. The depressurisation of the vessel MHT processes operating at atmospheric pressure and using heat usually return hot gases exiting the vessel to the front end to provide some pre-heating for incoming waste. The remaining hot gases are released to atmosphere via an economiser and a condenser gas scrubbing system, which creates a liquid effluent stream. 2.6 Materials Separation The materials removed from the MHT vessels are potentially recyclable and include glass, metals and plastics and a fibre or floc. MHT systems invariably utilise a number of separation techniques to extract the various recyclable components post-heat treatment. These are likely to be similar mechanical separation technologies used in Mechanical Biological Treatment systems, and are described in Table 2. A high-quality ferrous and non-ferrous metal stream, cleaned of 5

2. How it works labels and foodstuffs is always extracted for recycling. Some systems may also extract a glass / aggregate stream, and a plastics stream for recycling. There may be small amounts of fibre / contrary material trapped within containers destined for recycling, and so whilst the recyclate is likely to be considerably cleaner than materials extracted for example from an MBT process, there may still be some quality issues for some reprocessors. As with any waste treatment process there will be a reject fraction which must be disposed of. The fibre comprises the biodegradable elements of the waste stream (green waste, kitchen waste, paper, card etc). There are a number of potential options available for the remaining fibre after removal of recyclables, and these are discussed in the next section. Table 2: Mechanical Waste Separation Techniques Separation Technique Trommels and Screens Manual Separation Magnetic Separation Eddy Current Separation Air Classification Ballistic Separation Optical Separation Separation Property Size Visual examination Magnetic Properties Electrical Conductivity Weight Density and Elasticity Diffraction Materials targeted Oversize paper, plastic Small kitchen waste, glass, fines Plastics, contaminants, oversize Ferrous metals Non ferrous metals Light plastics, paper Heavy stones, glass Light plastics, paper Heavy stones, glass Specific plastic polymers 2.7 Configurations Different MHT systems may be configured to meet various objectives with regard to the waste outputs from the process (Figure 1). The alternative objectives, depending on the system employed, may be one or more of the following: separate an biodegradable component of the waste for subsequent biological processing, for example to form a low grade compost-like output; produce a segregated high calorific value waste (see Box 1), potentially high in biomass, to be applied in an appropriate process to utilise its energy potential; and extract materials for recycling (typically glass and metals, potentially plastics and the fibrous organic and paper fraction). Whilst a variety of treatment and mechanical separation options are offered, plant should be configured according to availability of markets and outlets for the outputs (see Markets and Outlets for the Outputs section). It is important to retain the flexibility, for example by allowing sufficient space within buildings, to adapt the process to produce different outputs to meet the needs of the market over time. 2.8 Summary This section illustrates two types of MHT process, with autoclaving being the more familiar example. Waste is cooked by the processes to destroy bacteria, and facilitate onward separation of materials. Cleaned recyclables are one of the outputs, with a sanitised fibre as the majority output. There are several potential options for further recycling/recovery of the fibre which are all dependent on availability of sustained markets and outlets. 6

3. Markets and outlets for the outputs In the UK, at present, the markets for most of the outputs from MHT have yet to be proven on a commercial scale. Considerable effort is being undertaken by a number of organisations and individuals to change this situation. Plants being specified today will need to provide materials into an underdeveloped market and clearly it is prudent to install or at least maintain operational flexibility in terms of the degree and types of separation of materials that any proposed plant can achieve. The following sections summarise some key issues with regard to the markets and outlets for outputs derived from MHT processing of MSW. 3.1 Materials Recycling Glass, Metals and Plastics Glass and metals derived from some MHT processes have the potential to be significantly cleaner than those from Mechanical Biological Treatment processes due to the action of steam cleaning, which removes glues and labels. Metals in particular can have higher revenue value if labels / foodstuffs have been removed, and cleaner recyclables may be easier to market. Other recyclables such as plastics may also be extracted from some systems. However, most plastic materials are deformed by the heat of the process, some to a greater extent than others, potentially making them more difficult to recycle in some instances. Appropriate plastics could be recycled, or alternatively could be blended with other secondary fuels and combusted to recover energy where outlets or markets exist. and as such is subject to legislative requirements concerning its handling, storage and disposal. The main options available for the fibre output are: use as a raw material in recycled products; biologically process for use as a low grade compost-like output, or as a bio-stabilised residue for disposal; or use for its combustible properties as a fuel. The separated fibre contains most of the biodegradable municipal waste and is the main output of the process. Potential recycling applications for this fibre are being developed. Work is being undertaken to evaluate use of the fibre as a raw material for example by mixing the fibre together with crushed shale and a resin to manufacture products (e.g. composite such as floor tiles). Other options may include mixing with cement to produce building products, and washing the fibre to extract the long cellulose fibres suitable for paper-making. However, the market for recycled products made with fibre from MHT processes is not yet established and is subject to ongoing development. For more information on the contribution of MHT to Best Value Performance Indicators and recycling see section 9, and for the latest developments see the local authority performance pages on the Defra website http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/l ocalauth/perform-manage/index.htm and http://www.wastedataflow.org/documents/bv PI%20FAQs.pdf Fibre As with any output from a waste treatment facility, the fibre is still classified as a waste, 7

3. Markets and outlets for the outputs The second option is to biologically process the fibre. Since the autoclave process is a sanitisation process that kills most of the microbes present in the waste, the fibre may need to be seeded with microbes (e.g. mixed with material that has already undergone biological treatment) to accelerate the onset of the biological process. Either composting or anaerobic digestion techniques could be used. Compost-like outputs or digestate from these processes would still be classified as a waste and therefore subject to Waste Management Licensing regulations. As with any waste treatment process for mixed waste containing animal products, it will be necessary to comply with the Animal By-Product Regulations (ABPR). If the fibre from an MHT process is destined to be spread on land (which includes its use as landfill daily cover), without further biological processing, the MHT process must comply with ABPR standards. If the fibre is to be biologically processed, and the MHT process does not comply with ABPR, the biological process must be approved under ABPR. If material is destined for landfill or incineration only, neither the MHT nor the biological process need comply with ABPR. For further information please see the Advanced Biological Treatment Brief in this series. For further information on this topic see www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/byprods/default.htm 3.2 Energy Recovery Where MSW is sorted or treated to produce a high calorific value waste stream comprising significant proportions of the available combustible materials such as mixed paper, plastics and card, and potentially some kitchen/green waste matter, this stream is termed Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF - see Box 1). 8

3. Markets and outlets for the outputs Box 1: Fuel from mixed waste processing operations The current prevalent term used for a fuel produced from combustible waste is Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF). The types of technologies used to prepare or segregate a fuel fraction from MSW include the MHT processes described within this Brief. A CEN Technical Committee (TC 343) is currently progressing standardisation work on fuels prepared from wastes, classifying a Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF). Preliminary standards have been published in June 2006, and are following an evaluation process, during which the functioning of the specifications will be verified. The technical specifications classify the SRF by thermal value, chlorine content and mercury content. For example, the thermal value class will be based on the number of megajoules one kilogram of recovered fuel contains. In addition, there are many characteristics for which no specific values have been determined. Instead, they can be agreed upon between the producer and the purchaser of SRF. Along with the standardisation process, a validation project called QUOVADIS (http://quovadis.cesi.it/) on solid recovered fuels is currently being implemented. It is anticipated that once standards are developed and become accepted by users, then SRF will become the terminology used by the waste management industry. Other terminology has also been introduced to the industry as various fuel compositions may be prepared from waste by different processes. Examples include Biodegradable Fuel Product (BFP) and Refined Renewable Biomass Fuel (RRBF). European standards for SRF are important for the facilitation of trans-boundary shipments and access to permits for the use of recovered fuels. There may also be cost savings for co-incineration plants as a result of reduced measurements (e.g. for heavy metals) of incoming fuels. Standards will aid the rationalisation of design criteria for combustion units, and consequently cost savings for equipment manufacturers. Importantly standards will guarantee the quality of fuel for energy producers. Within this Brief, Refuse Derived Fuel will be used as a term to cover the various fuel products processed from MSW. The fibre from an MHT process may be combusted as a Refuse Derived Fuel to release the energy contained within. The fibre is typically of a fine homogenous nature consisting of broken down biodegradable matter, paper and card, providing a consistent feedstock for onward thermal combustion. Fibre produced by an MHT plant is visibly different to an RDF produced by an MBT plant. The predominant difference is that RDF from a MBT plant usually contains recognisable components, including plastic, paper and card, and may also contain organic material from certain systems. It is also likely to be less homogenous in nature than RDF from MHT. There may be different operational requirements regarding thermal combustion of each of these types of RDF. However some systems are designed to process RDF to a particular fuel specification tailored to a specific market demand. 9

3. Markets and outlets for the outputs 3.3 Legislative Requirements RDF is a waste and therefore any facility using the fuel will be subject to the requirements of the Waste Incineration Directive. Electricity generated from the biodegradable fraction of waste in certain technologies is eligible for support under the Renewables Obligation (RO). Electricity recovered from the biomass component of RDF qualifies for support if it is generated in advanced conversion technologies, including pyrolysis or gasification plant (see the Advanced Thermal Treatment Brief), or in a conventional combustion facility with Good Quality Combined Heat and Power (CHP). Fuels over 90% biomass in content also qualify for ROCs if burnt in a conventional boiler, ATT facility or co-combusted for power generation. Producing a fuel of this quality from MSW would require considerable refinement, which potentially could be achieved through technologies such as MHT. Up-to-date information regarding RDF and ROCs can be obtained from the DTI website http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/renewables/. Also see the Defra New Technologies Demonstrator Programme for demos using RDF. 3.4 Types of Facility accepting RDF The process of separation and refinement of an RDF fraction from mixed waste can use significant amounts of energy. It is therefore particularly important that as much energy as possible which is stored within the RDF is captured during combustion, to make the energy expended during separation and refinement worthwhile. A high conversion efficiency process should be used to combust the RDF. Whichever combustion route is chosen, the individual process should be examined in detail to establish its energy conversion efficiencies. There are several options available for the thermal combustion of RDF within the UK, including: dedicated waste treatment plant accepting RDF as a fuel (e.g. incinerator or Advanced Thermal Treatment plant); or combustion in an existing industrial process. Potential outlets for RDF Defra has identified 6 potential outlets for RDF. The viability of some of these is dependent on legislative changes being made, which may or may not happen. The 6 potential outlets are: 1. Industrial intensive users for power, heat or both (Combined Heat and Power, CHP) 2. Cement kilns 3. Purpose built incinerators with power or power and heat (CHP) 4. Co-firing with coal at power stations 5. Co-firing with fuels like poultry litter and biomass which are eligible for Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs see later in this section) in conventional technologies 6. Advanced thermal technologies, such as pyrolysis and gasification which are ROC eligible technology 10

3. Markets and outlets for the outputs RDF from a UK MBT facility is already utilised at a cement works as an energy source, replacing other fuels. Industrial intensive energy users are not yet using RDF but some interest from industry is being shown in the market place. RDF needs to be used as a fossil-fuel replacement fuel to establish any environmental benefit over directly combusting the residual waste in an incinerator. Not all ATT processes will offer the efficiencies appropriate. There is currently only one dedicated conventional combustion plant (incinerator) in the UK that uses RDF as a fuel to generate electricity. Another facility which accepts prepared fuel, (generated from raw MSW delivered at the front end of the plant) which could be termed crude RDF is also combusted in a recently commissioned Fluidised-Bed incinerator in Kent, illustrated in Table 3. Table 3: Combustion technology plant generating electricity from RDF in England RDF Combustion plant Slough Berkshire Allington Kent Operator Slough Heat & Power Kent Enviropower K tonnes/year 100 500 RDF may also be utilised within some appropriate Advanced Thermal Treatment (ATT) processes. A suitably scaled, dedicated ATT plant could represent a part of an integrated strategy in combination with MBT. A separate Waste Management Technology Brief, in this series, is available on the subject of ATT processes. The energy use incurred in the separation of waste typically involves around 15 20% of the energy value of the waste. If the RDF is to be used as an energy source then a high efficiency process (e.g. Advanced Thermal Treatment or Incineration with Combined Heat and Power) needs to be used, or the The advantage of co-combusting RDF at power stations or other large thermal processes is that the infrastructure may already be in place; a disadvantage is that the outlet for the fuel is subject to obtaining a contract of sufficient duration and tonnage, with a commercial partner. An estimate of the potential market for RDF in the UK is provided in the table 4 below. 11

3. Markets and outlets for the outputs Table 4: Estimated size of the RDF market Output Outlet Predicted Market size (t/a) Source RDF UK Cement Kilns 350,000 Resource Recovery Forum, 2004 6 Packaging & Packaging waste (incl. municipal derived RDF) UK Cement Kilns 500,000 British Cement Association, 2003 7 RDF Paper Industry 300,000 600,000 NB: Required construction of dedicated RDF plant at paper mills Resource Recovery Forum, 2004 The co-combustion of RDF is an emerging market. It is currently anticipated that cement kilns along with large industrial energy users and the power generation sector will provide the majority of potential capacity for using RDF. There is however, competition from other wastes to be processed within the cement production process including tyres, some hazardous wastes, secondary liquid fuels etc. Consequently it is expected that there may be competition (and competitive gate fees) for acceptance of RDF at cement kilns. A local authority currently would have to pay for the RDF to be used in a cement kiln. Emphasis should be put on developing sustainable markets for materials As an emerging market there are also potential risks in terms of the operations of large thermal facilities accepting RDF from mixed waste processing as a fuel source. However, waste contractors are developing relationships with the cement industry and others to try and meet their specifications and provide a useful industrial fuel and waste recovery operation. Renewable Energy RDF is classified as a waste and therefore any facility using the fuel will be subject to the requirements of the Waste Incineration Directive (WID). As with the cement industry, power stations would need to be WID compliant. This would represent a significant capital investment for the industry. However WID only requires an operator to upgrade those facilities at a power station in which waste is handled to WID standards 8. If an operator has more than one boiler then only one would need to be upgraded. This might make RDF a more attractive option for the power generation industry. Electricity generated from the biodegradable fraction of waste in certain technologies is eligible for support under the Renewables Obligation (RO). Electricity recovered from the biomass component of RDF qualifies for support if it is generated in advanced conversion technologies, including pyrolysis or gasification plant (see the Advanced Thermal Treatment Brief), or in a conventional combustion facility with Good Quality Combined Heat and Power (CHP). Up-to-date information regarding RDF and ROCs can be obtained from the DTI website http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/renewables/. Also see the Defra New Technologies Demonstrator Programme for demos using RDF. 6 RDF Opportunities: Coal and Cement Industries, Fichtner Consulting, RRF 2004 7 Submission of Evidence to House of Commons Select Committee, January 2003 8 Written answers to Alan Whitehead MP from Ben Bradshaw, Minister of State for Defra, 07/03/2007 12

4. Track record The autoclave process has been used to treat clinical waste for many years and is a proven and effective technology for this waste. It has also been used for many years to sterilise hospital and surgical equipment. The concept of MHT is new for MSW and therefore most of the operational experience is based on small scale or mobile demonstration plant. Listed below are some examples of MHT processes currently in the marketplace. 4.1 Estech Europe This technology is under development. Discussions are in progress for supply to a number of UK Local Authorities. The Estech technology for processing MSW originated in the USA with a prototype autoclave for mixed waste, which lead to a patentable technology. A 5,000 tpa mobile demonstration plant began UK testing in September 2003. Planning permission has been obtained for a 100,000 tpa plant for Hereford and Worcester. This process uses wet steam under pressure (autoclave) to clean materials, soften plastics and reduce biodegradable material into a fibre. Following the autoclaving or cooking process the materials can be more easily and effectively separated in a MRF. The key process stages include waste reception and storage, waste feeding, autoclaving, materials separation with recyclates recovery. The primary product is a fibre for which potential applications are being examined in the manufacture of insulation or fibre board, door and wall panelling, and roof tiles, or as an absorbent material. It is understood that a number of development projects and joint ventures have been created by Estech to generate useful markets for the fibre. Alternatively the fibre could constitute a Refuse Derived Fuel. The secondary streams comprise of mixed plastics, a glass and aggregate stream and separate ferrous and non-ferrous metals. All these streams are clean due to the action of the steam, and are all potentially recyclable. The full cycle of loading, treatment and sorting is normally completed within 90 minutes. Capacity of each unit is indicated at 20 tonnes (per batch). This information has been sourced from the Waste Technology Data Centre www.environment-agency.gov.uk/wtd 4.2 Orchid Environmental A 25,000 to 40,000 tpa demonstration plant has been built in Adlington, Lancashire, which proved the efficacy of the process and produced representative products. A plant is due to be built under the Defra New Technologies Demonstrator programme, in Merseyside, with a capacity of up to 50,000 tpa. The process is a heat treatment process, drying and sanitising MSW, to allow easier separation of recyclables and to produce a refined biomass material which could be used as RDF. Household waste and other materials are delivered to the site, and any large inappropriate items, such as rubble, carpets, etc are removed and disposed of to landfill. The remaining material is shredded, wetted and transferred to the heat processing drum, which operates at atmospheric pressure on a continuous basis. This heat treatment dries, sanitises and disrupts the materials, rendering them easier to subsequently separate. The residence time in the processor is typically between 30 and 40 minutes. The bulk of the hot exhaust gases exiting from the processor 13

4. Track record are immediately returned to the feed-end, providing some pre-heating and consequent energy recovery. The balance of the exhaust hot gas discharges to atmosphere via an economiser and a condenser gas scrubbing system, this in turn creates a liquid effluent stream. The processed waste then passes through a series of trommel and sieving operations to separate metals, plastics and inert materials. The remaining fibre can be used as a RDF. This information has been sourced from the Waste Technology Data Centre www.environment-agency.gov.uk/wtd 4.3 Sterecycle Development began in 1991 with international patents dating back to 1993. A demonstration plant consisting of 3 tonne vessels for demonstration and R&D is operating in Nevada, USA. A 70,000 tpa MHT plant has been operating on MSW in Minnesota, USA from July 2004. The Sterecycle system is a two-stage process: in the 1st stage steam autoclaving takes place at temperatures in excess of 140 C; the 2nd stage is the mechanical separation of the resulting autoclaved material. The following sterilised recyclate materials with labels and foodstuffs removed - can be recovered by using a variety of existing wellproven mechanical separation techniques: aluminium cans, steel cans, glass, plastics, and textiles A variety of possible uses exist for the highbiomass content fibre, including: Substituting in place of a paper fibre; Anaerobic digestion and /or composting to produce a compost-like output; Gasification: the fibre can be gasified to produce energy and/or heat; and Briquetting: the fibre can be converted into a pellet or briquette as a high biomass RDF, with potential markets with third party energy producers. This information has been sourced from the Waste Technology Data Centre www.environment-agency.gov.uk/wtd Sterecycle propose to have an operation MHT plant for processing MSW in the UK in summer 2007. 4.4 Fernwood Group Limited The Company s initial facility is currently under construction in Anaheim, California and is scheduled to begin partial operation in 2006. The two autoclave vessels being installed are designed to process up to 160,000 tpa of MSW. In 2006, the Company intends to begin the planning process for a facility elsewhere in the USA which management expects will contain eight, 250 ton per day units. This process is an autoclave MHT system which utilises a sealed rotating vessel to combine steam, heat, atmospheric pressure and agitation to convert MSW into usable materials. It is claimed that the main fibre fraction is further processed for use in paper and packaging products. Other recyclable materials such as aluminium, steel, tin and plastics are also captured and sold for recycling. Residual MSW is delivered on-site, large unsuitable items are removed, and the remaining waste is loaded into large autoclaves, holding approximately 30 tons of MSW per batch. 14

4. Track record MSW is then processed using the autoclave process at proprietary conditions of time, temperature, moisture, and agitation while, using a patented process, the volatile organic compounds are captured and rendered inert. As there are 2 vessels in the installation, the depressurisation steam from one vessel can be used to accomplish the purging step in the other vessel, thus conserving energy and facilitating depressurisation of the pressurised vessel due to the pressure differential as the steam entering the lower pressure vessel condenses. At the cycle s conclusion, the resulting sterilised materials are mechanically separated by type of material. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are baled for sale to recycling markets. Plastics are extracted for recycling. The fibre is then claimed to be further processed for use by the packaging manufacturing industry. The remaining waste fraction consisting mainly of grit, stones, and rejected fibre is transported to landfill for disposal. 15

5. Contractual and financing issues Grants and Funding Development of MHT plant will involve capital expenditure of several million pounds. There are a number of potential funding sources for Local Authorities planning to develop such facilities, including: Capital Grants: general grants may be available from national economic initiatives and EU structural funds; Prudential Borrowing: the Local Government Act 2003 provides for a 'prudential' system of capital finance controls; PFI Credits and Private Sector Financing: under the Private Finance Initiative a waste authority can obtain grant funding from central Government to support the capital expenditure required to deliver new facilities. This grant has the effect of reducing the financing costs for the Private Sector, thereby reducing the charge for the treatment service; Other Private-Sector Financing: A contractor may be willing to enter a contract to provide a new facility and operate it. The contractor s charges for this may be expressed as gate fees; and Existing sources of local authority funding: for example National Non-Domestic Rate payments (distributed by central government), credit (borrowing) approvals, local tax raising powers (council tax), income from rents, fees, charges and asset sales (capital receipts). In practice capacity for this will be limited but generally it is through raising taxes. The Government is encouraging the use of different funding streams, otherwise known as a mixed economy for the financing and procurement of new waste infrastructure to reflect the varying needs of local authorities. Contractual Arrangements Medium and large scale municipal waste management contracts are usually procured through EU Competitive Dialogue under the Public Contract Regulations (2006). The available contractual arrangement between the private sector provider (PSP) and the waste disposal authority (or partnership) may be one of the following: Separate Design; Build; Operate: and Finance:- The waste authority contracts separately for the works and services needed, and provides funding by raising capital for each of the main contracts. The contract to build the facility would be based on the council s design and specification and the council would own the facility once constructed; Design & Build; Operate; Finance: A contract is let for the private sector to provide both the design and construction of a facility to specified performance requirements. The waste authority owns the facility that is constructed and makes separate arrangements to raise capital. Operation would be arranged through a separate Operation and Maintenance contract; Design, Build and Operate; Finance: The Design and Build and Operation and Maintenance contracts are combined. The waste authority owns the facility once constructed and makes separate arrangements to raise capital; Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO): This contract is a Design and Build and Operate but the contractor also provides the financing of the project. The contractor designs, constructs and operates the plant to agreed performance requirements. Regular 16

5. Contractual and financing issues performance payments are made over a fixed term to recover capital and financing costs, operating and maintenance expenses, plus a reasonable return. At the end of the contract, the facility is usually transferred back to the client in a specified condition; and DBFO with PFI: This is a Design, Build, Finance and Operate contract, but it is procured under the Private Finance Initiative. In this case the waste authority obtains grant funding from Government as a supplement to finance from its own and private sector sources. The PFI grant is only eligible for facilities treating residual waste and is payable once capital expenditure is incurred. The majority of large scale waste management contracts currently being procured in England are Design, Build, Finance and Operate contracts and many waste disposal authorities in two tier English arrangements (County Councils) are currently seeking to partner with their Waste Collection Authorities (usually District or Borough Councils). Sometimes partnerships are also formed with neighbouring Unitary Authorities to maximise the efficiency of the waste management service and make the contract more attractive to the Private Sector Provider. Before initiating any procurement or funding process for a new waste management treatment facility, the following issues should be considered: performance requirements; waste inputs; project duration; project cost; available budgets; availability of sites; planning status; interface with existing contracts; timescales; governance and decision making arrangements; market appetite and risk allocation. Further guidance on these issues can be obtained from: Local Authority funding http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/wast e/localauth/funding/pfi/index.htm The Local Government PFI project support guide www.local.odpm.gov.uk/pfi/grantcond.pdf For Works Contracts: the Institution of Civil Engineers New Engineering Contract (available at www.ice.org.uk). For large scale Waste Services Contracts through PFI and guidance on waste sector projects see the 4ps, local government's project delivery organisation http://www.4ps.gov.uk/pagecontent.aspx?id =90&tp=Y 17

6. Planning and permitting issues This section contains information on the planning and regulatory issues associated with MHT facilities based on legislative requirements, formal guidance, good practice and in particular drawing on information contained in the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister s research report on waste planning published in August 2004 9. 6.1 Planning Application Requirements All development activities are covered by Planning laws and regulations. Minor development may be allowed under Permitted Development rights but in almost all cases new development proposals for waste facilities will require planning permission. Under certain circumstances new waste facilities can be developed on sites previously used for General Industrial (B2) or Storage and Distribution (B8) activities. In practice even where existing buildings are to be used to accommodate new waste processes, variations to existing permissions are likely to be required to reflect changes in traffic movements, emissions etc. Under changes to the planning system introduced in 2006 all waste development is now classed as Major Development. This has implications with respect to the level of information that the planning authority will expect to accompany the application and also with respect to the likely planning determination period. The target determination periods for different applications are: Standard Application 8 weeks Major Development - 13 weeks EIA Development - 16 weeks The principal national planning policy objectives associated with waste management activities are set out in Planning Policy Statement (PPS) 10 Planning for Sustainable Waste Management published in July 2005. Supplementary guidance is also contained within the Companion Guide to PPS 10. Both of these documents can be accessed via the Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG) website 10. PPS 10 places the emphasis on the plan led system which should facilitate the development of new waste facilities through the identification of sites and policies in the relevant local development plan. Separate guidance on the content and validation of planning applications is also available from DCLG through their website 11. Individual Planning Authorities can set out their own requirements with respect to supporting information and design criteria through Supplementary Planning Documents linked to the Local Development Framework. It is important that prospective developers liaise closely with their Local Planning Authorities over the content and scope of planning applications. 9 http://www.communities.gov.uk/embeddedindex.asp?id=1145711 10 http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1143834 11 http://www.communities.gov.uk/pub/494/bestpracticeguidanceonthevalidationofplanningapplicationspdf326kb_id1144494.pdf 18

6. Planning and permitting issues 6.2 Key Issues When considering the planning implications of a MHT facility the key issues that will need to be considered are common to most waste management facilities and are: Plant or Facility Siting; Traffic; Air Emissions and Health Effects; Dust and Odour; Flies, Vermin and Birds; Noise; Litter; Water Resources; Visual Intrusion; and Public Concern. A brief overview of the planning context for each of these issues is provided below. 6.3 Plant Siting Mixed waste processing (such as MHT) can take place in many different buildings at a variety of locations. PPS 10 and its Companion Guide contains general guidance on the selection of sites suitable for waste facilities. This guidance does not differentiate between facility types but states that: Most waste management activities are now suitable for industrial locations, many fall within the general industrial class in the Use Classes Order. 12 The move towards facilities and processes being enclosed within purpose designed buildings, rather than in the open air, has accentuated this trend. The guidance goes on to state: With advancement in mitigation techniques, some waste facilities may also be considered as light industrial in nature and therefore compatible with residential development. In more rural areas, redundant agricultural and forestry buildings may also provide suitable opportunities, particularly for the management of agricultural wastes The following general criteria would also apply to the siting of new MHT plants: MHT processes can be similar in appearance and characteristics to various process industries. It would often be suitable to locate facilities on land previously used for general industrial activities or land allocated in development plans for such (B2) use.; Facilities are likely to require good transport infrastructure. Such sites should either be located close to the primary road network or alternatively have the potential to be accessed by rail or barge; The location of such plants together with other waste operations can be advantageous. The potential for colocation of such facilities on resource recovery parks or similar is also highlighted in the Companion Guide; General concerns about bio-aerosols from biological processing may require an MHT site to be located away from sensitive receptors. 6.4 Traffic Centralised waste facilities will most likely be served by large numbers of HGVs with a potential impact on local roads and the amenity of local residents. It is likely that the site layout and road configuration will need to be suitable to accept a range of light and 12 The Town and Country Planning (Use Classes) Order 1987. SI 1987 No. 764 19