A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN

A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN A Graduating Paper Submitted to the Board of Examiners in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I) in the English and Education Department State Islamic Studies Institute (STAIN) Salatiga By: IDA NURYANI NIM. 113 06 080 ENGLISH DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FACULTY STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE (STAIN) S A L A T I G A 2009 i

DEPARTEMEN AGAMA RI SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (STAIN) SALATIGA Jl. Stadion 03 Telp. (0298) 323706, 323433 Salatiga 50721 Website : www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail : administrasi@stainsalatiga.ac.id Mashlihatul Umami, S.PdI, MA Salatiga, August 20 th, 2010 The Lecturer of Educational Faculty State Islamic Studies Institute of Salatiga ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES Case: Ida Nuryani s Graduating Paper Dear The head of State Islamic Studies Institute of Salatiga Assalamu alaikum Wr. Wb. After reading and correcting Ida Nuryani s graduating paper entitled A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN, I have dedicated and would like to propose that if could be accepted by educational faculty, I hope it would be examined as soon as possible. Wassalamu alaikum Wr. Wb. Consultant, Mashlihatul Umami, S.PdI, MA NIP. 19800513 200312 2 003 ii

DEPARTEMEN AGAMA RI SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (STAIN) SALATIGA Jl. Stadion 03 Telp. (0298) 323706, 323433 Salatiga 50721 Website : www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail : administrasi@stainsalatiga.ac.id STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN IDA NURYANI 113 06 080 Has been brought to the board of examiners on August 31 st, 2010 M / Ramadhan 21 st, 1431 H and hereby considered to completely fulfill the requirements of the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I) in English and Education Department. Board of examiners, Salatiga, August 31 st, 2010 M Ramadhan 21 st, 1431 H Head, Secretary, Dr. Imam Sutomo, M.Ag. NIP.19580827 198303 1 002 Dr. Rahmat Hariyadi, M.Pd NIP.19670112 199203 1 005 1 st Examiner, 2 nd Examiner, Dra. Hj. Woro Retnaningsih, M.Pd NIP. 19681017 199303 2 002 Ari Setiawan, MM NIP. 19751004 200312 1 002 Consultant, Mashlihatul Umami, S.PdI, MA NIP.19800513 200312 2 003 iii

DEPARTEMEN AGAMA RI SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI (STAIN) SALATIGA Jl. Stadion 03 Telp. (0298) 323706, 323433 Salatiga 50721 Website : www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail : administrasi@stainsalatiga.ac.id DECLARATION In the name of Allah, The Most gracious and The Most Merciful. Hereby the writer fully declares that the graduating paper is made by the writer herself, and it is not containing materials written or has been published by other people and other people s ideas except the information from the references. The writer is capable to account for this graduating paper if in the future it can be proved of containing others ideas or in fact the writer imitates the others graduating paper. Likewise, the declaration is made by the writer and she hopes that this declaration can be understood. Salatiga, August 20 th, 2010 The Writer, IDA NURYANI NIM: 113 06 080 iv

MOTTO IF WE GET A KINDNESS FROM OTHER PEOPLE, WRITE IT IN STONE IF WE DO A KINDNESS TO OTHER PEOPLE, ALLOW IT FLOWS AS WATER IN RIVER v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In The Name of ALLAH most gracious and most merciful First of all, I would to say Alhamdulillah for Allah s mercy and blessing that the writer could complete the graduating paper as one of the requirements for getting Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S.PdI) in English Department Student of State Islamic Studies institution. In completing this graduating paper, I met many difficulties and obstacles but in the certain time Allah gives me helps to overcome it, so I accepted endless great support, advice, guidance from many kind people. Therefore, my special thanks for top of my heart go to: 1. Mr. Dr. Imam Sutomo as the head of State Islamic Studies Institute of Salatiga. 2. Mr. Suwardi, M.Pd as the head of Education Affairs. 3. Mrs. Maslikhatul Umami as the chief English Students of State Islamic Studies Institute of Salatiga. 4. Mrs. Maslikhatul Umami. She is as the consultant who gives support, guidance, and useful advice. 5. All administration staffs and the library staffs to make easy for all do the procedure at both of area. 6. My father who has given the best guidance for me. 6. My brothers and sisters who always supporting me. 7. Mas Arif thanks for your support, help, affection, advice and togetherness. vi

8. Miss Rahayu thanks for your help and suggestion. 9. My friends in Mapala MITAPASA that can be the second family for me. 10. My friends, Irna, Elisa, Icha, Eka, Yunita, Yono, Budi, and all of the students in TBI C thanks for your togetherness. Thanks also to all people and I say sorry because can not mention it one by one. From this graduating paper has many lacks, I hope the reader can give me critics, recommendations for the next researcher. Finally, the writer wants this graduating paper can give benefit and useful thing to the readers. Thank you. Salatiga, August 20 th, 2010 The Writer, IDA NURYANI NIM: 113 06 080 vii

DEDICATION This graduating paper dedicated to: My beloved father (Mr. Muhtadi) and Mother (Mrs. Supartini). My grandfather and grandmother. My older brothers (Agus Salim and Edi Rahmanto) and my older sisters (Siti Nur Wakidah, Ardi Rini Meiwin and Leny Kusumawati). My nephews (Fooldy Wahyu Widianto and Ardian Tegar Maulana) and my niece (Kinanti Pitra Waranggani). viii

ABSTRACT Ida Nuryani: A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN EGLISH AND INDONESIAN. This paper is very important to present because so many expression using plural forms. There are three statements of the problem proposed in this graduating paper namely: how are the general rules of English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles; what are the differences and similarities between English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles; and what are the possible effect of those differences and similarities in teaching English. In this graduating paper, the writer used a contrastive analysis method. In contrastive analysis method is a work procedure of language of activities comparing the structure of first language and second language of any language and identifying their differences from the two languages. After investigating the English and Indonesian plural forms of noun, pronoun, and article, the writer finds out some conclusions as follows: the similarity of plural forms of noun, pronoun, and article between English and Indonesian in the function in sentence, the differences of plural forms of noun, pronoun, and article between English and Indonesian in the pattern of plural forms, and the usages of the result in language teaching. Key words: contrastive, analysis, and plural forms ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE. ATTENTIVE COUNCELOR NOTES. STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION.. DECLARATION.. MOTTO. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. DEDICATION.. ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENT.. i ii iii iv v vi viii ix x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. The Background of Study... 1 B. Statement of the Problem... 4 C. The Objective of the Study... 4 D. The Benefits of the Study... 4 E. Limitations of the Problem... 5 F. Definition of Key Term... 6 G. Literature Review... 6 H. Research Methodology... 8 I. Thesis Orgnization... 11 CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK A. The Nature of Constrastive Analysis... 13 x

B. The Function of Contrastive Anlysis... 17 C. Contrastive Analysis Methodology...... 19 D. The Definition of Plural Form 21 E. The Definition of Noun. 22 F. The Definition of Pronoun. 24 G. The Definition of Article... 25 CHAPTER III DISCUSSION OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN STUCTURE IN PLURAL FORM A. The English Plural Form 28 1. The Plural Form of Nouns... 28 2. The Plural Form of Pronouns... 32 3. The Plural Form of Articles... 35 B. The Indonesian Plural form 38 1. The Plural Form of Nouns... 41 2. The Plural Form of Pronouns... 42 3. The Plural Form of Articles... 45 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN PLURAL FORM OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE A. The Similarities of English and Indonesian Plural Form of Noun, Pronoun, and Article... 47 1. The Plural Form of Noun... 48 xi

2. The Plural Form of Pronoun... 49 3. The Plural Form of Article... 49 B. The Differences of English and Indonesian Plural Form of Noun, Pronoun, and Article... 50 1. The Plural Form of Noun... 50 2. The Plural Form of Pronoun... 51 3. The Plural Form of Article... 52 C. The Implications of English and Indonesian Structure of Plural Form in Teaching Learning Process... 52 CHAPTER V CLOSURE A. Conclusion... 57 B. Suggestion... 59 BIBLIOGRAPHY CURRICULUM VITAE APPENDIX xii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. The Background of the Study Human is a social creature. They need other person to live and grow. Therefore, human has equipped with language to communicate with each other. Language is communication device between the members of society in the form of speech utterance that is produced by speech organ (Keraf, 1991:2). By language, human can express their ideas too. So, language has the important role in human life. In our country, English is a foreign language that is taught to students from the elementary school until university. According to Richard and Rodger (1992:3), the purpose of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study. While, Indonesian language is a second language that is taught to students in school and used on formal communication (Samsuri, 1981:7). Learning a language is not apart from learning its grammar. Grammar can help students to understand the language. However, students often feel difficult to learn the grammar, especially for foreign language. In fact, foreign or second languages have the differences and similarities. They have their own characteristics that often make students difficult to learn it. 1

2 In teaching learning process ultimately the grammatical aspect analysis and parsing may be good as intellectual exercise, but are not much valuable. Actually, learning language is more difficult than using language, but the students should know the sentence construction. So, they should learn the grammar if they want to learn the language. Students learn about words and sentences too in grammar. In order to, they can use language correctly. A sentence is traditionally defined as a group of words which expresses a complete thought (Allen, 1972:3). So, the students need to know how words collocate, to know where certain classes of the words and which of those words have their normal places in sentences. In teaching foreign or second language have some similarities and some differences. For example, students should know how to make sentences that contain with several words and form of the words such as plural form. Plural is the form of a noun that has two part (Murphy, 1994:156). Actually, plural form is not only change the form of noun but it can change pronouns and articles too. So, they have different characteristics in plural form. In order to be clearer, the following example of English plural form: boys, branches, buffaloes. While, plural in Indonesian language is called as reduplikasi or word reduplication. The next are the example of Indonesian plural form: bukubuku, buah-buahan, bermain-main. The writer is interested to discuss about plural form in English and Indonesian because many students just know the structure of plural form in noun. Even, they also do not know the way to change the singular noun

3 become plural noun. It is caused by the fact that not all the system of the language and another are exactly similar. Of course, it will make them confuse to use plural form in a sentence. Students do not know that the usage of pronouns and articles can be influenced by plural words. Moreover, the cause of students difficulties is inconsistent of plural form in English. The writer only chooses noun, pronoun, and article because they are very often occurring in the process of language learning. They can find in almost text book that must be learned by students. The writer said that the three kinds of parts of speech above are the basic of words that can be made into plural form. However, the students are difficult to understanding it; both the pattern and the usage. So, the writer decides just to explain the plural form in noun, pronoun, and article. Based on this case, the writer will describe differences and similarities in plural form by comparing Indonesian and English language. The writer also describes the usage of nouns, pronouns and articles in plural form and the pattern of them in plural form. The writer hopes that the difficulties of students can be solved after they know the similarities and differences of two languages in plural form. So, the writer wants to research under the title A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PLURAL FORMS OF NOUN, PRONOUN, AND ARTICLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN.

4 B. Statement of the Problem Based on the background of the study above, there are many problems that arise. Some problems that can be identified are as follows: 1. How are the general rules of English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles? 2. What are the differences and similarities between English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles? 3. What are the possible effect of those differences and similarities in teaching English? C. The Objective of the Study Related with above assumption, the objectives of writing this thesis are as follows: 1. To find out the general rules of English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles. 2. To find out the differences and similarities between English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles. 3. To find out of the possible effect of those differences and similarities in teaching English. D. The Benefits of the Study 1. Practically This thesis can be beneficial as follows:

5 a. For the writer The findings of the research can be used as a starting point in improving the writer s understanding about English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles. b. For the students The finding of this research can make the students easier to understand the structure of plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles between English and Indonesian. c. For the other researcher The findings of this research can be used as one of the references in conducting a research on English language teaching, especially in analyzing of two languages. 2. Theoretically The findings of this research can help to understand the differences and similarities between English and Indonesian structure in plural form of nouns, pronouns, and articles. E. Limitations of the Problem In this study, the writer limits the study in order to the readers not lost. The writer compares both English and Indonesian structure in plural form. The writer focuses on the plural form of language; it includes noun, pronouns, and articles. The writer also focuses on the agreement of plural form in sentence; the pattern and usage of plural nouns, pronouns, and articles in sentence.

6 F. Definition of Key Term To understand this study easier, the writer gives some description and explanation about the key term. They are following in this line. 1. Contrastive Analysis a. According Hornby (1974:186), contrastive is adjective form from contrast. A contrast is comparing one thing with another, so that differences are made clear, showing difference when compared. b. Analysis is separation into parts possibly with comment and judgment, instance of the result of doing (Hornby, 1974:29). c. Contrastive Analysis proposed by Suharsimi Arikunto (1989:198), is used to find the similarities and differences of things, people, ideas or procedures. 2. Plural is form of word used with reference to more than one (Hornby, 1974:643). G. The Literature Review In this research, the writer has some literatures as the comparison of this research. The writer finds the other theses that have same topic with this research. Those are: 1. The first review related to this research, the title is A Contrastive Analysis Between English and Indonesian Adjective Clauses. The researcher is Siti Nurjanah in 2008. In this thesis, she compared and

7 analyzed the two languages; they are English and Indonesian in the usage of adjective clauses (Nurjanah, 2008:4). 2. The second review related to this research, the title is A Contrastive Analysis of Indonesian and English Noun Phrases. The researcher is Iva Farida in 2007. In this thesis, she analyzed the two languages; they are Indonesian and English in the usage of noun phrases (Farida, 2007:2). 3. The second review related to this research, the title is A Contrastive Analysis between English and Indonesian Sentence Patterns (A Case of Passive Voice). The researcher is Asyik Junaidi in 2005. In this thesis, he mentioned that English and Indonesian sentence have some differences and similarities in the usage of passive voice (Junaidi, 2005:1). Based on that research, the writer tries to analyze A Contrastive Analysis of Plural Forms between English and Indonesian. The differences of this research with the research above, here, the writer wants to find out the similarities and the differences of plural form in English and Indonesian languages. In this thesis, the writer will describe the plural form of noun, pronouns, and the usage of articles in plural form. The writer also analyzes the two languages in order to be easier in understanding the plural form in teaching learning process. And the similarities this research with the research above, the writer takes the same subject that is Indonesian and English.

8 H. Research Methodology 1. Type of the research This research is qualitative research. According to Moleong, qualitative method is a method that produced descriptive data such as written words and attitude of people who has observed (Moleong, 2002:3). Qualitative data tend to be in the form of words than numbers. Because the term of this research is contrastive in English and Indonesian structure of plural form, it can be separated and taken according to the form and the agreement of the terms. 2. Object of the research a. Data The data of this research are English and Indonesian structure in plural form. b. Data sources These are the data sources which support and complete the data. The writer uses some books that related with the study. The books contain the materials related to the subject matters of this study, such as: Warriner s English Grammar and Composition; First Course by John E. Warriner published by Harcourt Brace Jovanovic Inc. in 1982. He said that all nouns and pronouns have number. They are plural in number if they refer to more than one thing.

9 Understanding and Using English Grammar; Second Edition by Betty Schrampfer Azar published by Prentice Hall Regents, New Jersey in 1986. She said that plural is divided into two form; regular and irregular, also the agreement of plural in sentence. English Grammar in Use by Raymond Murphy published by Cambridge University Press in 1994. He said that some words are written in plural form but actually singular. Modern English A Practical Reference Guide by Marcella Frank published by Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey in 1972. She said that the usage of pronouns and articles are also influenced by plural form. Pembentukan Kata Dalam Bahasa Indonesia by Harimurti Kridalaksana published by PT Gramedia Pustaka, Jakarta in 1992. He said that reduplikasi or word reduplication in Indonesian has some forms and meaning. Tata Bahasa Rujukan Bahasa Indonesia by Gorys Keraf published by PT Grasindo, Jakarta in 1991. He said that Indonesian has four plural forms. They are dwipurwa, dwilingga, dwilingga salin suara, dwilingga berimbuhan. Garis-Garis Besar Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia by Masnur Muslich published by Yayasan Asih Asah Asuh, Malang in 1990. He said that in Indonesian, nouns are not directly referred to singular or plural.

10 3. Data collection Collecting the data is very important in this research. According to Suharsimi Arikunto (1989:122), there are six methods of collecting data; test, questionnaires, interview, observation, rating scale, and documentation. Because this research is literary study, the writer uses documentation method that is taken from books and internet to find out clarification of the case study. 4. Data analysis The writer gets the data from the reference books that have been mentioned before. All collected data will be classified, compared and analyzed by using contrastive method. Contrastive method is a work procedure of language activities comparing the structure of first language and second language or any language and identifying their differences from the two languages. It is used to know the differences of similarities of thing, people, ideas or procedures. In this research, the writer takes the steps are as follows: a. Firstly, the researcher reads the books both English and Indonesian that consists of plural form between English and Indonesian. b. Secondly, the researcher looks for English and Indonesian structure in plural form in those books.

11 c. Thirdly, the researcher writes all the collected data into papers and classifying them based on contrastive analysis. d. Finally, the researcher analyses the English and Indonesian structure in plural form. Then, she looks for the similarities and the differences of them and takes the conclusion. I. Thesis Organization Chapter I is introduction that consists of background of the study, statement of the problem, the objective of the study, the benefits of the study, limitations of problem, definition of key term, literature review, research methodology, thesis organization. Chapter II is theoretical framework which consists of the nature of contrastive analysis, the function of contrastive analysis, contrastive analysis methodology, definition of plural, the definition of noun, the definition of pronoun, the definition of article. Chapter III is discussion of English and Indonesian structure in plural form that consists of English plural form, Indonesian plural form. Chapter IV is analysis of English and Indonesian structure in plural form which consists of the similarities of English and Indonesian structure in plural form, the differences of English and Indonesian structure in plural form, and the implications of English and Indonesian structure of plural form in teaching learning process.

12 Chapter V is closure that consists of conclusion and suggestion. The last part is bibliography and appendixes.

CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK A. The Nature of Contrastive Analysis Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities (http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki). Moreover, the contrastive analysis can be one way to compare two languages, so that it can be made clear in the differences and the similarities between of them. According to James in Subyakto-Nababan (1993:145), there are two kinds of analyzing in contrastive analysis. First, text analysis which is takes place on formal stage. It is also called as usage. Second, discourse analysis is the analysis of contrast the language on functional stge. It is also called as use. Contrastive analysis has two aspects, such as: linguistic and psycholinguistic aspect (Henry, 1990:3). Contrastive analysis is an important branch of applied linguistics; that is an activity which tries to compare the structure of the L1 and the L2. The linguistic aspect is correlation between the problems of two compared languages. When people want to know the differences between two languages, we must fulfill several parts. There are three parts can be compared or contrast that may rise for students in studying the languages, such as: 1. The similarity of structure and forms 2. The similarity in translation 13

14 3. The similarity in structure and translation According to the parts above, contrastive analysis as the one of fields in language teaching where the language experts confess it has quite great contributions in giving favor toward composing the grammatical education. In studying a foreign language, students usually get some difficulties. They are interfered by first language to combine with the foreign language. Contrastive analysis attempts acting as connected bridge contrasting the both system of language for predicting difficulties, which may take place. The case of the beginners gives some ides how to solve the problem. So, the contrastive analysis can be the answer of the problem. It is considering as the comparison of the structure of language to determine the point of differences of the source of the difficulty in learning target. It is to compare two languages and to clarify similarities and differences of the language. It can give beneficial contribution for implementing the direction of language. Contrastive analysis, itself, has a hypothesis that the principal barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system, and that scientific would yield taxonomy of linguistic contrast between them which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter (Brown, 1980:148) Moreover, human learning theories highlighted interfering element of learning, concluding that where no interference could be predicted, no difficulty would be experienced since one could transfer positively all other items in a language. The logical conclusion from these various psychological

15 and linguistic assumptions was that second language learning basically involved the overcoming of the differences between the two linguistic systems the native and target languages (Brown, 1980:148). According to Jack C. Richards (1974:97), the contrastive analysis rests on the following assumptions about the process of language learning: 1. Language learning is habit formation. It derives primarily from the general paradigm of behaviorist psychology. Habit formation may be described in variety of ways that rely on frequency, contiguity, intensity of stimulus and response in the occurrence of the event that becomes a habit. 2. An old habit (that of using one s first language) hinders or facilitates the formation of a new habit (learning a second language) depending on the differences or similarities, respectively, between the old and the new. It is considered feasible that the tools of structural linguistics would enable to describe accurately the two languages in question and to match those two descriptions against each other to determine valid contrast, or differences between them. According to Roger (1981:181), there are two polar views on using target language and a range of compromise positions between the system of L1 and L2: 1. The strong claim that the deviant behavior of the learner is the direct result of the transfer of the habits of the L1 into the L2. Those who make the strong claim consider that contrastive analysis is not as means of explaining error but also as a technique for predicting error.

16 2. The weak claim that the structure of the L1 provides only a partial explanation of the phenomena involved in L2 learning. Those who make the weak claim insist that the structure of L1 is only one of many influences at work in the learning process. It follows that contrastive analysis may be of some value in explanation of error but can not have a strong predictive value. In comparing of the two languages, there are source language and target language. Richards (1974:110) said that source language is L1 that will be translated to L2; it is that acting as a source of interference (deviation from the norm of the target language). In this research, the first language (L1) is Indonesian. Target language is second language (L2) or foreign language; it is that in which communication is being attempted; in the case of a learner it is the language he is learning, when he uses it, especially in English. Randal Whitman noted in Brown (1980:150) that contrastive analysis has four different procedures. The first of these is description: the linguist or language teacher, using the tools of formal grammar, explicitly describes the two languages in question. Second, a selection is made of certain form of linguist items, rules, structure for contrast. The third is the contrast itself, the mapping of one linguistic system onto the other and a specification of the relationship of one system to the other. Finally, one formulates a prediction of error or of difficulty on the basis of the first three procedures. In language teaching, teacher and student have important roles to make a success learning processes. As a teacher, he or she has to prepare how to

17 make tech foreign language to students seriously. He or she must understand with the capability of the students on the new language and use the method that sufficient with the student s ability. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain structures in L2 depended on the difference between the learners L1 and the language they are trying to learn. So, as the learners, they must try to improve their capability in the new language by contrast with L1. B. The Function of Contrastive Analysis The purpose of CA is to solve the problems which are faced by teacher and student in learning second language or foreign language. According to Henry (1990:5) contrastive analysis has some important contribution in the teaching learning processes, as follows: 1. Constructing language teaching material which is based on the result of contrasting L1 and L2. 2. Constructing the system of pedagogical language which is based on the linguistic theory being used. 3. Arranging the class property in which the first language used to help in the second language learning. 4. Presenting the language material directly by: a. Showing the similarities and differences between the two languages. b. Showing the structural aspect of the first language which causes the possible difficulties of errors in the second language. c. Suggesting the way of how to overcome the interference.

18 d. Giving the exercise intensively to the aspect which is different. Sri Utari-Nababan (1993) said that Contrastive Analysis has implication for these several functions as follows: 1. To determine the pattern and structure in sentence that must be emphasized and exercised by students 2. To explain why errors in studying second language happened. 3. To give directions or strategy to find out the exact material for the students. This study uses contrastive analysis because it functions to provide guide lines in analyzing foreign language. The functions are: 1. Predictive It means to detect the errors of students in learning L2. 2. Clarification It means to explain the errors which are made by the students. 3. Complementary It means to complete knowledge of the candidate teachers and the teachers who do not have experience. 4. Preventive It means to prevent and to limit the errors are done by the students. 5. Curative It means to correct the errors and to overcome the language teaching problems.

19 The implications of contrastive analysis in second language learning are as follows: 1. Compare the students language with the second language that will be learned by students. 2. Teacher can predict the difficulties and mistakes that may be arise in learning process based on the difference of structure of both languages. 3. Learning difficulties and mistakes that have been predicted are used to choose and arrange the learning material. 4. Choosing the method of presenting the material. C. Contrastive Analysis Methodology Contrastive analysis here refers to an activity that tries to compare between English and Indonesian language structures, to identify the differences between both languages and their similarities. Actually, the history of CA is based on three assumptions: 1. Teaching experience of foreign language teacher that always finds the errors which are made by the learners can be detected through mother language. 2. Interference of L1 into L2 3. Learning theory especially transfer theory which is considered as positive facility beside there is negative interference.

20 Contrastive analysis methodology is the work step of contrastive analysis which describes the term of CA. Contrastive analysis includes four steps; 1. Compare the structure of L1 and L2, 2. Prediction the learning difficulties and language errors, 3. Choose the learning material, and 4. Determine the way to teach the second language efficiently and effectively. The first rules in contrastive analysis, is depending on the good descriptive and detail about language. In this material, the theoretical analysis of languages will be compared or contrasted from the structure of language. The second criteria from contrastive analysis are descriptively identifying feature, not prediction. A contrastive linguist must compare with component of languages those are contrasted that may cause difficulties for those second language students. The way to determine the aspects of contrastive analysis are as follows: 1. Linguistic aspect which is connected with the comparison of the structure of both languages to find their differences. 2. Psychology aspect that is based on the differences of the structure of two languages that will be studied by students to predict the learning difficulties.

21 3. Based on those difficulties and mistakes, it is arranged the material of second language which have a good arranging and have the exactly objective of learning. 4. The learning material is presented by particular methods. D. The Definition of Plural Form In the English language, nouns are inflected for grammatical number that is, singular or plural. So, plural is a grammatical form that designates more than one of the things specified. Plural is a concept of quantity (i.e., grammatical number) representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker (morpheme) is used distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one. In English, the plural is usually formed with the addition of -s (e.g., one cat, two cats; one chair, two chairs) or -es (e.g., one bush, two bushes; one itch, two itches). Generally, -s is added to all nouns that end in a voiceless consonant, vowels, or voiced non-sibilants, whereas -es is added for nouns ending in a sibilant sound. Nouns that end in e are a noted exception; though e may form a sibilant sound, -s is used (e.g,. one tree, two trees; one bee, two bees). Some plural forms require more noticeable changes in word structure. Most words ending in y are pluralized with ies (e.g., one lady, two ladies; one cherry, two cherries). Some words ending in f are pluralized with -ves (e.g., one leaf; two leaves; exception: one roof; two roofs). Words ending in x are

22 often pluralized with -ces (e.g., one matrix, two matrices; one index, two indices). Words ending in us often replace the us with -i (e.g., one cactus, two cacti; one fungus, two fungi). A subset of words ending in um or on is pluralized by replacing with -a (e.g., one forum, two fora; one criterion, two criteria). A small class of words has identical singular and plural forms: e.g., one sheep, two sheep; one aircraft, two aircraft. Actually, plural form produces a new word with the similar lexical meaning. So, it is difficult to determine the function of plural form. It because the function and the meaning of plural form is related to each other. However, we can find a morphologies function if we look the process of plural word. The morphologies function is seen in the writing of singular form into plural form. It is very clearly visible in writing of Indonesian plural form which its plural is formed by repeating the root word. For example, the word kuda-kuda that is contain of two morphemes; kuda and refrain morpheme (Parera, 1994:48). E. The Definition of Noun A noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing or idea (Warriner, 1982:4). The noun is one of the most important parts of speech. Its arrangement with the verbs helps to form the sentence core which is essential to every complete sentence. In addition, it may function as the chief or head word in many structures of modification.

23 According to Marcella Frank (1972: 6), some nouns may belong to more than one of the types given below: 1. Proper nouns It begins with a capital letter in writing. It includes personal names (Mr. John); names of countries, cities, etc. (Paris); names of nationalities and religions (Dutchman); names of days (Saturday). As opposed to proper nouns, all other nouns are classified as common nouns, for example; garden, table, dog, etc. 2. Concrete or abstract nouns A concrete noun is a word for physical object that can be perceived by the senses. For example, flower, girl. An abstract noun is a word for a concept it is an idea that exists in our minds only (beauty, justice). 3. Countable or non-countable nouns A countable noun is a noun with both singular and plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. A non-countable noun is not used in the plural. They are words for concrete objects stated in undivided quantity (coffee, iron). Some non-countable nouns may also be used in a countable sense and have a plural. In addition, a non-countable noun may be used in the plural with the special meaning of kinds of. 4. Collective nouns A collective noun is a word for a group of people, animals or objects considered as a single unit. Examples of collective nouns are audience, committee, class, crew, faculty, family, etc. Collective nouns are countable

24 nouns; the may be used in the plural. For example; all the committees make the new recommendations. A noun can function as the subject of a verb; the complement of the verbs be, become, seem; the object of a verb; the object of a preposition; and a noun can also be in the possessive case (Thomson and Martinet, 1986:24). F. The Definition of Pronoun A pronoun is a word used in place of one or more than one noun (Warriner, 1982:6). The noun it refers to is called the antecedent. For example; I read the book. It is good. The pronoun it refers to the antecedent noun book (Azar, 1989:379). Common types of pronouns found in the world's languages are as follows: 1. Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things: a. Subjective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause. For example: I like to eat chips, but she does not. b. Objective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause. For example: John likes me but not her. c. Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Anna and Maria looked at him. 2. Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership. The possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns. For

25 example: Those clothes are mine. Possessive pronoun is also called possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners). For example, in English: I lost my wallet. 3. Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates. For example: I can take these. 4. Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things. For example: Anyone can do that. 5. Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned. For example: People who smoke should quit now. 6. Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. For example: Who do that? G. The Definition of Article Article is a word that limited the number of noun (Muslich, 1990:111). Article is divided into two groups; indefinite article and definite article. An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a general statement about any such thing. English uses a or an (depending on the initial sound of the next word) as its indefinite article.

26 A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be the same thing that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English is the. According to Warriner (1982:12), a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound; an is used before words beginning with a vowel sounds. Besides that, article a or an is used with singular countable noun; the definite article the may be used with countable nouns, singular and plural, and with uncountable nouns (Hornby, 1975:126). The is sometimes used with a singular generic count noun. Generic the is commonly used with, in particular: 1. Species of animal : The whale is the largest mammal on earth. 2. Inventions : Who invented the telephone? 3. Musical instruments : Do you play the guitar? (Azar, 1989:394) Betty Schrampfer Azar (1989:395) explains the general guidelines for article usage are as follows: 1. Use the when you know or assume that your listener is familiar with and thinking about the same specific thing or person you are talking about. For example: The sun is bright today. Please hand this book to the teacher. Please open the door. Jack is in the kitchen.

27 2. Use the for the second mention of an indefinite noun. For example: Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing a cat. The cat was chasing a mouse. The mouse run into a hole. The hole was very small. 3. Do not use the with a plural count noun (e. g., apples) or a non-count noun (e. g., gold) when you are making a generalization. For example: INCORRECT : The apples are my favorite fruit. CORRECT : Apples are my favorite fruit. INCORRECT : The gold is a metal. CORRET : Gold is a metal. 4. Do not use a singular count noun (e. g., car) without: (1) an rticle (a/an or the), (2) this/that, nd (3) a possessive pronoun. For example: INCORRECT : I drove car. CORRECT : I drove a car. I drove the car. I drove that car. I drove his car.

CHAPTER III DISCUSSION OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN STRUCTURE IN PLURAL FORM In this chapter, the writer wants to discuss about the English plural form and Indonesian plural form in three kinds of parts of speech that has been mentioned before. The writer wants to explain the plural form of noun, pronoun, and article based on their pattern and usage in the sentence. A. The English Plural Form 1. The Plural Form of Nouns All nouns have number. They are singular in number if they refer to one thing. They are plural in number if they refer to more than one thing. The general rule for writing the plural of English nouns is to add s to the singular form (boy boys, apple apples). However this rule is complicated because of many exceptions given below: 1. After a sibilant sound spelled as s, z, ch, sh, x, es is added (classes, dishes). However, if final ch is pronounced [k], only s is added (monarchs, stomachs, and epochs). 2. After y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i and es is added (lady ladies, country countries). If final y is preceded by a vowel, no change is made (valley valleys). 28

29 3. In one-syllable words, final f or fe becomes ves in the plural (wife wives, leaf leaves). However, some such words take the regular s ending (chief chiefs, roof roofs). 4. After final o, es is sometimes added, especially in some common words (heroes, potatoes). If a vowel precedes the final o, or if the word is a term used in music, only s is added (studios, pianos). Sometimes the es alternate with a less common s ending (cargoes or cargos). 5. Irregular plurals based on older English may take the form of: a. An internal change (man men, foot feet, mouse mice). b. An en ending (child children, ox oxen). 6. The plural has the same form as the singular (sheep sheep, deer deer). 7. The singular has the same form as the plural (series series, means means). 8. Many foreign words retain their foreign plurals in English. a. Singular us ending becomes plural i ending (stimulus stimuli, radius radii). b. Singular a ending becomes plural ae ending (larva larvae, vertebrata vertebrae). c. Singular um ending becomes plural a ending (memorandum memoranda). d. Singular is ending becomes plural es ending (crisis crises, parenthesis parentheses).

30 e. Singular on ending becomes plural a ending (criterion criteria, phenomenon phenomena). f. Singular ex or ix ending becomes plural ices ending (vortex vortices, matrix matrixes). g. Singular eau ending becomes plural eaux ending (plateau plateaux). 9. No plural is used for non-countable words such as information, advice, clothing, furniture. 10. Some words ending s are singular non-countable nouns, especially names of diseases and fields of study (news, measles, and economics). 11. Some words ending in s are used chiefly as plurals (ashes, brains, goods, riches). In this group are words for items that have two parts (scissors, pliers, and trousers) (Frank, 1972:13). Nouns in many European languages may be inflected, that is, changed in form for certain grammatical properties. Usually these changes are made trough special endings. However, the only grammatical properties for which the English noun is inflected are: (1) number the noun has a special ending for a plural, and (2) possession the noun has a special ending that signals not only actual possession, but a number of other relationships for which of phrases may also be used. To show the possession, add an apostrophe ( ) and s to a singular noun: The girl s book is on the table. If a singular noun ends in s, there are two possible forms:

31 1. Add an apostrophe and s: Thomas s book. 2. Add only an apostrophe: Thomas book. A plural noun becomes possessive by the addition of an apostrophe to the final s: The girls books are on the table. However, add an apostrophe and s to the irregular plural nouns or to plural nouns that do not end in s: The men s books are on the table (Azar, 1989:202). Certain words that are closely related in sentences have matching forms. When such words are correctly matched, we say that they are agree grammatically is in number. Number indicates whether the word refers to one person or thing or to more than one (Warriner, 1982:129). In sentence, usually contains with subject and verb. In the writing, the number of the verb must agree with the number of its subject. In this case, noun has a position as the subject of a verb. Warriner (1982:118) said that there are two rules of the agreement between subject and verb in the sentence: 1. Singular subjects take singular verbs. Examples: The lightning fills the sky. (The verb fills is singular to agree with the singular subject lightning). Linda begins her vacation today. (The verb begins is singular to agree with the singular subject Linda). 2. Plural subjects take plural verbs. Examples: Cheetahs run faster than most other animals. (The verb run is plural to agree with the plural subject cheetahs).

32 New families move into our neighborhood frequently. (The verb move is plural to agree with the plural subject families). However, there are some exceptions of agreement that suggested by Betty (1989:218) as follows: 1. Every and each are always followed immediately by singular nouns. In this case, even when there are two (or more) nouns connected by and, the verb is singular. For example; Every man, woman, and child needs love. 2. A gerund used as the subject of a sentence takes a singular verb. For example; Growing flowers is her hobby. 3. One of, each of, and every one of take singular verbs. One of Each of + plural noun + singular verb Every one of For example; One of my friends is here. Generally, nouns ending in s are plural (friends, girls), but verbs ending in s are singular (likes, sings). When a sentence contains a verbs phrase, it is helping verb that agrees with the subject. For example: 1. The motor is running. The motors are running. 2. The girl has been delayed. The girls have been delayed. 2. The Plural Form of Pronouns Similar with noun, pronouns also have number. According to Marcella Frank (1972:29), the personal pronouns change their form for

33 person (first, second, third), for case (subject, object, possessive), number (singular, plural), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter). Except for case, the reflexive pronouns make the same kinds of changes. Subject Object Table 3.1 Possessive Possessive Reflexive Adjective Pronoun Did It Show Book It is Hurt Sing. I me my mine myself you you your yours yourself he him his his himself she her her hers herself it it it - itself Plural we us our ours ourselves you you your yours yourselves they them their theirs themselves Betty said in her book Understanding and Using English Grammar (1989:26), that personal pronoun also has agreement in sentence. These agreements are as follows: 1) Personal pronouns agreement with nouns a. A student walked into the room. She was looking for the teacher. b. A student walked into the room. He was looking for the teacher. (In sentence a and b, a singular pronoun is used to refer to a singular noun).

34 c. Some students walked into the room. They were looking for the teacher. (In this sentence, a plural pronoun is used to refer to a plural noun). d. A student should always do his assignments. e. A student should always do his/her assignments. A student should always do his or her assignments. (With a generic noun in sentence d, a singular masculine pronoun has been used traditionally, but many English speakers now use both masculine and feminine pronouns, as in e). 2) Personal pronouns agreement with indefinite pronouns The following are indefinite pronouns: everyone someone anyone no one everybody somebody anybody nobody everything something anything nothing a. Somebody left his book on the desk. b. Everyone has his or her own ideas. (A singular personal pronoun is used in informal English refer to an indefinite pronoun, as in a and b) c. Somebody left their book on the desk. Everyone has their own ideas. (In everyday informal English, a plural personal pronoun is often used to refer to an indefinite pronoun, as in c). 3) Personal pronouns agreement with collective nouns The following are examples of collective nouns: audience couple family public class crowd government staff