Multiple sentences 1. Introduction Last time, we looked at constituent order and its role in relation to the underlying participant role structures, or scenarios, of sentence patterns. And we also discussed the following principles and their influence on constituent order: fixed word order end-focus end-weight thematization fronting Today, we are going to stay within the world of advanced syntax, as we take a closer look at a related syntactic issue namely, multiple sentences: sentences that contain more than one clause. 2. Some definitions To begin with, here is an exercise (which is not in the workbook): Identify the clauses in each of the sentences below: a) Today I say to you that the challenges we face are real. b) They are serious and they are many. c) They will not be met easily or in a short span of time. d) On this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord. e) The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation The book operates with a set of terms to classify types of sentences in terms of the clauses they contain, and, in addition, two sets of terms that classify types of clauses. 2.1 Types of sentence The first set of terms divides sentences into categories based on their inner complexity: simple sentence: a sentence consisting of one clause (1) multiple sentence: a sentence consisting of two or more clauses compound sentence: a sentence which coordinates two or more clauses (2) complex sentence: a sentence which contains of clauses embedded in the sentence (3) Here are some examples (clauses are indicated by square brackets): (1) [The ninja killed an ant] (2) [The ninja killed an ant] and [the superhero saved the city] (3) [Boba Fett wanted [to kill Han Solo, [who was not able [to see him] [because he had been encased in carbonite]]]] Coordination and subordination may of course also be combined in what the book, a bit clumsily, 1
calls mixed types: (4) [The students are happy] [[because they all passed the final exams] and [because they now have great jobs]]. 2.2 Types of clause The next set of terms has to do with the structure and form of clauses (i.e. it is a typology of structural categories of clauses): finite clause: a clause which is specified in terms of tense, thus containing an operator, and also typically contains a subject (5) reduced clause: a clause where something is missing non-finite clause: a clause that does not contain an operator, and is thus non-finite, and may or may not contain an operator (6) verbless clause: a clause in which the verb has been dropped altogether and which may or may not contain a subject (7) (5) [She was injured, [which was not so good]] (6) [He was just about [to cry like a baby]] (7) [John cried like a baby] and [Jill like a monkey] The other typology of clauses is functionally based (i.e. it is a typology of functional categories of clauses): nominal clause: the clause takes up a syntactic function typically realized by a noun phrase, such as subject, object, complement, and prepositional complement (8) adverbial clause: the clause takes up the syntactic function of adverbial (9) modifying clause: the clause modifies a noun, adjective or adverb (10) (8) a. [Getting killed by Nazis] is not my idea of fun! Dr. Jones said. (S) b. You tell me [that you made this yourself]? (DO) c. He gave [chasing Amy] another chance. (IO) d. The question is [whether you are ready to become a Jedi]. (SC) e. Maybe you consider it [being cool], but I consider it [being stupid] (OC) f. Let me tell you about the hardships of [becoming a member of the Black Tiger Ninja Clan]. (PC) g. It's stupid [to think that one can kill the bother of Badulah] (real S) h. I consider it stupid [to think you can kill the brother of Badulah] (real O) (9) a. [Saying that a pig with lipstick is still a pig], Obama may have deliberately insulted Sarah Palin b. [If you think you're so smart], why don't you solve the problem, mister?! c. You can sleep [when you're old] (10) a. My sword will send you to [the man [who lives upstairs]] (in NP) b. The woman was [even more beautiful [than I remembered]]. (in AdjP) c. He ran so [fast [that I couldn't keep up with him]] (AdvP) 2
3. Compound sentences Compound sentences contain clauses which are coordinated syndetically (i.e. via a coordinating conjunction) or, rare though it is, asyndetically. (11) a. Jack was there, and Jill was there. (syndetic coordination) b. They came, they saw, they were victorious. (asyndetic coordination) c. Jack was there, Jill was there, and Bob was there (syndetic coordination) 3.1 Ellipsis in compound sentences It is said that compound sentences contain clauses that may appear independently. Yet, ellipsis of the subject (or the verb) is possible in the non-first clauses, and the question is then: can they really appear on their own with a missing subject or a missing verb?: (12) a. They ate food and [ø] drank wine *Drank wine b. He uses a sword, and I [ø] an axe *I an axe 3.2 Coordinating conjunctions and semantic relationships As the term coordination indicates, coordinated clauses in a compound sentence are at the same structural level (i.e. they are not subordinate to each other) this is also called parataxis. Parataxis is indeed the main structural function of coordinating conjunctions, but that is not all. Coordinating conjunctions also express semantic relationships between the coordinated clauses. For instance, 'and expresses addition, 'but' expresses contrast, and 'or' expresses alternative. (13) a. I want Coca Cola and I want Pepsi b. I don't want Coca Cola but I want Pepsi c. Do you want Coca Cola or do you want Pepsi? Note that in some cases, coordinated clauses follow a certain underlying logical order, such as, say, a chronology of events, which determines the linear order of the syntactic coordination: (14) a. He got into his car, started the car, and drove out of town b.?he drove out of town, ignited his car, and got into the car This is actually an example of iconicity (when the form of a sign imitates the content of the sign) in that the underlying chronology of events is reflected in the syntactic coordination of clauses. 4. Complex sentences Complex sentences contain clauses that are embedded in the main clause (i.e. what is left if you remove all subordinate clauses, or subclauses) and are thus subordinate to the main clause this is also called hypotaxis. Quite often subclauses are linked, as it were, to the main clause, through what the book calls a linking device. 4.1 Linking devices Linking devices are grammatical forms which, appearing at the beginning of the clause, link the subclause to the main clause. English makes use of the following types of linking devices. Subordinating conjunctions such as 'as', 'if', 'when', 'after', while', 'that', 'because', 'as if', 'as 3
though', 'inasmuch as' etc. (note, some of these are tricky, because they may also be prepositions). Their main syntactic function is hypotaxis, but they also express semantic relationships. For instance, 'as', 'because', and 'inasmuch as' express reason or cause, and 'if' expresses condition or cause. 'After' expresses posteriority in time and 'while' expresses simultaneity in time. Of course, many of these are polysemous and may express more than one type of relationship. relatives such as 'who', 'which', 'that' etc. Note that these are not subordinating conjunctions but take up syntactic functions like S, O, PC etc. interrogatives: such as 'which', 'how', 'who', 'why' etc. These also take up syntactic functions rather than being subordinating conjunctions Now, let us do this exercise (10.5 in the workbook): Clauses cannot be used independently. They are embedded in a sentence of another clause and linked to this sentence or clause by means of linking devices. Use the examples below to explain what can be used as a linking device (that is, in the examples below, identify and explain the linking devices used). a) She wondered [who had sent the flowers] b) I did it [because he told me to] c) He described the report [which he had handed in lase week] d) They asked us [how they could get there] e) [When told by the police how badly injured his victims were], he said [that he was shocked] f) She walked into the kitchen, [where we were waiting for her] g) I don't know [if they have left] 4.2 Structural categories revisited: types on non-finite clause There are basically three types of non-finite clause, which are based on the three major non-finite clause forms: present participial clauses: first or only element in the predicator is a present participle past participial clauses: first or only element in the predicator is a past participle infinitive clauses: first or only element in the predicator is an infinitive Here are some examples of the non-finite clause types in English: (15) Present participal clauses a. [[Puking like a sick man], he regretted [having drunk so much alcohol]] (implied subjects) b. [I heard [Jack and Jill arriving late last night in a rattling old car, [Jill making strange monkey noises]]] (explicit subjects) 4
(16) Past participal clauses a. [[Shot through the heart], you give love a bad name] (implied subject) b. [Another word out of you], and [I'll have [you shot like a dog]] (explicit subject) (17) Infinitive clauses a. [I like [to move it]] ('to'-infinitive, implied subject) b. [They want [me to do something terrible]] ('to'-infinitive, explicit subject) c. [All I wanna do is [have some fun]] (bare infinitive, implied subject) d. [I thought [I heard you cry]] (bare infinitive, explicit subject) Now, let us do exercise (10.7) in the workbook: Indicate which structural category the bracketed clauses below belong to. a) A second problem with a firewall system is [that is concentrates security in one spot] b) He ran into the hallway, [leaving wet footprints behind him] c) He was proud [that the magazine had published one of his stories] d) I saw [him leave a few minutes ago] e) [Angry and upset], he didn't know [what to say] f) The defendant remained impassive [as the judge described him as a menace to society] g) Officers observed [him driving 90 miles per hour] h) [To be frank], George isn't very good at the job. i) John had [his nose broken in a fight] j) [The platform empty once more], I settled down for the night. k) We don't know [if Ronaldo will be fit to play in Saturday's game]. l) We phoned our friends [to warn them of the coming storm] m) A resident spotted a man [sitting in the car] n) The minister, [known for playing his hand close to his vest], declined to comment o) It was too dark [for her to see anything] p) [Being prepared for meetings] saves time q) The bereaved mother stood by her son's grave, [her eyes flooded with tears] 5. Functional categories I have mentioned the functional categories, and, provided there is time for it, let us do exercises 10.9 and 10.10 in the workbook now. 5