Objectives of Chapters 7,8

Objectives of Chapters 7,8 Planning Demand and Supply in a SC: (Ch7, 8, 9) Ch7 Describes methodologies that can be used to forecast future demand based on historical data. Ch8 Describes the aggregate planning methodology used to plan production, distribution and allocate resources for the near future, by making trade-offs among capacity, inventory and backlogged orders across the entire SC. Ch9 Describes how pricing and promotions can be planned to manage customer demand in coordination with production and distribution. 2007 Pearson Education 7-1

Supply Chain Management (3rd Edition) Chapter 7 Demand Forecasting in a Supply Chain 2007 Pearson Education 7-2

Outline The role of forecasting in a supply chain Characteristics of forecasts Components of forecasts and forecasting methods Basic approach to demand forecasting Time series forecasting methods Measures of forecast error Forecasting demand at Tahoe Salt Forecasting in practice 2007 Pearson Education 7-3

Role of Forecasting in a Supply Chain The basis for all strategic and planning decisions in a supply chain Used for both push and pull processes Examples: Production: scheduling, inventory, aggregate planning Marketing: sales force allocation, promotions, new production introduction Finance: plant/equipment investment, budgetary planning Personnel: workforce planning, hiring, layoffs All of these decisions are interrelated 2007 Pearson Education 7-4

Characteristics of Forecasts Forecasts are always wrong. Should include expected value and measure of error. Long-term forecasts are less accurate than shortterm forecasts (forecast horizon is important) Aggregate forecasts are more accurate than disaggregate forecasts The farther up the SC an enterprise is, the larger is the forecast error importance of collaborative forecasting 2007 Pearson Education 7-5

Components of Forecast To forecast demand, companies must first identify the factors that influence future demand and ascertain the relationship between these factors and future demand. Objective and subjective factors: Past demand Lead time of product Planned advertising or marketing efforts State of the economy Planned price discounts Actions that competitors have taken Human input 2007 Pearson Education 7-6

Four Types of Forecasting Methods Qualitative: primarily subjective; rely on judgment and opinion Time Series: use historical demand only Static Adaptive Causal: use the relationship between demand and some other factor to develop forecast Simulation Imitate consumer choices that give rise to demand Can combine time series and causal methods 2007 Pearson Education 7-7

Components of an Observation Observed demand (O) = Systematic component (S) + Random component (R) Level (current deseasonalized demand) Trend (growth or decline in demand) Seasonality (predictable seasonal fluctuation) Systematic component: Expected value of demand Random component: The part of the forecast that deviates from the systematic component Forecast error: difference between forecast and actual demand 2007 Pearson Education 7-8

Time Series Forecasting Quarter Demand D t II, 1998 8000 III, 1998 13000 IV, 1998 23000 I, 1999 34000 II, 1999 10000 III, 1999 18000 IV, 1999 23000 I, 2000 38000 II, 2000 12000 III, 2000 13000 IV, 2000 32000 I, 2001 41000 Forecast demand for the next four quarters. 2007 Pearson Education 7-9

Time Series Forecasting 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 97,2 97,3 97,4 98,1 98,2 98,3 98,4 99,1 99,2 99,3 99,4 00,1 2007 Pearson Education 7-10

Basic Approach to Demand Forecasting Understand the objectives of forecasting Integrate demand planning and forecasting Understand and identify customer segments Identify major demand, supply and product related factors that influence the demand forecast Determine the appropriate forecasting technique for demand along three dimensions: the geographic areas, product groups, and customer groups Establish performance and error measures for the forecast 2007 Pearson Education 7-11

Time Series Forecasting Methods Goal is to predict systematic component of demand and estimate the random component. The systematic component contains a level, a trend and a seasonal factor and make take a variety of forms: Multiplicative: (level)(trend)(seasonal factor) Additive: level + trend + seasonal factor Mixed: (level + trend)(seasonal factor) Static Adaptive Moving average Simple exponential smoothing Holt s model (with trend) Winter s model (with trend and seasonality) 2007 Pearson Education 7-12

Assume a mixed model: Static Methods Systematic component = (level + trend)(seasonal factor) F t+l = [L + (t + l)t]s t+l = forecast in period t for demand in period t + l L = estimate of level for period 0 T = estimate of trend S t = estimate of seasonal factor for period t D t = actual demand in period t F t = forecast of demand in period t 2007 Pearson Education 7-13

Static Methods Estimating level and trend Estimating seasonal factors 2007 Pearson Education 7-14

Time Series Forecasting Quarter Demand D t II, 1998 8000 III, 1998 13000 IV, 1998 23000 I, 1999 34000 II, 1999 10000 III, 1999 18000 IV, 1999 23000 I, 2000 38000 II, 2000 12000 III, 2000 13000 IV, 2000 32000 I, 2001 41000 (Table 7.1) Forecast demand for the next four quarters. 2007 Pearson Education 7-15

Time Series Forecasting (Figure 7.1) 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 97,2 97,3 97,4 98,1 98,2 98,3 98,4 99,1 99,2 99,3 99,4 00,1 2007 Pearson Education 7-16

Estimating Level and Trend Before estimating level and trend, demand data must be deseasonalized Deseasonalized demand = demand that would have been observed in the absence of seasonal fluctuations Periodicity (p) the number of periods after which the seasonal cycle repeats itself for demand at Tahoe Salt (Table 7.1, Figure 7.1) p = 4 2007 Pearson Education 7-17

Deseasonalizing Demand D t = [D t-(p/2) + D t+(p/2) + Σ 2D i ] / 2p for p even (sum is from i = t+1-(p/2) to t+1+(p/2)) Σ D i / p for p odd (sum is from i = t-(p/2) to t+(p/2)), p/2 truncated to lower integer 2007 Pearson Education 7-18

Deseasonalizing Demand For the example, p = 4 is even For t = 3: D3 = {D1 + D5 + Sum(i=2 to 4) [2Di]}/8 = {8000+10000+[(2)(13000)+(2)(23000)+(2)(34000)]}/8 = 19750 D4 = {D2 + D6 + Sum(i=3 to 5) [2Di]}/8 = {13000+18000+[(2)(23000)+(2)(34000)+(2)(10000)]/8 = 20625 2007 Pearson Education 7-19

Deseasonalizing Demand Then include trend D t = L + tt where D t = deseasonalized demand in period t L = level (deseasonalized demand at period 0) T = trend (rate of growth of deseasonalized demand) Trend is determined by linear regression using deseasonalized demand as the dependent variable and period as the independent variable (can be done in Excel) In the example, L = 18,439 and T = 524 2007 Pearson Education 7-20

Time Series of Demand (Figure 7.3) 50000 40000 Demand 30000 20000 10000 Dt Dt-bar 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Period 2007 Pearson Education 7-21

Estimating Seasonal Factors Use the previous equation to calculate deseasonalized demand for each period S t = D t / D t = seasonal factor for period t In the example, D 2 = 18439 + (524)(2) = 19487 D 2 = 13000 S 2 = 13000/19487 = 0.67 The seasonal factors for the other periods are calculated in the same manner 2007 Pearson Education 7-22

Estimating Seasonal Factors (Fig. 7.4) t Dt Dt-bar S-bar 1 8000 18963 0.42 = 8000/18963 2 13000 19487 0.67 = 13000/19487 3 23000 20011 1.15 = 23000/20011 4 34000 20535 1.66 = 34000/20535 5 10000 21059 0.47 = 10000/21059 6 18000 21583 0.83 = 18000/21583 7 23000 22107 1.04 = 23000/22107 8 38000 22631 1.68 = 38000/22631 9 12000 23155 0.52 = 12000/23155 10 13000 23679 0.55 = 13000/23679 11 32000 24203 1.32 = 32000/24203 12 41000 24727 1.66 = 41000/24727 2007 Pearson Education 7-23

Estimating Seasonal Factors The overall seasonal factor for a season is then obtained by averaging all of the factors for a season If there are r seasonal cycles, for all periods of the form pt+i, 1<i<p, the seasonal factor for season i is S i = [Sum (j=0 to r-1) S jp+i ]/ r In the example, there are 3 seasonal cycles in the data and p=4, so S1 = (0.42+0.47+0.52)/3 = 0.47 S2 = (0.67+0.83+0.55)/3 = 0.68 S3 = (1.15+1.04+1.32)/3 = 1.17 S4 = (1.66+1.68+1.66)/3 = 1.67 2007 Pearson Education 7-24

Estimating the Forecast Using the original equation, we can forecast the next four periods of demand: F13 = (L+13T)S1 = [18439+(13)(524)](0.47) = 11868 F14 = (L+14T)S2 = [18439+(14)(524)](0.68) = 17527 F15 = (L+15T)S3 = [18439+(15)(524)](1.17) = 30770 F16 = (L+16T)S4 = [18439+(16)(524)](1.67) = 44794 2007 Pearson Education 7-25

Adaptive Forecasting The estimates of level, trend, and seasonality are adjusted after each demand observation General steps in adaptive forecasting Moving average Simple exponential smoothing Trend-corrected exponential smoothing (Holt s model) Trend- and seasonality-corrected exponential smoothing (Winter s model) 2007 Pearson Education 7-26

Basic Formula for Adaptive Forecasting F t+1 = (L t + lt t )S t+1 = forecast for period t+l in period t L t = Estimate of level at the end of period t T t = Estimate of trend at the end of period t S t = Estimate of seasonal factor for period t F t = Forecast of demand for period t (made period t-1 or earlier) D t = Actual demand observed in period t E t = Forecast error in period t A t = Absolute deviation for period t = E t MAD = Mean Absolute Deviation = average value of A t 2007 Pearson Education 7-27

General Steps in Adaptive Forecasting Initialize: Compute initial estimates of level (L 0 ), trend (T 0 ), and seasonal factors (S 1,,S p ). This is done as in static forecasting. Forecast: Forecast demand for period t+1 using the general equation Estimate error: Compute error E t+1 = F t+1 - D t+1 Modify estimates: Modify the estimates of level (L t+1 ), trend (T t+1 ), and seasonal factor (S t+p+1 ), given the error E t+1 in the forecast Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 for each subsequent period 2007 Pearson Education 7-28

Moving Average Used when demand has no observable trend or seasonality Systematic component of demand = level The level in period t is the average demand over the last N periods (the N-period moving average) Current forecast for all future periods is the same and is based on the current estimate of the level L t = (D t + D t-1 + + D t-n+1 ) / N F t+1 = L t and F t+n = L t After observing the demand for period t+1, revise the estimates as follows: L t+1 = (D t+1 + D t + + D t-n+2 ) / N F t+2 = L t+1 2007 Pearson Education 7-29

Moving Average Example From Tahoe Salt example (Table 7.1) At the end of period 4, what is the forecast demand for periods 5 through 8 using a 4-period moving average? L4 = (D4+D3+D2+D1)/4 = (34000+23000+13000+8000)/4 = 19500 F5 = 19500 = F6 = F7 = F8 Observe demand in period 5 to be D5 = 10000 Forecast error in period 5, E5 = F5 - D5 = 19500-10000 = 9500 Revise estimate of level in period 5: L5 = (D5+D4+D3+D2)/4 = (10000+34000+23000+13000)/4 = 20000 F6 = L5 = 20000 2007 Pearson Education 7-30

Simple Exponential Smoothing Used when demand has no observable trend or seasonality Systematic component of demand = level Initial estimate of level, L 0, assumed to be the average of all historical data L 0 = [Sum( i=1 to n )D i ]/n Current forecast for all future periods is equal to the current estimate of the level and is given as follows: F t+1 = L t and F t+n = L t After observing demand Dt+1, revise the estimate of the level: L t+1 = αd t+1 + (1-α)L t L t+1 = Sum (n=0 to t-1) [α(1-α) n D t+1-n ] + (1-α)D t 2007 Pearson Education 7-31

Simple Exponential Smoothing Example From Tahoe Salt data, forecast demand for period 1 using exponential smoothing L 0 = average of all 12 periods of data = Sum (i=1 to 12) [D i ]/12 = 22083 F1 = L0 = 22083 Observed demand for period 1 = D1 = 8000 Forecast error for period 1, E1, is as follows: E1 = F1 - D1 = 22083-8000 = 14083 Assuming α = 0.1, revised estimate of level for period 1: L1 = αd1 + (1-α)L0 = (0.1)(8000) + (0.9)(22083) = 20675 F2 = L1 = 20675 Note that the estimate of level for period 1 is lower than in period 0 2007 Pearson Education 7-32

Trend-Corrected Exponential Smoothing (Holt s Model) Appropriate when the demand is assumed to have a level and trend in the systematic component of demand but no seasonality Obtain initial estimate of level and trend by running a linear regression of the following form: D t = at + b T 0 = a L 0 = b In period t, the forecast for future periods is expressed as follows: F t+1 = L t + T t F t+n = L t + nt t 2007 Pearson Education 7-33

Trend-Corrected Exponential Smoothing (Holt s Model) After observing demand for period t, revise the estimates for level and trend as follows: L t+1 = αd t+1 + (1-α)(L t + T t ) T t+1 = β(l t+1 - L t ) + (1-β)T t α = smoothing constant for level β = smoothing constant for trend Example: Tahoe Salt demand data. Forecast demand for period 1 using Holt s model (trend corrected exponential smoothing) Using linear regression, L 0 = 12015 (linear intercept) T 0 = 1549 (linear slope) 2007 Pearson Education 7-34

Holt s Model Example (continued) Forecast for period 1: F1 = L0 + T0 = 12015 + 1549 = 13564 Observed demand for period 1 = D1 = 8000 E1 = F1 - D1 = 13564-8000 = 5564 Assume α = 0.1, β = 0.2 L1 = αd1 + (1-α)(L0+T0) = (0.1)(8000) + (0.9)(13564) = 13008 T1 = β(l1 - L0) + (1-β)T0 = (0.2)(13008-12015) + (0.8)(1549) = 1438 F2 = L1 + T1 = 13008 + 1438 = 14446 F5 = L1 + 4T1 = 13008 + (4)(1438) = 18760 2007 Pearson Education 7-35

Trend- and Seasonality-Corrected Exponential Smoothing Appropriate when the systematic component of demand is assumed to have a level, trend, and seasonal factor Systematic component = (level+trend)(seasonal factor) Assume periodicity p Obtain initial estimates of level (L 0 ), trend (T 0 ), seasonal factors (S 1,,S p ) using procedure for static forecasting In period t, the forecast for future periods is given by: F t+1 = (L t +T t )(S t+1 ) and F t+n = (L t + nt t )S t+n 2007 Pearson Education 7-36

Trend- and Seasonality-Corrected Exponential Smoothing (continued) After observing demand for period t+1, revise estimates for level, trend, and seasonal factors as follows: L t+1 = α(d t+1 /S t+1 ) + (1-α)(L t +T t ) T t+1 = β(l t+1 - L t ) + (1-β)T t S t+p+1 = γ(d t+1 /L t+1 ) + (1-γ)S t+1 α = smoothing constant for level β = smoothing constant for trend γ = smoothing constant for seasonal factor Example: Tahoe Salt data. Forecast demand for period 1 using Winter s model. Initial estimates of level, trend, and seasonal factors are obtained as in the static forecasting case 2007 Pearson Education 7-37

Trend- and Seasonality-Corrected Exponential Smoothing Example (continued) L 0 = 18439 T 0 = 524 S 1 =0.47, S 2 =0.68, S 3 =1.17, S 4 =1.67 F1 = (L0 + T0)S1 = (18439+524)(0.47) = 8913 The observed demand for period 1 = D1 = 8000 Forecast error for period 1 = E1 = F1-D1 = 8913-8000 = 913 Assume α = 0.1, β=0.2, γ=0.1; revise estimates for level and trend for period 1 and for seasonal factor for period 5 L1 = α(d1/s1)+(1-α)(l0+t0) = (0.1)(8000/0.47)+(0.9)(18439+524)=18769 T1 = β(l1-l0)+(1-β)t0 = (0.2)(18769-18439)+(0.8)(524) = 485 S5 = γ(d1/l1)+(1-γ)s1 = (0.1)(8000/18769)+(0.9)(0.47) = 0.47 F2 = (L1+T1)S2 = (18769 + 485)(0.68) = 13093 2007 Pearson Education 7-38

Measures of Forecast Error Forecast error = E t = F t - D t Mean squared error (MSE) MSE n = (Sum (t=1 to n) [E t2 ])/n Absolute deviation = A t = E t Mean absolute deviation (MAD) MAD n = (Sum (t=1 to n) [A t ])/n σ = 1.25MAD 2007 Pearson Education 7-39

Measures of Forecast Error Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) MAPE n = (Sum (t=1 to n) [ E t / D t 100])/n Bias Shows whether the forecast consistently under- or overestimates demand; should fluctuate around 0 bias n = Sum (t=1 to n) [E t ] Tracking signal Should be within the range of +6 Otherwise, possibly use a new forecasting method TS t = bias t / MAD t 2007 Pearson Education 7-40

Forecasting Demand at Tahoe Salt Moving average Simple exponential smoothing Trend-corrected exponential smoothing Trend- and seasonality-corrected exponential smoothing 2007 Pearson Education 7-41

Forecasting in Practice Collaborate in building forecasts The value of data depends on where you are in the supply chain Be sure to distinguish between demand and sales 2007 Pearson Education 7-42

Summary of Learning Objectives What are the roles of forecasting for an enterprise and a supply chain? What are the components of a demand forecast? How is demand forecast given historical data using time series methodologies? How is a demand forecast analyzed to estimate forecast error? 2007 Pearson Education 7-43