Utility Maimization Given the consumer's income, M, and prices, p and p y, the consumer's problem is to choose the a ordable bundle that maimizes her utility. The feasible set (budget set): total ependiture cannot eceed income, so we have p + p y y M: (1) Since more is better, inequality (1) must hold with equality at the solution to the consumer's problem. 5 4 y 3 1 4 6 8 1 The Feasible Set, p =1;p y =5;M =1
The budget line, p + p y y = M, has a slope of p =p y, an -intercept of M=p, and a y-intercept of M=p y. From the diagram, we see that utility maimization over the feasible set occurs at the point of tangency between an indi erence curve and the budget line. (Notice that we need aiom 6 for the tangency to be a utility maimum.) 5 4 y 3 1 4 6 8 1
The slope of the indi erence curve is MRS y and theslopeofthebudgetlineis p =p y : The optimal bundle is the point on the budget line where we have MRS y = p =p y : () Equation () has an economic interpretation: the internal rate of trade should equal the eternal or market rate of trade. Otherwise, there are further gains from trade between the consumer and the market. For eample, if MRS y =1=4 andp =1;p y =5,then the consumer could increase her utility by choosing 1 unit less y, freeing up the income to buy 5 units more. Since giving up 1 unit of y and gaining 4 units of leaves her indi erent according to her internal rate of trade, gaining 5 units of good makes her better o.
To see that the intuition from the diagram, leading to (), is correct, here the consumer's constrained optimization problem: ma u(; y) (3) subject to : p + p y y = M We could solve (3) by solving the constraint for y in terms of, plugging it in to the objective, and solving the resulting unconstrained problem. This is called the substitution approach (not recommended).
The Lagrangean approach transforms a constrained optimization problem, such as (3), into an unconstrained problem of choosing, y, and the Lagrange multiplier, ; to maimize L = u(; y)+ [M p p y y]: (4) By di erentiating L with respect to, y, and, and setting the derivatives equal to zero, the resulting rst order conditions are: @u @ p =; @u @y p y =; and M p p y y =: Solving, we are able to formally derive (). Aiom 6 guarantees that the second-order conditions are satis ed. We still need to make sure there is no corner solution with =ory =.
An Eample u(; y) =y M =1 p =1;p y =1 The Lagrangean epression is L = y + [1 y]: The rst order conditions are y = ; = ; 1 y = : To solve, rst solve the rst two equations for and set the epressions equal to each other.
= y = : Now solve the third equation (the budget constraint) for either or y in terms of the other. y =1 : Finally, substitute this equation into the earlier equation: 1 = : Solving, we get = 5. Plug this into the budget constraint to get y = 5. You can check that the marginal rate of substitution equals the price ratio at the point (5,5).
Derivation of the Demand Function The solution to utility maimization problem (3) gives the consumer's choice of and y, as a function of prices and income, which we denote by (p ;p y ;M) and y (p ;p y ;M). These are known as the generalized demand functions. We will now eplore these functions in more detail, rst graphically and then by computing an eample. The demand for, say, good y as a function of income, holding prices constant, is called the Engel Curve. This is related to the income-consumption curve, the set of consumption bundles chosen as income varies, holding prices constant.
6 5 4 y3 1 6 5 4 y3 1 1 3 4 5 The Income-Consumption Curve 4 6 8 M The Engel Curve In the above diagrams, we have p =1andp y =1. The three budget lines correspond to incomes of 4, 5, and 6. If the quantity demanded increases as income increases (Engel curve slopes up), the good is a normal good. Otherwise (if the Engel curve slopes down), the good is an inferior good.
6 5 4 y 3 1 1 3 4 5 An Inferior Good
The set of consumption bundles chosen as, say, p varies, holding M and p y constant, is called the priceconsumption curve. The demand for, as a function of p,holdingm and p y constant, is called the ordinary demand function. For the following diagrams, M =1andp y =1.
1.5 y 1.5.5 1 1.5 The Price-Consumption Curve.5 1.5 p 1.5.5 1 1.5 The Ordinary Demand Curve
The cross-price demand function is the demand for (say) good y, as a function of p,holdingm and p y constant. 1.5 1.5 y1 p1.5.5.5 1 1.5 Price-Consumption.5 1 1.5 y Cross-Price Demand Good y is a gross substitute for if the quantity of y demanded increases as p increases, holding M and p y constant (cross-price demand function is upward sloping). Eample: red wine and white wine Good y is a gross complement for if the quantity of y demanded decreases as p increases, holding M and p y constant (cross-price demand function is downward sloping). Eample: red wine and steak