Advertising Research

Second Edition Advertising Research THEORY AND PRACTICE Joel J. Davis School of Journalism & Media Studies, San Diego State University Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

CONTENTS Preface to the Second Edition xx PART I Foundations Chapter 1 The Nature and Process of Advertising Research 1 The Contributions of Advertising Research 3 The Market 3 The Consumer 3 Creative 6 Media Analysis and Placement 7 Synthesis 7 Tactics, Actions, Evaluation, and Revision 8 Who Conducts Research? 8 Information Users 8 Research Specialists 9 Media and Consulting Companies 9 Trade Associations 10 Field Services 10 The Process of Advertising Research 11 Preliminary Discussions and Agreements 13 Problem Definition 13 Justifying the Need for Research 15 Specifying Informational Needs 16 The Complete Problem Statement 16 Planning and Data Collection 17 Identify the Appropriate Type of Research 17 Sampling and Data Collection 20 Selection of Data Collection Method 21 Determine the Research Budget and Timing 21 Prepare, Distribute, and Obtain Approval of Research Proposal 21 Prepare Research Materials 22 Conduct the Research 22 Prepare Information for Analysis 22 Application 23 Data Analysis 23 Present the Results 23 Decision Making 24

vi Contents Applying Chapter Concepts 24 Summary 25 Review Questions 26 Application Exercises 27 Endnotes 28 Chapter 2 Research Ethics 30 Ethics and Individual Respondents 32 Informed Decisions and Informed Consent 32 Mistreatment 34 Confidentiality and Privacy 35 Responsibilities to Respondents: Special Populations 35 Research with Children 35 Research in Online Communities 36 Research in Virtual Worlds 37 Responsibilities to Clients 39 Appropriate Research 39 Confidential and Proprietary 40 Presentation of Findings 40 Project Changes 43 Responsibilities to Research Companies 43 Pre-selection 44 Free Advise 44 False Promises 44 Responsibilities to Society 44 Complete Data and Findings 45 Proper Interpretation 45 Sound, Objective Research 45 Research Is Not a Guise for Other Activities 45 Summary 47 Review Questions 47 Application Exercises 48 Endnotes 51 PART II Sources of Information Chapter 3 Secondary Research 53 An Introduction to Secondary Research 54 Secondary Information Versus Secondary Sources 55

Contents vii The Uses of Secondary Research 55 Advantages of Secondary Research 59 Limitations of Secondary Research 60 Evaluating the "Goodness" of Secondary Information 61 Locating Secondary Information 62 Non-indexed Online Sources 62 Indexed Online Sources: Search Strategies 63 Beyond the General Search Engines 69 Staying Current 70 E-mail Newsletters 70 Newsletter Publishers 70 Whitepapers, Research Reports, Webinars, and Presentations 72 Applying Chapter Concepts 74 Summary 75 Review Questions 75 Application Exercises 76 Endnotes 77 Chapter 4 Sampling 79 An Overview of Sampling 80 Random Sampling and Quantitative Research 81 Sample or Census 81 Define Target Population 83 Select Sampling Method' 87 Sample Frame 87 Types of Probability Sampling 88 Sample Size in Random Samples 96 Sample Selection Bias in Probability Samples 99 Nonprobability Sampling and Quantitative Research 102 Convenience Sampling 102 Judgment Sampling 103 Quota Sampling 104 Snowball Sampling 104 Sample Size in Nonprobability Samples 105 Sample Selection and Qualitative Research 106 Sample Size 107 Applying Chapter Concepts 107

viii Contents Summary 107 Probability Sampling 108 Nonprobability Sampling 108 Review Questions 109 Application Exercises 109 Theory Underlying Sample Size Determination 113 Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Proportion 113 Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Mean 116 Endnotes 117 PART III Qualitative Research Chapter 5 Collecting Qualitative Insights 119 Personal and Focus Group Interviews 121 Personal Interviews 121 Focus Groups and Minigroups 122 Approaches to Collecting Qualitative Insights 123 Direct Question Types 123 Projective Techniques 127 Techniques Using Verbal Stimuli 128 Techniques Requiring Imagination or Scenarios 130 Pictures as Stimuli 131 Process Techniques 134 The Qualitative Interview 139 Active Listening and Probes 141 Setting the Right Environment 142 Summary 144 Review Questions 145 Application Exercises 146 Endnotes 148 Chapter 6 Focus Groups 150 Planning for Focus Groups 152 Select a Moderator 152 Brief the Moderator 153 Prepare, Evaluate, and Revise Discussion Guide 154 Determine Group Characteristics 156 Determine the Number and Location of Required Groups 157

Contents ix Select the Facility 158 Schedule Groups, Specify Sample, and Recruit Participants 158 Conduct the Groups 160 Assess Group Success and, If Necessary, Revise the Discussion Guide 162 Analyze and Present Findings; Apply Findings to Decision Making 162 Viewing Focus Groups 163 Online Focus Groups 164 Applying Chapter Concepts 166 Summary 168 Review Questions 169 Application Exercises 169 Endnotes 171 Chapter 7 Analysis of Qualitative Data 173 Activities Conducted Prior to Data Examination 174 Review Problem Definition and Informational Needs 174 Evaluate the Sample and Note Any Limitations 175 Data Examination 176 Understand the Intensity of Respondents' Feelings and Points of View 177 Understand the Respondent, Not Individual Responses 177 Review with a Critical Eye and Ear 178 Reflection 179 Theme Identification, Analysis, and Revision 179 Theme Development 180 Coding Data According to Themes 181 Examining Relevant Data 181 Theme Evaluation and Revision 182 Relating Individual Themes to Form Metathemes 183 Serendipitous Discoveries 183 Evaluating the Analysis 184 CAQDAS: Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software 185 Summary 186 Review Questions 187 Application Exercises 187 Endnotes 189

Contents PART IV Quantitative Research Chapter 8 Observation Research: Human and Automated 190 Human Observation 191 Qualitative or Quantitative? 192 Types of Human Observation 193 Human Observation: Case Examples 196 Automated Observation 199 Observing Online Behaviors 199 Observing Offline Behaviors 203 Observing Consumer-Generated Media 203 Applying Chapter Concepts 213 Video Consumer Mapping Study 213 Campaigning with Social Media 216 Summary 216 Review Questions 217 Application Exercises 217 Endnotes 219 Chapter 9 Observation Research: Biometrics 221 Eye Tracking 222 Application of Eye Tracking to Advertising Planning 224 Application of Eye Tracking to Evaluation and Revision of Advertising Creative 228 Combining Eye Tracking with Retrospective Interviews 230 Combining Eye Tracking with Facial Coding and Verbal Response 231 Additional Examples of Eye Tracking Applications to Advertising 232 Neuromarketing 232 fmri: Activation of Specific Brain Areas 234 Overall Brain Activation (EEG) Plus Physiological Measures 236 Exclusive Reliance on Physiological Measures 238 Alternative Views 238 Applying Chapter Concepts 239 Tobii Technology Eye Tracking Cases 239 Etre Web Site Analysis 240 One to One Insight: Emotion, Engagement, and Internet Video 240

Contents xi MindSign fmri Advertising Test of Virgin Mobile Phones "Fantastic Journey" 241 Summary 241 Review Questions 242 Application Exercises 242 Endnotes 243 Chapter 10 Data Collection Through Surveys 246 Methods of Collecting Survey Information 247 Personal Interviews 247 Telephone Interviews 248 Mail Surveys 249 Online Surveys 253 Hybrid (Mixed-Mode) Surveys 253 Criteria for Selecting a Data Collection Method 254 Cost 254 Timing Requirements 255 Sample, Interview, and Administrative Control 255 Informational Needs 256 Complexity of the Topic and Questionnaire 256 Interview Length 257 Response Rate, Nonresponse Rate, and Nonresponse Error 258 Causes of Nonresponse Errors 260 Improving Response Rate to Reduce Nonresponse Error 260 Summary 264 Review Questions 264 Application Exercises 265 Endnotes 266 Chapter 11 Measurement 268 The Measurement Process 269 Task One: Identify and Define the Concept of Interest 269 Stage Two: Specify an Observable Event 274 Stage Three: Evaluate and Revise the Observable Event 284 Reliability and Validity: An Overview 285 Assessing Reliability 285 Assessing Validity 287

xii Contents Summary 288 Review Questions 289 Application Exercises 289 Endnotes 291 Chapter 12 Writing Survey Questions 292 Writing Closed-Ended Survey Questions 293 Nominal Level Questions 293 Ordinal Level Questions 299 Interval Level Questions 300 Ratio Level Questions 305 Developing Open-Ended Questions 306 Considerations in Question Development 307 Question Writing: An Evaluation 309 Applying Chapter Concepts 314 Razorfish Digital Brand Experience Report/2009 315 People From Cossette 315 Summary 316 Review Questions 317 Application Exercises 317 Endnotes 322 Chapter 13 Questionnaire Design 323 Determine the Data Collection Method 325 Determine the Need for Disguise 325 Create Questionnaire Components 326 Introduction 326 Screener 327 Main Body 330 Classification 331 Physically Prepare the Questionnaire 331 Self-Administered Questionnaires 331 Online Questionnaires 333 Transitions 335 Interviewer and Respondent Instructions 335 Internal Evaluation 339 Pretest the Questionnaire 339 Prepare Field Support Materials 342

Contents xiii Applying Chapter Content 342 VERB Campaign Evaluation 342 Generation Next 344 Summary 345 Review Questions 345 Application Exercises 346 Endnotes 359 Chapter 14 Experimentation 361 Surveys Versus Experiments 362 The Characteristics of Experiments 364 Independent and Dependent Variables 365 Requirements for Causality 365 Problems Affecting Internal Validity 367 Premeasurement and Interaction 367 Testing 368 Instrumentation 368 Maturation 369 Selection and Mortality 370 History 371 Researcher Bias 371 Experimental Design 372 Quasi-Experimental Designs 372 True Experimental Designs 377 More Complex Experimental Designs 381 Conducting Experiments Online 384 Internal Validity: A Broader View 384 External Validity 386 Applying Chapter Concepts 387 IAB Advertising Effectiveness Study 387 Massive Video Game Advertising Test 388 Summary 389 Review Questions 390 Application Exercises 391 Endnotes 393 Chapter 15 Descriptive Statistics 395 Basic Math and Key Measures 396 Percentage 396

xiv Contents Average 396 Median and Mode 398 Standard Deviation 399 Making Certain You Have Good Data 404 Data Review, Decisions, and Editing 404 Data Analysis for Specific Question Types 406 Classification, Checklist, and Other Nominal Level Questions 408 Checklist Questions 411 Ranking and Other Ordinal Level Questions 414 Rating Scales and Other Interval Level Questions 415 Constant Sum and Other Ratio Level Questions 417 The Importance of Subgroup Analysis 418 Data Analysis in Action 420 The Situation 420 The Analysis 420 Conclusion 426 Summary 426 Review Questions 426 Application Exercises 427 Endnotes 431 Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433 Statistical Significance 434 Making Judgments about A Single Measure from One Sample 436 Comparing a Sample Average to a Population Average 437 Comparing a Sample Proportion to a Population Proportion 439 Examining the Internal Characteristics of a Single Sample 440 Making Judgments about a Single Measure from Two or More Independent Samples 441 Comparing Two Means 441 Comparing Three or More Means 443 Factorial Designs: Making Judgments about the Simultaneous Influence of Two or More Variables 445 Neither Factor Is Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 446 One Factor Is Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 447 One Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction Between Factors 449

Contents xv Two Factors Are Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 451 Neither Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction Between Factors 452 Making Judgments about the Relationship between Two or More Measures 453 Correlation 453 Chi-Square 456 A Caution Regarding Statistical Tests 457 Summary 457 Review Questions 458 Application Exercises 459 Theory Underlying Statistical Significance 461 The Normal Curve 461 The Standard Normal Curve, Standard Deviation and Area Under the Curve 462 Area Under the Curve and Probability 463 Hypothesis Testing 463 Endnotes 466 PARTV Applied Topics Chapter 17 Segmentation 468 How Advertisers Use Segmentation 471 Criteria for Selecting Segments 473 Variables Used in Segmentation 474 Demographic Segmentation 474 Geographic Variables 476 Psychographic Variables 477 Category and/or Brand-Related Attitudes and Behaviors 480 Conducting Original Segmentation Research 482 Explicitly State the Research Question(s) 482 Identify the Range of Classification and Descriptive Variables 482 Reduce the List of Segmentation and Descriptive Measures 484 Sample and Survey the Population 484 If Necessary, Reduce the Data to a Manageable Number of Factors or Dimensions 485 Use the Classification Variables to Form Segments 485

xvi Contents Describe Segments Using Descriptive Variables 487 Create a Summary Sheet, Narrative or Persona for Each Segment 487 Evaluate Segments for Communication Priority 491 Syndicated Approaches to Segmentation 491 Psychographic Segmentation: VALS 493 Category and Brand Usage Behaviors 497 Geodemographic Segmentation 502 Applying Chapter Concepts 503 A Typology of Information and Communication Technology Users 503 Generation C 506 Summary 506 Review Questions 508 Application Exercises 509 Endnotes 512 Chapter 18 Brand Mapping 515 Perceptual Maps 516 What Perceptual Maps Tell Us 516 Constructing a Perceptual Map 518 Perceptual Maps and Advertising Strategy 524 Correspondence Maps 529 Application to Advertising Strategy 530 Brand Concept Maps 531 Elicitation 532, Mapping 532 Aggregation 532 Application to Advertising Decision Making 533 Additional Considerations in the Use of Perceptual, Correspondence, and Concept Maps 537 Perceptual Maps for the Same Brands Often Change Across Different Consumer Segments 538 Comparing Current and Potential Customers Contributes to Strategic Decision Making 538 Before and after Maps Can Track Advertising Impact 538 Summary 542 Review Questions 542 Application Exercises 543 Endnotes 545

Contents xvii Chapter 19 Advertising Testing: Concept and Communications Tests 546 Concept Tests 547 Product and Non-Product Focused Concept Tests 547 Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Concept Test 551 Communication Tests 552 Reasons for Communication Research 552 Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Communication Test 555 Approaches to Data Collection 555 Custom or Syndicated Options 556 Measurement in Message Concept and Communication Tests 556 Introduction: Setting the Stage 557 Show Concept or Execution 567 Spontaneous Initial Reactions 567 Essential Message 567 Reactions to the Message 568 Affective Reactions 568 Message or Execution Specific Issues 569 Attitudinal and Behavioral Impact 569 Analysis of Concept and Communication Test Data 569 Data Summarization 570 Finding Relationships Among Measures 574 Applying Chapter Concepts 578 Healthy Eating 578 Secondhand Smoke 579 Summary 581 Review Questions 582 Application Exercises 582 Endnotes 591 Chapter 20 Post-Production Advertising Testing and Optimization 593 Copy Testing Research 594 Copy Testing Television Advertising 594 Evaluating Alternative Copy Testing Methodologies 596 Split-Run Tests 597 Split-Run Test Design 597 Split-Run Test Data Analysis 600 A/B Tests 600 A/B Test Data Analysis 602

xviii Contents Additional A/B Test Considerations 602 Limitations of A/B Testing 605 Full Factorial Designs 605 Multivariate Testing 608 An E-mail Multivariate Test 608 Advantages and Limitations of Multivariate Testing 610 Campaign Evaluation 612 Considerations in Campaign Evaluation 612 Applying Chapter Concepts 615 Mapes and Ross Natural Exposure Copy Test 615 National Tobacco Youth Campaign Evaluation 616 Summary 617 Review Questions 618 Application Exercises 619 Copy Testing from a Legal Perspective 625 Universe Definition and Sample Selection 626 Research Design and Use of Control Groups 627 Questionnaire Design and Question Formats 629 Interviewer Qualifications, Training, and Techniques 630 Data Analysis and Presentation 630 Research Project Administration 631 Endnotes 632 Chapter 21 Reporting Research 635 Characteristics of Good Report Writing 636 Clarity and Conciseness 636 Completeness 638 Coherence 638 Care 638 The Need for Review 639 The Written Research Report 640 Title Page 640 Table of Contents and List of Illustrations/Figures 640 Executive Summary 641 Background 643 Methodology 645 Findings 646 Conclusions 647

Contents xix Index 667 Recommendations and Next Steps 647 Appendices 647 The Oral Research Presentation 647 Improving Powerpoint or Similar Slide-Based Presentations 648 The Researcher As Presenter 650 Using Tables and Charts Effectively 651 Considerations for all Tables and Charts 651 Numeric Tables 654 Bar Charts 654 Pie Charts 657 Line Charts 659 Software Options for Chart Creation 600 Special Considerations for Presenting Qualitative Data 661 Applying Chapter Concepts 662 Summary 663 Review Questions 663 Application Exercises 664 Endnotes 665