THE USE OF BIOFUELS AS AN ALTERNATIVE ENERGY TO CRUDE OIL IN PROMOTING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY. By

THE USE OF BIOFUELS AS AN ALTERNATIVE ENERGY TO CRUDE OIL IN PROMOTING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY. By YUNUS, Siraju B.Eng Water Resources & Environmental Engineering (ABU), GHSE NNPC Abuja, E-mail: Siraju.Yunus@nnpcgroup.com, Engr. Ikenna Okonkwo B.Eng Materials (ESUT), M.Eng Gas Engineering (UNIPORT), GHSE NNPC Abuja, E-mail: biokonkwo1@gmail.com, ikenna.okonkwo@nnpcgroup.com ABSTRACT Although biofuel has been used for decades to fuel automobiles either neatly or as an additive to petroleum products, its potential to fulfill the role of a commodity transportation fuel has only recently become a topic of significant commercial interest. As a chemically simple liquid fuel of reasonable cost derived independently of crude oil, it is being considered globally for a variety of fuel uses with the aim of generating benefits for the environment, energy security, or economics, depending on local circumstances. In the course of introducing this new fuel, major questions have therefore had to be addressed, among which education of the public in the face of competitive misinformation has been of key importance. Other major uncertainties include, how do you produce it, the crops involved and where they can be grown, are the required infrastructures in place to ensure regular production? Also what are their prospects, their benefits as alternative energy or fuel have over the conventional products of crude oil? Of particular importance are, what are in it that will ensure good environmental sustainability, it merits and demerits, the effects it will have in a country like Nigeria where it is very difficult to feed a population of over 140, 000,000. Attempts have been made in this paper to provide appreciable answers to these questions. INTRODUCTION Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gaseous fuel obtained from relatively recently lifeless or living biological material. Also, various plants and plant derived materials are used for biofuel manufacturing. Globally, biofuels are most commonly used to power vehicles, heat homes, for thermal and power generation, for cooking and is a renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal, and nuclear fuels. Biofuels are made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats using conventional technology. The basic feedstocks for the production of biofuels are often seeds or grains such as wheat, which yields starch that is fermented into bioethanol, or sunflower seeds, which are pressed to yield vegetable oil that, can be used in biodiesel. On the other hand, Petroleum ( rock oil ) or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid found in rock formations in the earth consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis, in a variety of mostly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure. Today s oil formed from the preserved remains of prehistory zooplankton and algae, which had settled to a sea or lake bottom in large quantities under anoxic conditions (the remains of prehistoric terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal). Over geological time the organic matter mixed with mud, and was buried under heavy layers of sediment resulting in high levels of heat and pressure. This caused the organic matter to chemically change, first into a waxy material found in various oil shale around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. 1

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The basis of this paper is to analyze the production processes of Biofuels, the benefits of their use as an alternative energy or fuel over crude oil. The effects its production will have on agriculture, the Nigerian populace and the benefits of using them to promote environmental sustainability. Over dependent on revenue generated from the Oil & Gas sector alone to service many other areas of the Nigerian economy is a matter of great concern, especially in this era of global crunch where the price of crude oil dwindles everyday and climate change is also in the front burner. Urgent strategies are required to arrest the situation, and it is not late to diversify into GREEN ECONOMY. METHODOLOGY Information for this study was collected through interviews with stakeholders most especially from the Renewable Energy Division (RED), NNPC. Addition information was obtained through previous works on bio fuels and surfing of the net. THE THEORY OF BIOFUEL PRODUCTION BIODIESEL Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using TRANSESTERIFICATION and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Its chemical name is Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME). Oils are mixed with sodium hydroxide and methanol (or ethanol) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel (FAME) and glycerol. Feedstocks for biodiesel include ANIMAL FATS, VEGETABLE OILS, RAPESEED, JATROPHA, SUNFLOWER, PALM OIL etc. STEPS IN THE PROCESS The major steps required to synthesize biodiesel are as follows: PURIFICATION If waste vegetable oil (WVO) is used, it is filtered to remove dirt, charred food, and other non oil material often found. Water is removed because its presence causes the triglycerides to hydrolyze to give salts of the fatty acids instead of undergoing transesterification to give biodiesel. At this point, dissolved or suspended water will boil off. When the water boils, it spatters. To prevent injury, this operation should be done in a sufficiently large container which is closed but not sealed. In the laboratory, the crude oil may be stirred with a drying agent such as magnesium sulfate to remove the water in the form of water of crystallization. The drying agent can be separated by decanting or by filtration. However, the viscosity of the oil may not allow the drying agent to mix thoroughly. NEUTRALIZATION OF FREE FATTY ACIDS A sample of the cleaned oil is titrated against a standard solution of base in order to determine the concentration of free fatty acids (RCOOH) present in the waste vegetable oil sample. The quantity (in moles) of base required to neutralize the acid is then calculated. TRANSESTERIFICATION While adding the base, a slight excess is factored in to provide the catalyst for the transesterification. The calculated quantity of base (usually sodium hydroxide) is added slowly to the alcohol and it is stirred until it dissolves. Sufficient alcohol is added to make up three full equivalents of the triglyceride, and an excess of usually six parts alcohol to one part triglyceride is added to drive the reaction to completion. 2

The solution of sodium hydroxide in the alcohol is then added to a warm solution of the waste oil, and the mixture is heated (typically 50 o C) for several hours (4 to 8 typically) to allow the transesterification to proceed. A condenser may be used to prevent the evaporative losses of the alcohol. Care must be taken not to create a closed system which can explode. FINAL PROCESS The lower layer of the process is composed primarily of glycerine and other waste products. The top layer, a mixture of biodiesel and alcohol, is decanted. The excess alcohol can be distilled off, or it can be extracted with water. REACTION R 1, R 2, R 3 : Alkyl group that are too lengthy to include in the diagram. PROPERTIES Biodiesel has better lubricating properties and much higher octane ratings than today s lower sulfur diesel fuels. Biodiesel is a liquid which varies in color between Golden and Dark Brown, depending on the production feedstock. It is immiscible with water, has a high boiling point and low vapor pressure. The flash point of biodiesel (>130 o C) is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel (64 o C) or gasoline (- 45 o C). Biodiesel has a density of ~0.88g/cm 3, less than that of water. Biodiesel has virtually no sulfur content. BLENDS Much of the world uses a system known as the B factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix: fuel containing 20% biodiesel is labeled B20, while pure biodiesel is referred to as B100. BIODIESEL FEEDSTOCKS A variety of oils can be used to produce biodiesel. These include: Virgin oil feedstock; rapeseed and soybean oils are most commonly use. It also can be obtained from field pennycress and jatropha other crops such as mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp. Waste vegetable oil (WVO); Animal fats including tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat, and by-products of the production of omega-3 fatty acid from fish oil. Algae, which can be grown using waste material such as sewage and without displacing land currently used for food production. 3

Oil from halophytes (a plant that naturally grows where it is affected by salinity in the root area or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-deserts, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs, and seashores) which can be grown using salt water in coastal areas where conventional crops cannot be grown, with yields equal to the yields of soybeans and other oilseeds grown using freshwater irrigation. Many advocates suggests that waste vegetable oil is the best source of oil to produce biodiesel, but since the available supply is drastically less than the amount of petroleum-based fuel that is burned for transportation and home heating in the world,this local solution does not scale well. Animal fats are a by-product of meat production. Although it would not be efficient to raise animals (or cat fish) simply for their fat, use of the by-product adds value to the livestock industry (hogs, cattle, and poultry). However, producing biodiesel with animal fat that would have otherwise been discarded could replace a small percentage of petroleum diesel usage. The Jatropha plant has been cited as high-yield source of biodiesel but yields are highly dependent on climate and soil conditions. It is drought-resistant, and can share space with other cash crops such as coffee, sugar, fruits and vegetables. It is well-suited to semi-arid lands which abounds in Nigeria and can contribute to slow down desertification which is very prevalent in the North. ETHANOL FUEL Ethanol fuel or bio ethanol is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch that alcoholic beverages can be made from (like potato and fruit waste, etc.) The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat. Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline to any percentage. Most existing automobile petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bio ethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Gasoline with ethanol added has higher octane, which means that your engine can typically burn hotter and more efficiently. CHEMISTRY In this 3-d diagram of ethanol, the lines represent single bonds. Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis. 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + light C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide. C 6 H 12 O 6 2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO 2 + heat During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat: C 2 H 6 O + 3O 2 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O + heat 4

After doubling the ethanol combustion reaction, because two molecules of ethanol are produced for each glucose molecule, there are equal numbers of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for the overall production and consumption of ethanol is just: Light heat The heat of combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by expanding heated gases. It can be said that sunlight is used to run the engine. Glucose itself is not the only substance in the plant that is fermented. The simple sugar fructose also undergoes fermentation. Three other compounds in the plant can be fermented after breaking them up by hydrolysis into the glucose or fructose molecules that compose them. Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to the double bond converts ethene to ethanol: CH 2 =CH 2 + H 2 O CH 3 CH 2 OH This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed. The ethene is produced from petroleum by steam cracking. When ethanol is burned in the atmosphere rather than in pure oxygen, other chemical reactions occur with different component of the atmosphere such as N 2. This leads to the production of nitrous oxides NO x, a major air pollutant. PRODUCTION PROCESS FERMENTATION Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of sugar. Microbial fermentation will currently only work directly with sugars. Two major components of plant, starch and cellulose, are both made up of sugars, and can in principle be converted to sugar for fermentation. Currently, only the sugar (e.g. sugar cane) and starch (e.g. corn) portions can be economically converted. However, there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where the cellulose part of the plant is broken down to sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol. DISTILLATION For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed. Most of the water is removed by distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of a low-boiling water ethanol azeotrope. The 95.6% m/m (96.5% V/V) ethanol, 4.4% m/m(3.5% v/v) water mixture may be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, is immiscible in gasoline, so the water fraction is typically removed in further treatment in order to burn with in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines. DEHYDRATION There are basically five dehydration processes to remove the water from an azeotropic ethanol/mixture. The first process, used in early fuel ethanol plants, is called azeotropic distillation and consists of adding benzene or cyclohexane to the mixture, it forms a heterogeneous azeotropic mixture in vapor-liquid equilibrium, which when distilled produces anhydrous ethanol in the column bottom, and a vapor mixture of water and cyclohexane/benzene, when condensed, this becomes a 5

two-phase liquid mixture. Another early method, called extractive distillation, consists adding a ternary component which will increase ethanol relative volatility. When the ternary mixture is distilled, it will produce anhydrous ethanol on the top stream of the column. With increasing attention being paid to saving energy, many methods have been proposed that avoid distillation all together for dehydration. Of these methods, a third method has emerged and has been adopted by the majority of modern ethanol plants. This new process uses molecular sieves to remove water from fuel ethanol. In this process, ethanol vapor under pressure passes through a bed of molecular sieve beads. The bead s pores are sized to allow absorption of water while excluding ethanol. After a period of time, the bed is regenerated under vacuum to remove the absorbed water. Two beds are used so that one is available to absorb water while the other is being regenerated. This dehydration technology can account for energy saving of 3,000 btus/gallon compared to earlier azeotropic distillation. BIOETHANOL FEEDSTOCKS Ethanol is renewable because it is primarily the of conversion of the sun s energy into usable energy. Bio-ethanol is usually obtained from conversion of carbon based feedstock. Agricultural feedstocks are considered renewable because they get energy from the sun using photosynthesis, provided that all minerals required for growth (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) are returned to the land. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstocks such as sugarcane, sugar beet, sorghum, grain sorghum, barley, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, fruit, corn, wheat, cotton, most of which can undoubtedly be grown in Nigeria. SOURCE OF RAW MATERIALS AND FEASIBILITY STUDIES CARRIED OUT The Nigerian National Biofuels Programme was launched in August 2005 following a Federal Government directive to NNPC to spearhead the biofuel initiative. NNPC s Role 1. Implement the blending requirements for Bio-fuel use in the country in line with the directives of the Bio-fuel Energy Commission as well as agencies involved in determining fuel specifications in Nigeria. 2. Guarantee off-take of bio-fuels produced within the country as the buyer of last resort 3. Coordinate importation of Bio-fuels in periods of shortfalls in domestic production. 4. Support the development of Bio-fuel downstream sector activities, e.g. depot modifications, distribution assets 5. Invest in bio-fuel JVs and import/export facilities for the purpose of seeding the industry. 6

STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMME SEEDING THE MARKET This will involve the blending of up to 10% of fuel ethanol with gasoline to achieve a blend to be known as E-10. This phase will commence with a seeding of the market through importation of cargoes of fuel ethanol until such a time that sufficient capacity and capability would have been developed in the country for large scale production of bio-fuel feedstock and establishment of biofuel plants. The seeding phase is expected to commence with initial penetration of selected cities during the first 3 years of the programme, while a national roll-out is expected within 5-10 years. BIO-FUEL PRODUCTION PROGRAMME This phase will commence concurrently with the seeding programme. This will be the core of the agricultural integration programme and will entail the establishment of plantations and the construction of bio-fuel distilleries and plants. Based on current demand for gasoline in the country, at 10% blend ratio with fuel ethanol, about 1.3 billion litres will be required for the country, this is estimated to increase to about 2 billion litres by 2020. It is also estimated that market demand for bio-diesel will be about 900 million litres by 2020 as compared to current market possibility of about 480m litres for a 20% blend for bio-diesel. The Bio-fuel Production programme aspires to achieve 100% domestic production of bio-fuels consumed in the country by 2020. Investment in domestic production of bio-fuels will be private sector driven, with the government through its various agencies providing an environment conducive to players in the industry. INDUSTRY BIOFUEL PROGRAMME Some bankable feasibility studies for palm oil, cassava and sugarcane have already been developed while three Environmental Strategic Impact Assessment (ESIA) Studies for sugarcane and cassava ethanol have been conducted with project showing favourable economics. Due to the prospects of this programme a few numbers of consortia have been confirmed as potential candidates for investment, with two MOUs signed so far while other investors are waiting for NNPC to commit and others eager to conduct due diligence. Also, discussions are on with various states governments for land sites for large scale production of bio-fuel feedstock and establishment of bio-fuel plants. DEVELOPMENTAL PARTNERSHIP WITH THE THREE TIERS OF GOVERNMENT Federal Governments Provide infrastructure, amenities and facilities i.e. roads, electric power and water supply State Governments Facilitate agricultural land procurement /utilization by biofuels companies and establish good relationships with local govt. and host communities Local Governments Work with state governments and biofuels companies to organize out growers and cooperative schemes for host communities 7

NIGERIAN NATIONAL PETROLEUM NIGERIAN NATIONAL PETROLEUM Figure 1: Map showing feasibility studies carried out in different states Seven bankable feasibility studies have been completed in five different states, while engaging various State Govts in discussion for Land Sites. CORPORATION Oyo Ogun Lagos Kebbi Cassava:13,500 ha 2 projects /2 investors i EtOH:38 million liters /yr Starch:36,000 tonnes /year Investment: $115 million Kwara Osun Sokoto Ekiti Ondo Zamfara Edo Delta Niger Kogi FCT Balyesa Rivers Katsina Imo Abia Kaduna Kano Nasarawa Benue Enugu Anambra Ebonyi Akwa Ibom Cross River Jigawa Bauchi Plateau Taraba Yobe Gombe Borno Sugarcane 16,000 ha 3 projects/5 investors EtOH:75 million liters/yr Sugar:116,000 tonnes/year Electricity: 64 MW Investment: $322 million Adamawa Oil Palm 14,000 ha & 8,500 ha 2 projects/2 to 3 investors Palm Oil:60,000 /32,000 t/yr Biodiesel:38/21 million liters/year Investment: $75 / 44.5 million IN ADDITION: Private-led Biofuels Projects are: Cassava to Ethanol Ekiti State S/Sorghum to Ethanol Ondo State Current Sugarcane Projects Current Cassava Projects Current Oil Palm Projects There is potential for many more projects in other states. Private-led Biofuels Project On going Discussions Figure 2: Map showing regions where different biofuels feedstocks can be grown NATIONAL BIOFUELS FEEDSTOCK MAP CORPORATION Projects profitability of 30% IRR present open invitation to Private Investors across the country Kebbi Sokoto Zamfara Katsina Kano Jigawa Yobe Borno Niger Kaduna Bauchi Gombe Adamawa Oyo Kwara FCT Nasarawa Plateau Ogun Lagos Ekiti Osun Ondo Edo Delta Kogi Benue Enugu Ebonyi Anambra Imo Abia Cross River Taraba Potential Sugarcane Potential Cassava Potential Oil Palm Balyesa Rivers Akwa Ibom Potential Jathropha Some states have potentials for more than one crop By 2020, the projected peak of Biofuels production would require about 500,000 ha - 4% of the arable land (33million ha) in Nigeria. On going Discussion 8

NIGERIAN NATIONAL PETROLEUM CORPORATION Figure 3: Roadmap for Short, Medium and Long terms plans for Biofuels Production ROADMAP FOR 500,000 HA INTEGRATED BIOFUELS ENERGY INDUSTRY BY 2020 Short term plans 2009: Recommit Approve budget for initial NNPC JV projects Implement policy (offtakes, etc.)_ Launch E10 Develop shared ownership with relevant MDAs Kick-off bill 2010: Finish Foundation Create first JVs Follow-up of bill passage Upgrade distribution infrastructure Sanction 2 or more private projects Expand financing facilities 2011: Begin Feedstock Production Medium term plans >33,000 ha developed > 100,000 tons cassava harvested >3,500 jobs created Launch B5 seeding programme 2012: Begin production of Ethanol* >65,000 ha developed (incl. cassava, sugarcane and palm oil) 10+ million litres ethanol/ year Begin production of sugarcane 2016: Ramp-up Industry 250,000 ha developed (70,000 ha in Biofuels production*) 360 million litres ethanol/ year) 120+ MW cogeneration Begin production of palm biodiesel (15 million litres/year) Note: *There is a lag of 3 to 6 years between land development and biofuel production depending on the crops Long term plans 2020: Sustain Growth Seek increasing use of biofuels beyond E10 and B5 500,000 ha developed (285,000+ ha in Biofuels production*) 1.2 billion liters of Biofuels / year 600+ MW cogeneration $6+ billion invested ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS AND OTHER BENEFITS The Bio-fuel programme constitutes a major and unique attempt to integrate the agricultural sector of the economy with the downstream petroleum sector. The aim is to gradually reduce the nation s dependence on imported gasoline, reduce Environmental Pollution while at the same time creating a commercially viable industry that can precipitate sustainable domestic jobs. The use of Bio-fuels in Nigeria is anticipated to make significant impact on petroleum products quality enhancement in view of the current limitations of the fossil-based fuels which have not kept pace with the increasing demand for environmentally friendly fuel. Other anticipated benefits of Bio-fuel Programme include the following; Additional tax revenue for the government from the economic activities attributable to the industry; Job creation, increased economic development and empowerment of rural communities; Agricultural benefits improved farming techniques, increased agricultural research, and increased crop demand resulting from activities in the industry; Energy benefits co-generation benefits, etc; and Environmental benefits reduction in fugitive gas emissions and ozone layer depletion, reduction in particulate emission, and replacement of toxic octane enhancers in gasoline. Produced responsibly, they are a sustainable energy source that need not divert any land from growing food nor damage the environment; they can also help solve problems of the waste generated by western society; and they can create jobs for the poor where previously were none. 9

Sound biofuel production practices would not hamper food and fibre production, nor cause water or environmental problems, and would enhance soil fertility. The selection of land on which to grow the feedstocks is a critical component of the ability of biofuels to deliver sustainable solutions. A key consideration is the minimization of biofuel competition for prime cropland. The surge of interest in biofuel has highlighted a number of environmental effects associated with its use. These potentially include reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, pollution and the rate of biodegradation. RECOMMENDATIONS There is need for the National Assembly to pass the Act on Biofuels in order to facilitate the implementation of the biofuels programme and incentives as stated in the biofuels policy The Federal Government should accord the biofuels project special priority projects and make budget provision for NNPC to invest at least 30% equity in profitable Biofuel Projects Expedite the execution of pending MOUs with potential investors and State Governments Guarantee off-take to biofuel producers as contained in the biofuels policy Requisite upgrade in NNPC retail outlets for E10 launch should be carry out Upgraded facilities in Atlas Cove and Mosimi for ethanol receipt and E-blending operations should be in place Identify and carry out requisite upgrade for other facilities to be used for off-take of biofuels from local biofuels producers For smooth implementation of the biofuels programme, partners through PPP/JV from internal and external sources for Biofuels projects and Facilities upgrade should be engaged. CONCLUSION This paper has discussed extensively on biofuels, how it can be produced, the crops/feedstocks involved, regions where they can be grown in Nigeria, the pilot programmes and the various venture partnerships in place, production capabilities, the Short, Medium & Long term Plans for large scale production of biofuels. This paper also highlighted various benefits of the use of biofuels as an alternative energy to crude oil, especially in the area of environmental sustainability. Environmental effects associated with its use include reductions in Greenhouse Gas Emissions, deforestation, pollution and the rate of biodegradation. Other anticipated benefits discussed include, agricultural benefits, poverty alleviation, improve economic development, generation of more revenue for the government, and more importantly energy generation. In all, as the world battles with the challenges of global economic recession, an alternative and environmentally responsible fuel such as bio fuels and its technology should be vigorously pursued, 10

which on a longer term will help immensely in actualizing the vision 202020 of the Federal Government and grossly reduce the effect of climate change in Nigeria. REFERENCES Tomomatsu, Yuka and Swallow, Brent. 2007. Jatropha curcas biodiesel production in Africa: Economics and Potential Value Chain Development for Smallholder Farmers. WP 54. Nairobi. World Agroforestry Centre. Anyaoku, O. A. 2007. Official Gazette of the Nigerian Biofuel Policy and Incentives. NNPC, Abuja Achimugu, S. A. 2008. NNPC Automotive Biofuels Programme. Renewable Energy Division (RED), NNPC Abuja. Cheng, Wu-Hsun and Kung, H. Harold. 1994. Methanol Production and use. Chang Gung College of Medicine & Technology Taiwan, Rep. of China; Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois, USA. "Biofuels Programme, Journey So Far. Being a paper presented by Renewable Energy Division (RED), NNPC Abuja in 2008. Wikipedia, Free Encyclopedia. Biofuels, Biodiesel, Ethanol and Petroleum. 11