Ventilation 53 Building Construction The firefighter s ability to safely and efficiently ventilate a building through its roof will depend to some degree on the firefighter s understanding of roof construction. Construction methods and materials have changed significantly over the last several decades. It is essential that firefighters become familiar with the existing and newly constructed buildings within their response district. The following descriptions of both conventional and lightweight construction are not to be construed as complete or absolute. Basic characteristics, strengths and weaknesses are given to provide a basic framework of knowledge from which to operate safely. Conventional Construction Conventional construction gets its strength from actual size or mass. There is less surface area exposed to air or fire. There is more mass or fuel to consume, creating a longer burn time and a greater window of safety for the firefighter with respect to time. Roof framing components are continuous lengths of full-sized lumber. Ridge beams are single members with conventional rafters running from ridge to top plate. Rafter size will vary depending on span, pitch, and load. Spacing is usually 16" to 24". Additional members usually can be found in the form of collar ties and knee braces. Conventional sheathing material is most commonly 1' x 6' laid at 90 degrees to support members and spaced for shingles, or laid at a 45 degree angle for support with no spacing. You will also find plywood used as sheathing in varying thicknesses. Conventionally constructed commercial buildings built during the 1930 s and 1940 s commonly used truss construction. Although the conventional truss s members have the same strength interrelationship, it is much stronger than its lightweight counterpart. This type of construction used 2' x 12' lumber for the top and bottom chord with rafters 2' x 10'. This type of construction is very strong, and early structural collapse is not an immediate concern. Lightweight construction In today s world, lightweight construction is predominantly used in the building industry. With high labor and material costs, lightweight construction uses less lumber and smaller, low cost members. In modern construction, laminated beams, heavy timbers and 1" x 6" sheathing have given way to 2" x 3" and 2" x 4" lumber and 1/2" plywood, regardless of building size. Top Chord Web Members Roof Sheating From a firefighting perspective, the use of less fire resistive materials translates to less time available to ventilate before the roof becomes unstable. This discussion will focus on the four major types of lightweight roof construction: panelized, open web truss, metal gusset plate truss, and wooden I beam.
54 Truck Company Operations Guidelines and Considerations Metal Gusset Plate Trusses Typical Application of Open Web Trusses Metal Flashing Metal Decking Ledger Wooden I Beam Web Member Pin Trusses are characterized by a top and bottom chord in tension and compression. The strength of the truss lies in the geometric interrelationship. Failure occurs when one component of the truss is consumed by fire or the gang nail pulls loose due to charring. The most common spacing for trusses is 2' on center and the point where the truss crosses the bearing wall is the strongest location. Metal Flashing This type of roof system commonly found in residential and commercial buildings is usually 2" x 4" lumber butt jointed and held together by metal gusset plates, commonly known as a gang nail. The gang nail commonly penetrates 3/8". Roofing Tar Foam Insulation Decking Tar Paper (Felt) Beam Rafters Tubular Web Member Web Members Groove Pin This type of roof and sometimes floor system has a top and bottom chord of 2" x 3"or 2" x 4" lumber. The stem is normally 3/8" plywood or particleboard glued in place. Common spacing is 2' on center, and the area where the roof meets the exterior wall is the strongest location. The stem has very little relative mass and burns to failure quickly. Chord Perspective View End View Open Web Trusses This type of system has a wooden top and bottom chord that are cross-connected by steel tube web members. The top chord is in compression and the bottom in tension. The steel tubes have the ends pressed flat in a semicircular shape with a hole punched through them. The tubes are placed in slots in the chords with pins driven through them. The top chord usually rests on the bearing wall and the bottom chord is unsupported. Spans of up to 70' are
Ventilation 55 possible, normal spacing is 2' on center, and the area where the roof meets the exterior wall is the strongest point. WARNING BURN TIME Direct flame exposure chars to a depth of 1 inch in 45 minutes. Gang nails and stems are normally 3/8", it takes 17 minutes to Char to this depth. Panelized Roofs The panelized roof normally consists of large laminated beams spaced every 12" to 40" spanning the length or width of the building. They are supported by pilasters or steel posts on the ends. Along the span you will find either wooden or steel posts as supports. Beams can span well over 100' and are often bolted together. Normally purlins are installed with metal hangers on 8" centers perpendicular and between the beams. Wooden 2" x 4" rafters are installed with metal hangers on 2' centers, perpendicular to and between the purlins. Decking is usually 1 2" plywood. The safest and strongest locations are the beams, purlins and perimeter of the building. The inherent weakness is the lightweight construction between the major framing members. ROOF FAILURE WILL OCCUR MUCH SOONER
56 Truck Company Operations Guidelines and Considerations Roof Styles: There are three basic categories of roof design: pitched roofs, arched roofs and flat roofs. The following discussion identifies them by category and evaluates some of the more common styles with respect to strengths and weaknesses. walls. Weaknesses are the same as a gable when in the lightweight version. Shed: Basically this style is half a gable. The weakness here is the mono-pitched truss with a single web member subject to early collapse. Top Chord Tie Rods Pitched Roof Styles Gable, hip, shed, bridge truss, mansard, lantern, sawtooth, gambrel and butterfly. Web Members Bridge Truss Gable: Basic A-frame design with the roof pitched in two opposing planes. If constructed in a conventional manner, the continuous ridge, exterior and bearing walls are normally safest locations. In the lightweight version, the ceiling joists are the bottom chords of the truss, often not tied to the interior walls. Bridge Truss: This is heavy duty trussing with sloping ends. The two parallel chords are in constant tension and compression and can fail during heavy fire exposure. However, the likelihood of failure is dependent on the dimensions of the materials and the span of the trusses. This roof usually fails in sections and may have a large open attic space. Hip: Two sets of opposing pitches where the roof slopes down to meet every outside wall. Strengths lie at the ridges, valley rafters and at the point where the rafters cross the outside Mansard Roofs Mansard: The mansard roof has a double slope on each of its four sides. The lower slope is steeper than the upper slope. The four sides meet in the middle in a hipped peak/ridge. If it is a more modern version, the sides form a central flat area. This type of roof is usually bridge truss construction and creates large dead spaces and a potential for early collapse. Mono-Pitch Truss
57 Ventilation Joists Modern Mansard Roof Arched Roof Styles: Ribbed truss, bowstring truss and lamella styles. Bowstring: The arched chords are usually 2"x 12" lumber with 2" x 10" rafters. Tie rods with turnbuckles are used for lateral support and to regulate tension. The roof is quite strong but sudden collapse can occur if the tie rods are heated to failure. Purlins Purlins Ribbed Arch: Construction is similar to the bridge truss except that the top chord is arched. The heavy timber is very fire resistant but is often open with no attic to protect the framing. Lamella Roof: A geometric egg crate or diamond pattern frame with sheathing laid over it. The 2" x 12" members are bolted together with gusset plates. The roof is supported by exterior buttresses or internal tie rods. The common hazard inherent in all arched roofs is their tendency towards sudden and complete collapse. Hazard should be estimated by the size of lumber and the span involved. If there is heavy fire involvement in the truss area, personnel should withdraw from the roof and the interior to avoid sudden collapse. The Flat Roof: Conventional flat roofs are constructed with rafters 2" x 6" or larger depending upon the span. Rafters are covered with 1" x 6" sheathing often laid at 45 degrees to the outside walls. The perimeter of the building where the rafters rest on the exterior wall is considered a strength. Due to mass, rafters are also considered safe locations. Several lightweight roof systems are used to produce flat roofs. The wooden "I" beam, metal gusset plate truss, and open web types are all previously mentioned possibilities. Indentification of building construction type is most difficult in flat roof buildings. The single best way of being certain about building construction type is having previous knowledge of the building.