THE TRIPLE CONFLICTS IN HYDRO PROJECTS: ENERGY, ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE TRIPLE CONFLICTS IN HYDRO PROJECTS: ENERGY, ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT Alaeddin Bobat* University of Kocaeli, Arslanbey Campus, 41285 Kartepe-Kocaeli / Turkey This study was presented at the Third International Conference on Environmental Management, Engineering, Planning and Economics (CEMEPE 2011) & SECOTOX Conference, 19-24 June 2011 Skiathos island, Greece. ABSTRACT Internationally accepted good practice in hydropower development requires a value to be defined by "triple conflicts", addressing the combination of environmental, social and economic benefits and energy generated by each project. The strategic role of hydro projects (HPs) needs to be defined at the country, basin, and regional levels. Project risks arise from the complexity and uncertainties of hydro projects, including limited hydrological data and analyses, climate change, uncertain geology, multi-disciplinary and cross-sectional project design, and construction management. But network of flow measurements and engineering hydrology knowledge have not been wide enough to meet the need of the hydrological data and construction in small hydro projects of Turkey. Therefore, the hydro projects have been planned with somehow inadequate data and limited engineering knowledge. This can affect project profitability, energy production efficiency, environmental protection measures as well as the application of the described operation rules. In this regard, the streams - veins of Anatolia - are under threat by hydro projects which are rerouting the natural way of life in the rural regions of Anatolia. In the name of production of electricity and privatization, the streams are being destructed from their cherished natural habitat. These projects will affect the natural habitat of Anatolia irreversibly. Hydro projects will be built in future as the demands for electricity, potable water and irrigation are increasing. The negative effects of hydro projects on flora, fauna and the local population, or the conflicts among energy, economy and environment, however, can be reduced by some measures, such as suitable selection of sites for construction and operation. KEYWORDS: Hydro projects, energy and environment, environmental effects * Corresponding author 1 INTRODUCTION The kinetic energy from running or falling water has been used to generate power for hundreds of years. The most common method of generating hydroelectric power is by damming rivers to store water in reservoirs. Upon its release, the flow turns turbines, which then generate electricity. In other words, the potential energy of flowing water due to gravity is converted into kinetic energy; kinetic energy is transformed to mechanical energy which, in turn, can be converted into a useable form of electrical energy [1]. Today, hydropower is a well-proven and mature technology that is used all around the world. In terms of electricity production, hydro is the second most important source and accounted for about 20 % of the world`s total generation [2,3]. There are two main types of hydropower plants, runof-river and reservoir power plants. Run-of-river plants (included pumped storage hydro projects)) make use of the natural flow of water in streams and rivers. Small hydropower is called run-of-river in most cases. Run-of-river hydro plants make use of direct river water flow, and generally have only small storage capacities. In other words, any dam or hydraulic structure is quite small, usually just a weir, and generally little or no water is stored. The civil works purely serve the function of regulating the level of the water at the intake to the hydropower plant. Therefore, run-of-river plants do not have the same kinds of adverse effects on the local environment as large hydro. In run-ofriver hydro projects of Turkey, the streams have been commonly canalized by pipelines and tunnels [4]. Reservoir power plants make a more efficient use of the annual runoff compared to run-of-river plants, and their level of service makes them outstanding in their capacity to supply power during times of peak electricity demand. The reservoir provides energy storage in the form of a large water body withholding and accumulating water in periods when the demand is low, and can supply more than average natural amounts of water to the turbines when the electricity demand is high. This capacity results in greater electricity production flexibility in systems with a large share of hydro. 2093

TABLE 1 - Hydroelectric potential of the World, Europe and Turkey [4]. Gross Theoretical Potential of Hydro Power (GWh/year) Technically Feasible Potential of Hydro Power (GWh/year) Economically Feasible Potential of Hydro Power (GWh/year) World 40.150.000 14.060.000 8.905.000 Europe 3.150.000 1.225.000 800.000 Turkey 433.000 216.000 127.381 In another simple classification, hydro projects can be divided into small and large hydro, although definitions vary from country to country. Small-scale projects tend to be below 10 MW in size, such as run-of-river and pumped storage hydro powers. Turkey s theoretical hydroelectric potential is 1% of that of the World, and 16% of that of Europe (Table 1) [5]. The gross theoretical feasible hydroelectric potential in Turkey is 433 billion kwh, and the technically feasible potential is 216 billion kwh. The economically feasible potential, however, is 127 billion kwh. The tax deductions and subsidy policies for green energy in the European Union will contribute to efforts aimed at increasing the economically viable potential of hydroelectricity [5]. Nowadays, Turkey has 303 hydroelectric power plants in operation with a total installed capacity of 17.372 MW generating an average of 62.000 GWh/year, which is 38% of the economically viable hydroelectric potential. 256 of hydroelectric power plants(10.590 MW) are currently under construction, and more than 1000 hydroelectric power plant projects will be planned to be able to make maximum use of the remaining economically feasible potential [5, 6]. As a result of these works, a total of 1700 HPs nearly will tame rivers to harness the economically feasible hydropower of Turkey. Except for recession years, the annual increase in energy consumption is 6-8% in Turkey. In order to meet this growing demand, Turkey has to invest US$ 3-4 billion in new energy projects each year. As can be seen all over the world, power generation is a vital issue; therefore, it is important for every country that energy will be produced in self-sufficient, reliable, constant, and economical ways. For that matter, all energy alternatives should be thoroughly evaluated, starting from hydroelectric power potentials running with local energy sources, which are not dependent on other countries. For these reasons, hydro projects are vital for Turkey and other developing countries [5]. Compared to other power plants working on fossil fuels, hydro projects have the lowest operational cost (only the initial cost is high and construction takes a long time), the longest operational life, and the highest efficiency rates, and the cheapest electricity generated [7]. The economics of small and large dams vary greatly. Large dams are often expensive and lengthy projects financed by several groups of international investors while small dam building can be a more localized project. Furthermore, hydro projects are preferred because of their environment-friendly (they do not emit any direct pollutant), clean, renewable technologies with the lowest risk potential. Hydro projects stop the flooding and harmful effects of the rivers, store irrigation and drinking water, and give chance to fish farming and produces revenue [8]. However, they have possessed some disadvantages, such as disappearing habitats and species, melting deltas, decreasing ground water, drying natural lakes, influencing physical and biological environment, economical unproductiveness, as well as socio-economic degeneracy during the construction and operation of projects. This article aims to reveal the crucial conflicts between hydro energy and environment during construction and operation of hydro projects. 2 THE CONFLICTS BETWEEN ENERGY, ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT IN HYDRO PROJECTS Although hydro facilities are a relatively clean energy source, they cause some environmental impacts. These effects are site-specific and differ based on the type and size of plants, the local climate, site characteristics, vegetation, etc. Large dams are not built in conjunction with run-of river plants; so, the effects from this kind of power generation are often less than the environmental impacts from large reservoir hydropower projects. The conflicts between hydroelectric energy and environment can collect under three titles: physical, biological and human environment in and near the site area. 3 THE IMPACTS OF HYDRO PROJECTS ON PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT The construction activity of hydro projects themselves disturbs the physical, biological and human environment to a great scale. Both the river and ecosystem of the surrounding land area will be altered as soon as dam construction begins. In the hilly tract, blasting operations for road construction can cause considerable damage to the environment through loosening of sedimentary layers and joints of rocks and resultant landslides, sedimentation of reservoirs, drying up of spring and flash floods etc. [9]. During construction of hydro projects, million tons of excavation ensues being dumped in or near stream beds improperly. Excursive dumping or storage of excavation may cause other environmental problems and groundwater depletion because of decreasing leakage of water. Construction activities accelerate the rate of suspended par- 2094

ticulate matter and dust. As the human activities increase in and around the sites of hydro projects, waste products also increase, if there is a lack of adequate infrastructure to deal with [10]. Lots of areas have to be cleared that disrupt the plant and animal life due to construction of HPs. In many cases, even a number of trees have to be cut destroying not only the plant life but also the animals dependent on them. Even if there are no direct emissions of pollutants during the operation of HPs, construction activities as well as the production and transportation of building materials give rise to emissions. The dams for reservoir hydropower plants are generally made out of concrete, or rock and earth fill material. Over several years, a number of vehicles coming to the construction site for loading and unloading materials also emit greenhouse gases that directly affect the sensitive plants and animal life found in forests. The latter is less expensive and most of the world s large dams are made of vast earth and rock embankments. Once the barrier is put in place, the free flow of water stops and water will begin to accumulate behind the dam in the new reservoir, and flowing water system is converted into a standing water system. This land may have been used for other things, such as agriculture, forestry, and even residences, but it is now unusable. And a stagnant water system also changes all the ecological balances in the water. For instance, on the Euphrates River of Turkey, due to a cascade of HP regimes, flowing water has changed to the regime of lakes. So, zebra mussels that cause the significant technical and economical damages in HPs have extremely reproduced under optimal ecological conditions [11]. Whatever HPs are on a small or large scale, the construction of the dam, the power generation unit and the transformers and their connection to the national grid acquires large areas of the forest. The larger the land acquired for the dam, the more is the disturbance to the natural ecosystem in the surrounding forest areas. Reservoirs may cover people's homes, important natural, historical and archeological sites. For example, Allianoi, an ancient spa settlement, with remains dating predominantly from the Roman Empire period (2 nd century AD) located near the city of Bergama (ancient Pergamon) in Turkey's İzmir Province has newly submerged due to the impoundment in Yortanli Dam. The important portions of the ancient Roman city of Zeugma, a cultural meeting point of East and West that supported the only bridge across the Euphrates in Antiquity has also flooded under the waters of Birecik dam. Also, the Ilisu Dam, under construction embankment dam on the Tigris River near the village of Ilisu and along the border of Mardin and Sirnak Provinces in Turkey, will flood the portions of ancient Hasankeyf [6]. Hydroelectric power production can cause landscape destruction with redirected power. The results of hydroelectric projects are somewhat unique to specific projects; landscape destruction differs depending on the types of landforms involved. Landscape destruction comes in many different forms - flooded reservoirs, river diversions, riverbank erosion, dead zones surrounding reservoirs due to drawdown, and far-reaching effects, such as changes to ecosystems downstream of HPs, marked departure from past flows, long-term reduction in summer and peak flows (which can cause wetlands to dry up), reduction of animal populations, reduced spawning success of fish, and 50-55% decrease in shorelines [12]. There could also be a reduction of soil fertility, and some scientists believe that big reservoirs can cause earthquakes as the weight of water pressing on rock weakens the earth s crust [13]. Because of the destruction in physical environment, HPs cause the decrease in ecological tourism values of surrounding areas. HPs can cause the changes in the microclimate. The changes in the climatic conditions of the project site can lead to temperature stratification in both stream water and atmosphere. In most cases, the water table increases in an around the dam sites. In some cases, varying degrees of submergence of land can include forests [14]. 4 THE IMPACTS OF HYDRO PROJECTS ON BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT During both the construction and operation, HPs affect all flora and fauna in the aquatic and terrestrial system. Due to habitat loss, the construction of HPs could further threaten all the botanical and zoological endemic or non-endemic species. For example, the endemic brown trouts, such as Salmo trutta labrax, S. trutta rizeensis and S. trutta coruhensis, live in the freshwater ecosystem of the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey, and they are one of endangered species due to a series of run-of-river type HPs constructed in Firtina, Senoz and İkizdere Watersheds. Furthermore, the water enough to keep the fish on the aquatic ecosystem alive has not been released from HPs usually. This water is called as environmental water or ecosystem water, and a vital necessity for sustainable aquatic ecosystem functions. Damming a river can alter the amount and quality of water in the river downstream of the dam, as well as preventing fish from migrating upstream to spawn. The plants and animals in terrestrial or riparian ecosystems have been endangered because of water shortage or drying up of streams. In Rize and surrounding areas located in Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey, there have been only about 1500 plant species, and 70 of them are endemic [15], and about 30 animal and fowl species have been determined in the same zone [16]. Removal of the plants from the project site can cause reduction in biodiversity. The disturbance caused in the nature during construction of HPs, mainly due to excessive noise from blasting and tunneling, etc., affects the sensitive habitats of the wildlife in the surrounding areas. 2095

Cutting of thousands of trees for construction can incline deforestation. At the same time, HPs are a great threat to medicinal plants due to submergence, disturbance, destabilization, and degradation of land. Soil erosion and floods in and around the project site have their indirect influences on plants. Hydro plant operations may also affect water quality by churning up dissolved metals that may have been deposited by industry long ago. Hydropower operations may increase silting, change water temperatures, and lower the levels of dissolved oxygen. All the changes in water nature affect negatively all aquatic macroscopic and microscopic creatures from fish to plankton [17]. 5 THE IMPACTS OF HYDRO PROJECTS ON HUMAN ENVIRONMENT For the construction of HPs, even the human beings living in the areas surrounding the stream have to be shifted. Human beings tend to have strong attachments to the lands occupied by them and their ancestors since hundreds of years. It is not easy to convince the people to leave the lands. People are convinced or forced to leave the land which not only is their shelter but also the source of income. In many instances, when people are snatched away of their lands, they are not given proper price and the other land for resettlement. This creates large-scale oppositions and revolts against construction of the dams. For instance, the area affected by the Birecik HP covers a total of 44 villages in three Provinces of Turkey. Nine villages had completely flooded and three partially. Approximately 6.500 people had been resettled [10]. Up to now, about 70 million people have relocated due to hydro power projects all over the world. Moreover, most of the resettled people have not got enough money or income to live on because of the construction of reservoirs. 6 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Turkey is the country where three floristic regions (Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian and Mediterranean) meet among Europe, Asia and Middle East. It has around 11.000 plant species. One third of these plant species are endemic to Turkey and more yet to be discovered. At the same time, two of West Paleo-Arctic Bird Migration Routes are on Turkey. Turkey alone has 456 bird species in comparison to a total of 560 species of Europe. As geographical position, Turkey has the richest wetlands in terms of biological diversity [18]. Based on these data alone, it can be said that Turkey is the richest country of Europe in terms of biodiversity. The biological richness of freshwater in many regions of Anatolia has not been discovered yet. For these reason, HPs under construction and in operation have the potential to cause major environmental problems, such as disappearing habitats and species, melting deltas, decreasing ground water, drying natural lakes, influencing physical and biological environment, economical unproductiveness, and socio-economic degeneracy. Internationally accepted good practice in hydropower development requires a value to be defined by a "triple conflicts" combination of environmental, social and economic benefits generated by each project. Environmental flows are a particular challenge for hydropower. The strategic role of HPs needs to be defined at the country, basin, and regional levels. Successful projects require careful attention to preparation and supervision as well as improving the enabling environment. This, in turn, requires adequate resources, knowledge, and skills across multiple stakeholders. Project risks are inherent in the complexity and uncertainties of hydro projects, including limited hydrological data and analyses, climate change, uncertain geology, multi-disciplinary and cross-sectional project design, and construction management. But network of flow measurements and engineering hydrology knowledge have not been wide enough to meet the need of the hydrological data and construction in small hydropower projects of Turkey. Therefore, HPs have been planned with somehow inadequate data and limited engineering knowledge. This can affect project profitability, energy production efficiency, environmental protection measures as well as the application of the described operation rules. Key constrains lie in high capital costs, lack of financing, shortage of comprehensive planning and adequately assessed project pipelines, unsettled conditions for private sector participation, lack of capacity throughout the industry and client countries, and weak regulatory and policy frame works. In this regard, the streams - veins of Anatolia - are under threat by HPs which are rerouting the natural way of life in the rural regions of Anatolia. The streams are being diverted from their springs into huge pipes which flow all the way to the sea. In the name of production of electricity and privatization, the streams are being destructed from their cherished natural habitat. These projects will affect the natural habitat of Anatolia irreversibly. HPs will be built in future as the demands for electricity are increasing. The negative effects of hydro projects on flora, fauna and the local population, or the conflicts between energy and environment, however, can be reduced by some measures. For example, proper fish passages should be created to aid in the migration of the fish, new hydro projects should be chosen with the environmental impacts in mind, local people should be led into confidence and must be suitably re-settled, proper compensation as per the market rate should be given, religious monuments of historic significance should be shifted, and endangered species can be relocated. In conclusion, HPs can be constructed by minimizing their effects on the people and the environment. By proper planning and suitable selection of sites for construction and operation of hydro projects, the conflicts between 2096

energy and environment can be minimized, and still the much needed electricity can be generated. More importantly, the savings can be used to prevent illegal electric use and loss in electrical transmission of Turkey. REFERENCES [1] IEA (International Energy Agency) (2002). Environmental and health impacts of electricity generation, Report, June 2002. [16] Magnin, G. (1995). Doğal Hayatı Koruma Derneği, Report of TR0014, Mammals, İstanbul, 16 Mayıs 1995. [17] Department of Energy (USA) (1991). Environmental impacts of increased hydroelectric development at existing dams, Environmental Sciences Division Publication No. 3585. [18] Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı(The Ministry of Environment and Forest of Turkey). (2008). Ulusal Biyoçeşitlilik Stratejisi ve Eylem Planı(The National Strategy and Action Plan of Biodiversity), 176 pp. [2] The World Bank (2004). Water Resources Sector Strategy, Strategic Directions for World Bank Engagement, Washington DC, USA [3] IEA (2006). World Energy Outlook 2006, OECD/IEA, Paris, France. [4] Aksungur,M., Ak, O., and Ozdemir, A. (2011). Nehir tipi hidroelektrik santrallerinin sucul ekosisteme etkisi : Trabzon Örneği(The effect on aquatic ecosystems of river type hydroelectric power plants: the case of Trabzon-Turkey), J. of Fisheries Sciences, 5(1), 79-92. [5] State Hydraulic Works of Turkey, http://dsi.gov.tr/docs /hizmet-alanlari/enerji.pdf, (accessed: 28.12.2012) [6] Christie-Miller, A. (2011). A thirst for energy drowns out hope of saving ancient world, The Times, February 12, 2011. 44-46. [7] Davis, J. (2006). Advances in Hydropower Technology Can Protect the Environment, Alternative Energy Sources. Detroit: Greenhaven, 82-87. [8] Almeida, AT., Moura, P.S., Marques, A.S. and Almeida, J.L. (2005). Multi-impact evaluation of new medium and large hydropower plants in Portugal centre region. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 9, 149 67. [9] Yuksek, O. and Kaygusuz, K. (2006). Small hydropower plants as a new and renewable energy source, Energy Sources, Part B Econ. Plann. Policy 1: 279 290. [10] Bobat, A. (2010). Yavaş ve Sessiz Olur Akarsuların Ölümü- III : Baraj ve HES lerin Etkileri (The streams die slowly and quietly III : The Positive and Negative Effects of Dams and HPSs), December 15, 2010. www.enerjienergy.com [11] Bobat, A., Hengirmen, M. and Zapletal, W. (2002). Problems of zebra mussel at dams and hydro projects on the Euphrates river, Hydro 2002 : Development, Management and Performance, Proceedings Book, 475-484-Antalya,Turkey. [12] Rosenberg, D.M., Bodaly, R.A. and Usher, P.J. (1995). Environmental and social impacts of large scale hydroelectric development: who is listening?, Global environmental change, 5(2), 127-148. [13] Spilsbury, R. and Spilsbury, L. (2008). The Pros and Cons of Water Power. New York: Rosen Central Publ. [14] Bobat, A. (2012). HES projelerinde 3E ilişkileri(the 3Erelation in Hydro projects), Türkiye 12. Enerji Kongresi(12 th Energy Congress of Turkey), Proceedings, 1-21, November, 14-16. [15] Güner, A., Vural, M. and Sorkun, K. (1987). Rize Florası, Vejetasyonu ve Yöre Ballarının Polen Analizi, Hacettepe University, TÜBİTAK Project, TBAG-650, Ankara. Received: December 10, 2012 Accepted: January 29, 2013 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Alaeddin Bobat University of Kocaeli Arslanbey Campus 41285 Kartepe-Kocaeli TURKEY Phone: +262-3513281/Ext : 159 Fax : +262-3513283 E-mail : bobatus@gmail.com FEB/ Vol 22/ No 7a/ 2013 pages 2093-2097 2097