This study comprises an attempt to define the economic position and role of the non-moslem merchant elite of the eighteenth century Ottoman Empire in

Transcription

1 This study comprises an attempt to define the economic position and role of the non-moslem merchant elite of the eighteenth century Ottoman Empire in relation to the Ottoman central administration and its economic policies ; local economic, social and administrative actors and/or structures within the Ottoman Empire; the Dutch authorities and merchants engaged in Levant trade. In doing so, it aims to reevaluate and present a coherent picture of the Ottoman merchants role in the social and economic system of the Ottoman Empire and its interaction with Western Europe. Up to date studies on Ottoman-European economic encounter have paid only piecemeal attention to the topic which resulted in rather obscure notions which lack coherence and comprise several contradictions at the same time. For this purpose we investigate two relevant chains of events which took place in the course of the eighteenth century. The first concerns the Dutch penetration of mohair trade in the town of Ankara, and the local resistance they faced. The second relevant development concerns the non-moslem Ottoman merchant s penetration of Dutch trade with the Levant and the Dutch resistance to their expansion. These developments comprise challenges and responses of different actors who took recourse to several allies varying from the Ottoman imperial court to European ambassadors and from local authorities in Ankara to merchants in Amsterdam. It is exactly this feature of these developments which gives us an unmatched insight into the characteristics of the activities of non-moslem Ottoman merchant elite. Therefore the study of these two significant but nevertheless little studied phenomena enable us to draw a coherent picture of the Ottoman merchants role and position in relation to: the local administrative and economic actors in Northwestern Anatolia; the Ottoman central administration; the Dutch authorities and merchants who might be considered as an example of other European nations trading with the Ottoman Empire. Although the Greek, Armenian and to a lesser extent Jewish subjects of the Ottoman Sultan played a peculiar and a very important role in Ottoman-Dutch trade in the 18 th century, their role constitutes a rather unknown aspect of the history of Ottoman-European interaction. During the process, which is extensively examined in this study, the non-moslem merchants of the Ottoman Empire consolidated their connections with the local economy in western Anatolia, penetrated the Dutch trading network in the Levant, expanded their activities to Amsterdam, and even reduced the activities of the Dutch merchants, who traded with the Ottoman Empire, to an inferior position to their own activities. The importance of these developments in Ottoman-Dutch trade is that they constitute the earliest sustained process through which a considerable number of Ottoman merchants were able to expand their activities to northwestern Europe after the Atlantic replaced the Mediterranean as the center of gravity of world trade. The fact that in the course of the eighteenth century the Ottoman merchants were able to infiltrate English and French trade with the Ottoman Empire is mentioned by several English and French consular reports and authors. However, because English and French regulations regarding the Levant trade did not permit the participation of foreigners in their respective trades, the activities of Ottoman merchants remained clandestine and closed to academic scrutiny. Therefore, compared to the English and French cases, the Dutch case and the relevant sources offer many more opportunities to analyze the role of Ottoman international traders in the trade between the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Beyond defining the position of the Ottoman merchants, the study of the competition between Dutch and Ottoman merchants in the eighteenth century provides insight into certain social and economic developments in the Ottoman Empire during the 18 th and early 19 th centuries. One of these developments is the establishment of the Avrupa tüccarı (Europe merchans). Historians studying this institution have considered the establishment of the Avrupa tüccarı to be a consequence of competition between the European embassies and the Ottoman government for selling berats to Ottoman merchants. This study, however, analyze

2 the establishment of this institution against the background of Ottoman merchants commercial activities in the context of Ottoman-Dutch trade, their rise to economic prominence and their endeavors to gain the Porte s support for their trade. The rise of the Ottoman merchants to economic prominence in the 18 th century and the expansion of their activities to the Atlantic is then explained with their ability to use their local connections in Ottoman port cities and in the hinterland, their ability to win the support of the Ottoman central administration through their interpersonal relations, and their ability to penetrate western trade infrastructures, especially those of the Dutch. In this study it is shown that the activities of the Ottoman merchants expanded to the detriment of western traders, but not to the detriment of traditional economic elements within the Ottoman Empire. In this respect our approach agrees with that of Reşat Kasaba, and goes against conventional interpretations of the role of the Ottoman merchants, which attributes a comprador nature to their activities. While analyzing the position of the Ottoman merchants in relation to Ottoman economic and social system and its interaction with western Europe we deal with certain relevant issues. The first concerns the position of the Ottoman state with respect to the activities of the Ottoman merchants. On this point we argue that Ottoman economic policies contributed to the growth of the activities of Ottoman merchants and that there was a harmony of interest between the Ottoman merchants and the Ottoman state who strived to maintain its provisionist, fiscalist and traditionalist priorities. Another issue that has been dealt with, concerns the capitulations as these texts are supposed to regulate the trade between the Ottoman Empire and its western trade partners. We argue that there was an apparent tension between certain articles of the capitulations (which seemingly accorded the European merchants extensive fiscal privileges and the right to travel and settle throughout the Empire) and the commanded nature of the Ottoman economic system. This tension in turn explains the widespread disputes between the Ottoman tax collectors and European merchants, as well as the problems with which the European merchants faced when they penetrated the interior of the Empire. With respect to the capitulations, we also argue that these texts did not provide an adequate legal framework for either the activities of Ottoman merchants in the Netherlands or the activities of European merchants in the inland towns of the Ottoman Empire. Consequently it has been shown that the Ottoman administration left the activities of Ottoman merchants in The Netherlands outside the sphere of policy making until the end of the eighteenth century. Concerning the Ottoman administrations decisions pertaining to the European activities in the interior of the Empire, the principles of Ottoman economic worldview remained more relevant when compared to the vague articles of the capitulations. We borrow this emphasis on the principles of Ottoman economic worldview from Mehmet Genç who lays down these principles as provisionism, traditionalism and fiscalism. Moreover, Michael E. Meeker s emphasis on interpersonal relations as a medium that opened the way for imperial participation of different segments of Ottoman society, has been employed to explain the way the Ottoman merchants lobbied in their own favor at the Porte. The insights provided by the latter author enables us to avoid attributing a bourgeois character to the Ottoman state, while at the same time showing that the non-muslim merchant elite were able to manipulate the Ottoman government s decisions in their own favor on certain crucial issues. The interaction between local social, economic and administrative elements and the non-muslim Ottoman merchants constitutes the second factor analyzed in this dissertation. For this purpose we focus on the cities of Izmir and Ankara and the trade flowing through them. This is because the port of Izmir was the most important international trade center of the Ottoman Empire not only for trade with the Dutch, but with western Europe as a whole. However, for an adequate understanding of the impact of local factors on relations between

3 Dutch merchants and non-muslim Ottoman merchants, it is necessary to go beyond the port cities (in this case Izmir) and to look at developments in inland towns. For this reason, the we focus on the developments in the inland town Ankara, and on the mohair trade, which originated from this city and extended to several textile centers of Europe, including Amsterdam and Leiden. Due to its extensive relations with Izmir and the fact that it attracted several western traders as early as the 17 th century, Ankara constitutes a viable site for an analysis of the interactions between the local factors and the non-muslim merchants on the one hand, and European merchants on the other. This double focus, namely on Izmir and Ankara, provides the opportunity to employ a comparative perspective and profit from its advantages. Differences on a local level, like the silence of guilds in Izmir and the antagonism of guilds in Ankara towards the European presence, had a crucial impact on the comparative positions of Ottoman and European merchants in these two cities. While analyzing the impact of such local factors, we shows that non-muslim Ottoman merchants made extensive use of their local connections to enhance their position vis-à-vis European merchants. Their local connections ensured that they could access the products and markets of the hinterland better than the European traders, and that they could manipulate the local authorities in their favor. In examining the role of local factors on the activities of the Ottoman merchants, we identify as many local elements as possible in Izmir and Ankara. These include administrative, economic and social elements; functionaries like qadis, beylerbeyis, mütesellims, tax collectors; and institutions like guilds, millets, consulates as well as local notables so as to give as detailed a picture as possible of the context of the trade. The opportunities created by Ottoman-Dutch trade for the expansion of the activities of non-muslim Ottoman merchants constitute the third factor examined in this dissertation. Due to the peculiar organizational structure of Dutch trade with the Levant and the liberal trade policies the Dutch pursued, Ottoman-Dutch trade was the only consistent outlet for non- Muslim Ottoman merchants who wanted to expand their activities to the Atlantic. Although England and France allowed foreigners to participate in their trade intermittently, especially during wartime, it was not until the early nineteenth century that they opened up their Levant trade permanently to the participation of foreigners. Therefore, the participation of non- Muslim Ottoman merchants in the trade of these countries remained clandestine and probably negligible when compared to Dutch trade with the Levant. In any case, Dutch trade with the Levant constitutes an excellent case study for an analysis of the role of non-muslim Ottoman merchants in the intercontinental trade between the Ottoman Empire and Europe. In analyzing Dutch Levant trade organization and Dutch trade policies in the Levant, we contrast the Dutch case with the French and English cases. This comparison is dynamic in the sense that it describes the evolution of these policies until the abandonment of monopolistic practices by the English and the French at the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the Dutch case became the rule rather than the exception. In focusing on Dutch trade with the Levant, we identify as many interest orientations as possible within the Dutch trading community, which included a wide variety of actors such as merchants, ambassadorial and consular functionaries, and the Directorate of the Levant Trade, as well as Dutch textile producers and ship owners. We remain alert to the complex clashes of interest between Dutch trading communities in different Ottoman ports, between the merchants in The Netherlands and those in the Levant, between merchants and textile producers, and between ship owners and merchants. This results in a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the Dutch trading community in comparison to the Ottoman merchants, the strategies adopted by Ottoman merchants in the course of the expansion of their activities to The Netherlands, and the inability of Dutch merchants to prevent their advance.

4 This dissertation consists of five parts, each comprising two or three chapters. In the first part we portray the context of the commercial rivalry between the Ottoman and European merchants for control of Ankara s mohair trade. The commanded nature of the Ottoman economy (Chapter a), the particularities of the town of Ankara (Chapter b), and the mohair trade (Chapter c) are examined. In the first chapter we describe the economic and social structure of the 18 th -century Ottoman Empire with an eye to its consequences for the activities of Ottoman and European merchants in the interior of the Empire. We also evaluate the evolution of the 18 th -century Ottoman Empire by going into the historical background and giving space to the debates among Ottomanists about certain issues pertaining to Ottoman economic and social history. The organization of agricultural and industrial production and trade are studied in this chapter with an emphasis on the commanded nature of Ottoman economy, and the tension between the capitulations and the organization of Ottoman economy. In the second chapter we focus on the social and economic structure of the town of Ankara, and presents the matrix of social, economic and administrative actors and structures from which Ottoman and Dutch merchants could form their coalitions while they were contesting each other for control of the mohair trade. Again the state of the 18 th century social and economic structure of Ankara has been studied against its historical background and its evolution until the end of the eighteenth century. The specificities of the mohair trade itself, and its importance in the trade between the Ottoman Empire and Europe are examined in the third chapter. In the second part of the dissertation we describe and analyze the competition between Ottoman and Dutch merchants for the mohair trade in Ankara in the light of new archival data. As the competition between these merchant communities was not exclusively limited to the economic sphere, but also included provocations for administrative precautions, a number of interesting incidents in the course of this competition are analyzed as well. The first chapter of this part deals with the developments from the beginning of the eighteenth century until 1708 when all the Europeans in Ankara were expelled from the town by means of orders from the Porte which were instigated by a coalition led by the Armenian mohair merchants in the town. The gradual resettlement of the Dutch community in Ankara, the difficulties and the resistance they faced afterwards, and finally the gradual demise of the colony in the course of the century are then studied in the second chapter. These two parts are followed by preliminary conclusions where we analyze the incidents and relate their implications to our research questions. Here we argue that the capitulations did not provide an adequate legal framework for the activities of the Ottoman merchants in the interior of the Empire. Moreover the Ottoman administration did not pursue a long term consistent policy regarding these activities. In the absence of both a legal framework and a consistent policy the relevant decisions of the Porte were based on the principles of Ottoman Economic world view. We also argue that the contestants of the competition played also their part in this process of decision making through their interpersonal relations at the Porte and the local level. Furthermore, we reevaluate the incidents that took place in 18 th century Ankara in the light of Frederic Chapin Lane s protection rent and argue that the opposition of the local elements increased the protection costs of European merchants in the town. In the third part we present the context of the expansion of the Ottoman merchants activities to The Netherlands. The city of Izmir and its social-economic and administrative structure is studied in the first chapter of this part. The next main aspect of this context, the organization of Dutch Levant trade, is studied in the second chapter, giving a comprehensive description of the Dutch institutions and regulations relevant to the Levant trade with an emphasis on Dutch free-trade policies as distinct from English and French trade policies.

5 These explanations show the peculiarities of how the Dutch Levant trade was organized and explain its vulnerability to penetration by non-muslim Ottoman merchants. Because of their impact on the comparable position of merchants from different communities the author also discusses Dutch consular dues and other taxes related to the Levant trade. The fourth part of this dissertation is reserved for the exploration of the expansion of the commercial activities of Ottoman merchants to The Netherlands in the light of new archival data. This expansion is studied in two stages. In the first chapter the author pays special attention to the dealings between Ottoman merchants in Izmir and the Dutch merchants in The Netherlands, and the partnerships between Ottoman and Dutch merchants in the Levant, since these forms of participation in Dutch trade with Levant enabled the Ottoman merchants to build up viable connections with The Netherlands. While exploring this process the author identifies the comparative advantages and disadvantages of the parties with an eye to the factors that are the main concern of this dissertation. In this chapter the author presents also a detailed investigation of consignments of the primary goods (Mohair yarn, cotton and cotton yarn) of Ottoman Dutch trade which helps him to evaluate the impact of different expenses on the price efficiency of the consignments of Ottoman merchants and Dutch merchants. Once the Ottoman merchants established their connections with The Netherlands, a final phase remained. During this phase a number of non-muslim Ottoman merchants established themselves in major trade centers of The Netherlands such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam. The second chapter of this fourth part deals with the activities of these merchants, paying special attention to the extent to which these merchants maintained their economic and social connections with the Ottoman Empire. For this purpose the business careers of some of these merchants, marriage patterns as well as the available testaments of Ottoman merchants in Amsterdam has been studied on the basis of new archival material. Throughout the fourth part we underline that the Armenian merchants of the Ottoman Empire continued to rely extensively on mohair trade even after they settled in Amsterdam, while the Greeks were engaged extensively on the trade of cotton which was produced in the region from where the Greeks in Amsterdam originated as well. We interpret this feature too, as an indication of Ottoman merchants reliance on their local connections in their places of origin even after they expanded their commercial activities beyond the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire. The fifth part, again consisting of two chapters, analyzes the interaction between the activities of Ottoman merchants on the one hand, and the evolution of the relevant policies of the Ottoman Empire and the Dutch republic on the other. The first chapter shows that the Dutch policies evolved from free-trade policies to faint protectionism in the face of Ottoman merchants increasing activities, which could not be countered effectively because of diverse interest orientations within the Dutch trading community. Although the Dutch trading community in İzmir and a number of Dutch diplomats in the Levant had been pushing for new regulations to prevent Ottoman merchants from participating in Dutch trade with the Levant, home authorities and especially De Directeuren van den Levantschen Handel en de Navigatie in de Midellandsche Zee were reluctant to take radical steps to effectuate the total expulsion of Ottoman merchants from this trade. In this chapter it has also been argued that during the latter decades of the eighteenth century the rise of Leghorn and Hamburg as alternatives to Amsterdam added to the inability of the Dutch to expel the Ottoman merchants totally from the trade. On the Ottoman side of the story, which has been studied in the second chapter of part five, it has been shown that the activities of Ottoman merchants guided the Ottoman central administration towards a consistent policy aimed at promoting their commercial ventures beyond the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire. In this chapter we investigate the relevant

6 Ottoman fiscal regulations and argue that they did not place the Ottoman merchants at a considerably disadvantageous position when compared to European merchants, as suggested by the available secondary literature. Nevertheless, we concede that the Ottoman administration did not pursue a policy favoring Ottoman merchants international enterprise during the greater part of the eighteenth century. However we show that by the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the following century there are clear indications that the Ottoman administration was increasingly concerned with the international ventures of its merchant subjects. Ottoman intervention into the implementation of Dutch consular dues in 1796, Ottoman administration s claim for extraterritoriality for its merchant subjects in The Netherlands in 1797 and the appointment of an Ottoman consul to The Netherlands in 1804 are then investigated as indications of this growing concern which accumulated in a concrete policy with the establishment of the Avrupa Tüccarı. These main chapters are followed by our conclusions, where we relate our findings to our research questions and the relevant debates.